i
FAKE NEWS: CHARACTERIZATION OF DIFFERENT
INDIVIDUAL PROFILES IN RELATION TO
DIFFERENT NEWS TOPICS
Ma ia F ancisca de Sousa e Al im Lima de Ba os
Disse a ion p esen ed as pa ial equi emen o ob aining
he Mas e ’s deg ee in In o ma ion Managemen
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NOVA In o ma ion Managemen School
Ins i u o Supe io de Es a ís ica e Ges ão de In o mação
Uni e sidade No a de Lisboa
FAKE NEWS: CHARACTERIZATION OF DIFFERENT INDIVIDUAL
PROFILES IN RELATION TO DIFFERENT NEWS TOPICS
by
Ma ia F ancisca de Sousa e Al im Lima de Ba os
Disse a ion p esen ed as pa ial equi emen o ob aining he Mas e ’s deg ee in In o ma ion
Managemen , wi h a specializa ion in In o ma ion Sys ems and Technologies Managemen
Co-Ad iso : P o esso Dou o Flá io Luis Po as Pinhei o
Co-Ad iso : P o esso a Dou o a Diana O ghian
July 2021
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DEDICATION
To A ó Guidinha and A ó T iz.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This hesis is he las miles one o comple e my mas e ’s deg ee. I challenged me in many ways and
was a e y posi i e lea ning expe ience. I wan o use his oppo uni y o acknowledge all who made
he conclusion o his disse a ion possible.
Thank you o my ad iso s P o esso Diana O ghian and P o esso Flá io Pinhei o. Thank you o he
guidance, sha ed knowledge, ideas and o all he help and suppo p o ided du ing his p ocess. Thank
you o unde aking his s udy o he dissemina ion o ake news in Po ugal wi h me.
I wan o acknowledge my g a i ude o all pa icipan s in he su ey, wi hou whom would no be
possible o ga he da a o his s udy.
Las ly, hank you my pa en s F ancisca and Luís and my b o he Gui. Fo he lo e, encou agemen and
o being my bigges ans.
ABSTRACT
The exis ence o ake news is an ex emely opical conce n which calls in o ques ion he e aci y o he
b oadcas ed in o ma ion. Since nowadays he sea ch and p oduc ion o news is mainly done online,
he cos s wi h con en p oduc ion a e low and he con en ’s each and speed o p opaga ion is e y
high. These ac o s acili a e he dissemina ion o ake news in social pla o ms ha a e no specialized
means o communica ion, namely in online social ne wo ks. The e o e, his s udy aims o cha ac e ize
di e en p o iles o Po uguese indi iduals based on hei suscep ibili y o se e al news opics. The
a ainmen o he men ioned p o iles is going o be a aluable con ibu ion o in o ma ion
managemen and i is going o allow u u e de ini ion o measu es o mi iga e he p opaga ion o ake
news in social pla o ms. To achie e his, c i ical li e a u e e iew was done and accompanied by he
c ea ion o a su ey o analyze how academic backg ound and opic o he news pieces in luence he
accu acy o indi iduals iden i ying alse news. This disse a ion in en s o unde s and i he e is anyone
immune o ake news, o i indi iduals can be mo e o less immune depending on he opic.
KEYWORDS
Fake news; Social Ne wo k; Opinion Dynamics; Social In e en ions; De ec ion

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INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 12
2.1. HISTORY – FALSE NEWS ARE NOT A NOVELTY ................................................................................. 12
2.2. FALSE NEWS DEFINITION ............................................................................................................. 13
2.3. IT IS STILL A CURRENT TOPIC – PARADIGM SHIFT ............................................................................. 13
2.4. SOCIAL MEDIA AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS THAT ENABLE THE SPREAD OF FALSE NEWS ........................... 13
2.5. WHY IS THE SPREAD A PROBLEM? ................................................................................................ 16
2.6. WHY DO INDIVIDUALS BELIEVE IN FALSE NEWS? ............................................................................. 17
2.7. HOW CAN THE SPREAD OF MISINFORMATION ONLINE BE REDUCED? .................................................. 18
3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................ 23
3.1. STUDY DESIGN .......................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.1. SURVEY PART ONE – INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 24
3.1.2. SURVEY PART TWO – ACCURACY AND PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE ...................................................... 25
3.1.3. SURVEY PART THREE – COMPREHENSION OF NEWS HEADLINES ..................................................... 27
4. STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 29
4.1. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................... 29
4.1.1. STUDY PARTICIPANTS ............................................................................................................. 29
4.1.2. RESPONDENTS PERCEPTION OF NEWS HEADLINES ....................................................................... 34
4.1.3. NEWS CATEGORIES ................................................................................................................ 36
4.1.4. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE NEWS ........................................................................................ 38
4.1.5. COMPARISON BETWEEN STEM AND NON-STEM BACKGROUND ...................................................... 39
4.2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS.............................................................................................................. 42
4.2.1. T-TEST ................................................................................................................................. 42
4.2.2. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE - ANOVA AND MANOVA ........................................................................ 42
4.2.3. PEARSON’S CORRELATION ....................................................................................................... 43
4.2.3.1. TRUE NEWS ...................................................................................................................... 44
4.2.3.2. FALSE NEWS ...................................................................................................................... 45
4.3. DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................. 47
5. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 49
6. LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORKS ................................................. 50
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 51
8. APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................... 55
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figu e 1 - Dis ibu ion o Responden s by A ea o Residence ………………………………………………..29
Figu e 2 - Pa icipan s’ Educa ion Le el ……………………………………………………………………………….30
Figu e 3 - Pa icipan s’ F equency o Use o Social Ne wo ks………………………………………………..31
Figu e 4 - Responden s’ Use o Social Media…………………………………………………………………………32
Figu e 5 - Pa icipan s’ Numbe o Twi e Followe s ……………………………………………………………33
Figu e 6 - Pa icipan s' Numbe o F iends on Facebook ……………………………………………………….33
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - News P esen ed o Responden s Du ing he Su ey ……………………………………………….27
Table 2 -Desc ip i e S a is ics o S udy Va iables ………………………………………………………………..35
Table 3 – Compa ison Be ween T ue and False News …………………………………………………………..36
Table 4 – Desc ip i e Analysis o he Six Fea u es pe Ca ego y …………………………………………….38
Table 5 - Compa ison Be ween STEM and non-STEM Responden s - Desc ip i e S a is ics ……40
Table 6 - Accu acy o STEM and non-STEM Responden s pe Ca ego y o News ……………………41
Table 7 - Accu acy o STEM and non-STEM Responden s pe Ca ego y o News on T ue and
False News ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………42
Table 8 - One-way ANOVA - E ec o News Ve aci y on Accu acy …………………………..………….43
Table 9 - MANOVA - E ec o News' Ca ego y on Accu acy …………………………………………………43
Table 10 – T ue News - Pea son's Co ela ion Be ween Accu acy and O he Fea u es ………….45
Table 11 – False News - Pea son's Co ela ion Be ween Accu acy and O he Fea u es ………….47
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
STEM Science, Technology, Enginee ing and Ma hema ics
ANOVA Analysis o Va iance
MANOVA Mul i a ia e Analysis o Va iance
ACC. Accu acy
KNOW. Knowledge
COMPR. Comp ehension
TEC.TER. Technical Te ms
INT. In e es
VAG. Vagueness
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sp ead o ideas can be s udied acco ding o an epidemiological model, he sp ead o alse news can also
be analyzed wi h he help o simila me hods.
As s a ed abo e, he mains eam sp ead o alse news can be enhanced mainly online by di e se ac o s
such as he na u al cha ac e is ics o online media, he indi iduals ha a e pa o one’s ne wo k, he
o ma ion o homogeneous and pola ized g oups in social media, as o example echo chambe s, o by
use o social bo s.
2.5. WHY IS THE SPREAD A PROBLEM?
As e idenced by Vosoughi e al. (2018) when s udying he di usion o ue and alse s o ies dis ibu ed
on Twi e , alsehood di uses a he , as e , deepe , and mo e b oadly han he u h ega dless o he
ca ego y o in o ma ion. E en hough he in luence is ha d o quan i y o de ine specially, in he medium
o long un he exposi ion o misin o ma ion will na u ally impac on indi iduals’ belie s (Laze e . al.,
2018). So, his sugges s ha a piece o alse news in an online social ne wo k is going o sp ead as e han
any ue piece o in o ma ion and impac people who encoun e i .
Al hough he quali y o he in o ma ion is conside ed as a mo e and mo e impo an issue (Bun ain, C., &
Golbeck, J., 2017) and ue is cen al o he good unc ioning o li e in socie y, he sp ead o
misin o ma ion online is inc easingly common. This wide dissemina ion o alse in o ma ion ep esen s a
se ious h ea o gene al us in he mass media.
The exposi ion o alse news is p oblema ic o socie y, because indi iduals a e going o base hei iews,
alues, and ul ima ely hei decisions in he alsehood hey a e exposed o. Hence, aking alse news as
ue ep esen s a p oblem since i leads o inaccu a e belie s and causes pa isan disag eemen o e
se e al issues ha can e en be basic ac s (Pennycook e al., 2019). Hence, he sp ead o alse news is a
p oblem and should be aken in o conside a ion as a g ea conce n in socie y and i s s udy is cu en ly a
c ucial key-issue o in o ma ion managemen .
Du ing he global pandemic, misin o ma ion has been a cons an . The isk emains iden ical: indi iduals
will ake alse in o ma ion as a basis o decide (Vaidyana han, G. 2020). In a pandemic, i is e en mo e
likely ha he ac ions based upon alse in o ma ion endange e e yday li e.

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2.6. WHY DO INDIVIDUALS BELIEVE IN FALSE NEWS?
The ques ion emains: why do people belie e in alse news? Bond & De Paulo (2006) sugges ha humans
a e no so good de ec ing lies on ex : he indings suppo ha people a e only 4% be e dis inguishing
ue om alse s a emen s han i hey decided i andomly.
In con as , Pennycook e al. (2019) disag ees wi h his “pos - u h” na a i e, and ins ead a gues ha
people a e no awa e o he ac ha hey a e sha ing misin o ma ion on social media in he momen hey
decide o sha e i . The s udy s a es he e is a disconnec be ween sha ing in en ions and accu acy
judgmen s. In o he wo ds, he e is a dissocia ion be ween he con en indi iduals conside accu a e and
he ac ual con en hey sha e on social media. The indings poin ou ha he p oblem is jus dis ac ion
om accu acy when sha ing con en . When asked, he majo i y o pa icipan s in an expe imen hey
conduc ed said i is impo an o only sha e accu a e news. Thus, e en hough people can dis inguish ue
and alse in o ma ion, hey won’ ake he in o ma ion accu acy in conside a ion when sha ing i . Ins ead,
he ocus is se on o he mo i a ions, such as willingness o please ollowe s, engagemen wi h speci ic
con en o e en o show o hei ne wo k ha hey belong o a speci ic g oup. The e o e, sha ing alse
pieces o news does no indica e pe se ha he indi idual belie es in his in o ma ion. I is possible ha
he is only dis ac ed om he accu acy o he con en .
The ac ha a piece o news is conside ed ue o alse by an indi idual migh also be a ec ed by social
no ms o by he ela ion wi h he indi iduals’ belie s (Del Vicca io e al., 2016). Se e al s udies conduc ed
show ha indi iduals p e e in o ma ion ha suppo s hei p e-exis ing a i udes. By doing his, people
show a con i ma ion bias, which means ha he in o ma ion cohe en wi h hei own belie s is pe cei ed
as mo e con incing han disco dan in o ma ion. Humans also ha e a desi abili y bias, i. e., hey a e d awn
o accep in o ma ion ha is mo e socially accep able o desi able and he e o e sa is ies hem (Laze e .
al, 2018).
The epe i ion o he same in o ma ion – ac oss se e al pla o ms o h oughou di e en connec ions in
he ne wo k, o example – mus be conside ed when s udying he belie in alse news. Indi iduals a e
mo e likely o accep in o ma ion ha is epea ed as ue (Swi e e al., 2017).
People a e also going o be d awn o in o ma ion ha suppo s hei psychological mo i es, as i can
happen when conside ing he belie in conspi acy heo ies. They a e explana ions o impo an e en s
ha in ol e sec e plo s by powe ul and male olen g oups (Goe zel, 1994). Conspi acy heo ies a e also
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usually specula i e and con adic o y, conside he public igno an and subjuga ed o unaccoun able
powe s. (Douglas e . al., 2017). Indi iduals a e d i en o belie e in his appa en ly unbelie able con en
when i p omises o sa is y one’s desi e o unde s anding, accu acy, subjec i e ce ain y o o he social
mo i es.
Conspi acy heo ies a e conside ed alse news and he mo i es which d aw people o conspi acy belie
can be he same ha d aw people o alse news. The epis emic mo i es behind conspi acy use causal
explana ions o educe unce ain y when in o ma ion a ailable is con lic ing, y o ind meaning when
he e en s a e appa en ly andom and can de end belie s om e usal. This human desi e o
unde s anding and accu acy can lead o using conspi acy heo ies o p o ec one’s belie s when acing
unce ain y, con adic ions, o e en when he e is no in o ma ion a ailable (Douglas e . al, 2017). The
belie in a conspi acy heo y may be s onge when he e en s conside ed a e pa icula ly signi ican and
lea e indi iduals dissa is ied wi h small explana ions. (Leman & Cinni ella, 2013). The dissa is ac ion can
lead o a belie in alse in o ma ion since i may ul il he abo e e e ed indi idual mo i a ions. I is also
possible ha belie s in conspi acy heo ies a e g ounded in social mo i es, namely in he desi e o belong
and main ain bo h a posi i e image o onesel and o he g oups’ one belongs o. In he same way people
could be d awn owa d conspi acy heo ies ha seem o a i m o alida e hei poli ical iews, indi iduals
can be a ac ed o misin o ma ion ha a o s hei poli ical posi ion.
The a o emen ioned ac o s d i e conspi acy belie . Bu i is s ill no clea i he belie s in conspi acy
scena ios ul il hese mo i a ions. (Douglas e . al., 2017).
Social homogenei y is ano he ac o which can ein o ce a belie in alse news. Usually, indi idual belie s
lean owa ds an alignmen wi h he alues o he communi y ha he is pa o . (Laze e . al, 2018). When
agg ega ed in homogeneous clus e s i is easy ha indi iduals may selec and sha e con en ha ela ed
only o a pa icula plo , igno ing wha does no align wi h i . Consequen ly, hese communi ies enhance
opinion pola iza ion based mainly in alse na a i es, such as umo s o conspi acy heo ies. (Del Vicca io
e al., 2016).
2.7. HOW CAN THE SPREAD OF MISINFORMATION ONLINE BE REDUCED?
The e a e se e al s udies de eloped on how o educe he sp ead o alse news online. Laze e . al (2018)
p oposes wo di e en ca ego ies o s a egies o minimizing he sp ead o alse news. Fi s , hey aim o
awake one’s c i ical awa eness by helping o iden i y alse news based on an e alua ion o he in o ma ion
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encoun e ed. This could be achie ed h ough exposi ion o ac checked pieces o news, o ins ance.
Howe e , his is conside ed ha d because mos indi iduals will only ques ion he c edibili y o he
in o ma ion i iola es hei belie s o p econcei ed ideas (Vo e al., 2020). Second, i is sugges ed ha
s uc u al changes on social media can p e en he exposu e o indi iduals o alse news in he i s place
(Laze e . al, 2018). Thus, he highligh gi en o in o ma ion wi h c edible sou ces should be maximized so
ha an accu a e sou ce would be a equi emen o a ending in o ma ion. Social media si es such as
Facebook al eady pa ne wi h ex e nal ac checke s ce i ied h ough In e na ional Fac -Checke
Ne wo k o iden i y and e iew alse pieces o news. None heless, i is s ill no enough because se e al
kinds o ad e isemen s and published pieces canno be e oed.
A di e en pe spec i e a gues ha d awing social media use s’ a en ion o he concep o accu acy can
lead o a educ ion o he amoun o misin o ma ion hey sha e. Tha is sugges ed because indi iduals
who a e able o de e mine he accu acy o he con en a e dis ac ed om i in social media, ocusing
hei a en ion on o he aspec s. In addi ion, social media pla o ms a e designed o quick sc oll and
engagemen wi h se e al ypes o con en and may no in i e use s o pa icipa e in c i ical hinking.
The e o e, jus by highligh ing accu acy o e en he echnics used o sp ead misin o ma ion, use s can be
mo e awa e o i s e aci y when sha ing con en (Mae ens e al., 2020).
The e is also li e a u e ha ocus on he ole o use s conside ed hubs in he ne wo k, who consequen ly
wo k as in o ma ion b oke s. Hoch ei e e al. (2013) uses p e ious s udies o sugges ha human
in e ac ion is o ganized in small-wo ld ne wo ks ha de ine how pe sons a e linked o each o he . A small-
wo ld ne wo k has se e al speci ic p op ie ies and is cha ac e ized by he ac ha is possible o connec
any wo e ices among he ne wo k jus h ough a ew links (Ama al e al., 2000). In his way, in a small-
wo ld ne wo k a ew indi iduals connec mos indi iduals. The ones who es ablish mos connec ions wo k
as hubs, being he connec ion’s b oke s. (Hoch ei e e al., 2013) The e o e, in an online social ne wo k i
a “hub” indi idual il e s alse in o ma ion and does no pos i , he can make his ne wo k mo e obus o
alse news. Likewise, i a use sp eads u h ul and accu a e in o ma ion, he e is a high p obabili y ha i
is going o each o he indi iduals' pa o his ne wo k.
Social in luence can ha e a signi ican ole in he educ ion o misin o ma ion online. I is desc ibed as he
p ocess whe e indi iduals adjus hei opinion and change hei beha iou o belie s as a esul o a se o
social in e ac ions wi h o he indi iduals (Moussaïd e al., 2013). I is a c ucial elemen in o ming public
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opinion. Social in luence sugges s ha in e ac ions be ween indi iduals a e highly esponsible o each
indi idual opinion. In an online social ne wo k, he elemen s o a use s’ ne wo k a e going o in luence his
iews and he news ha he is exposed o. Consequen ly, a change o iends o ollowe s can make he
sys em mo e obus o alse news.
Conside ing ha indi iduals do no exis isola ed om socie y and a e pa o di e en ne wo ks o
pe sons, social science p esen s h ee ac o s o explain how indi iduals assimila e in o ma ion. Social
con agion is one o hese ac o s and a gues ha one abso bs in o ma ion h ough a ne wo k (Tö nbe g
e al, 2018). Howe e , no all beha iou s in a social ne wo k sp ead di ec ly om one pe son o ano he .
Fo an indi idual o adop a beha iou , i akes ein o cemen o he same beha iou by se e al people
(Vaidyana han, G. 2020). In addi ion, one’s wo ld iew is subs an i e when conside ing how indi iduals
ag ee wi h in o ma ion. Cul u e, belie s and li e expe ience ha e a g ea deal o in luence on how
someone eac s o a gi en piece o news. Indi idual pe spec i e and wo ld iew in luence wha is aken as
ue and alse, and his can be one o he easons why ac checking alone is no e icien o igh
misin o ma ion. People pe cei e hei iews as some hing hey canno le go in o de no o jeopa dize
hei social ci cle s a us.
As men ioned be o e, he way o igh misin o ma ion is much mo e complex han p o iding indi iduals
wi h ue in o ma ion and hope i is going o be chosen o e alse in o ma ion (Vaidyana han, 2020). This
di icul y in igh ing misin o ma ion is p o en by he ac ha e en hough he sp ead o ake news is a
widely s udied heme, he conc e e p oblem p e ails, and indi iduals engage daily wi h se e al alse
pieces o news.
This disse a ion p ojec is designed o s udy he ac o s subjacen o he dissemina ion o alse news. The
aim o his hesis is o analyze how indi iduals’ backg ound – academic and p o essional and he opic o
news impac he accu acy o indi iduals iden i ying alse news.
This disse a ion is done unde he hypo hesis ha no one is immune o ake news. Wha happens is ha
indi iduals a e mo e suscep ible o belie e and ake alse news om ce ain opics as ue. The accu acy
iden i ying alsehood migh also be a ec ed by ac o s such as ela ion wi h an a ea o expe ise, social
no ms o indi iduals’ belie s. Mo eo e , humans ake easily he in o ma ion hey ge om social media,
mos imes wi hou wonde ing abou i s accu acy (Pennycook e al., 2021). I is no only social ne wo ks
ha lead indi iduals o belie e in alse news, bu o en imes i is he people who a e pa o one’s ne wo k.
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Thus, he people who connec wi h an indi idual can be esponsible o his exposi ion o misin o ma ion
(Balmau e al., 2018). Ensu ing ha a ne wo k is composed o pe sons wi h di e en sensi i i y o di e en
news ca ego ies can be a s a egy o make a g oup o indi iduals mo e obus , and he e o e i is mo e
di icul o sp ead ake news.
The su ey was de eloped o es he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
[RQ1: The ac ha a piece o news is u h o alse has an e ec on accu acy iden i ying he news as
ue o alse? Does being a ue o alse piece o news e lec s on esponden s' p e ious knowledge o
he news and comp ehension? Does i e lec on pe cei ed use o echnical e ms, agueness o
esponden s’ in e es in he news?]
We ha e he pe cep ion ha he ac ha a piece o news is ue o alse in luences how indi iduals
cha ac e ize i accu a ely as ue o alse. As hypo hesis, a piece o news e aci y e lec s has an impac
on p e ious knowledge o he news, in e es and ease o comp ehension. Being a ue o alse new s o y
also in luences eade s’ pe cei ed use o echnical e ms and agueness.
[RQ2: The ca ego y o he news (Spo , Science, Cul u e, Heal h, Economy, Socie y, Poli ics) has an e ec
on classi ying news as accu a ely?]
Since indi iduals do no ha e he same amoun o knowledge o awa eness ega ding di e en opics, i
is likely ha hey eac dis inc ly when con on ed wi h news ega ding di e en hemes. Thus, wi h his
esea ch ques ion i is aimed o es i he news opic impac s an accu a e classi ica ion o news headlines
as ue o alse.
[RQ3: Does an indi idual’s backg ound – academical and p o essional - in luence his sensi i i y o alse
news?]
Addi ionally, indi iduals’ backg ound – age, educa ion, p o essional expe ience – in luences how
in o ma ion is pe cei ed. Consequen ly, his hypo hesis was o mula ed o es i one’s backg ound
in luences sensi i i y owa ds alse pieces o news.
Wi h his s udy, we expec o ind i :
 Indi iduals iden i y mo e accu a ely ue o alse news.

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 Po uguese people accu acy iden i ying i a piece o news is ue o alse is ela ed wi h hei
p e ious knowledge o he s o y, in e es , pe cei ed use o echnical e ns o agueness o he
s o y.
 The e a e speci ic ac o s o cha ac e is ics - o example age, le el o educa ion o o e all use o
social media - ha in luence Po uguese indi iduals’ c i ical sense in ela ion o di e en opics o
news.
 Academical and p o essional backg ound has an e ec on accu acy classi ying he e aci y o
news.
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3. METHODOLOGY
In his sec ion is p esen ed he me hodology employed o ca y ou his s udy. In he i s place, a c i ical
e iew o exis ing li e a u e was done. The p e ious li e a u e and esea ch we e used o de ine some o
he heo e ical concep s in he basis o his disse a ion. The esea ch a ailable was used in o de o
unde s and he scope and ele ance o he p oblem unde s udy and i s ela ionship wi h exis ing
knowledge.
To comple e he in o ma ion collec ed when de eloping he li e a u e e iew, a ques ionnai e des ined
o he da a collec ion was designed and buil .
A ques ionnai e is a w i en ool ha p esen s i s esponden s wi h a se ies o ques ions o s a emen s,
so ha hey answe by selec ing one o he esponse op ions o by answe ing openly (B own, 2001).
The e o e, he ques ionnai e is a s uc u ed in e iew, whe e each esponden answe s o ques ions in a
p e iously o ganized o m (B ace, 2008). The se ies o ques ions mus be o ganized iden ically o all
esponden s (Chi omo, 2006).
Ques ionnai es ca y se e al ad an ages such as low da a collec ion cos s, possibili y o each
geog aphically dis an loca ions and a high numbe o indi iduals. The absence o a bias due o he
absence o he in e iewe can also be conside ed as an ad an age (Magwa & Magwa, 2015).
Th ough he analysis o he in o ma ion collec ed, i is going o be possible o cha ac e ize se e al g oups
o people conside ing hei beha io in ela ion o di e en opics o news.
The ques ionnai e is going o p esen se e al news i les o esponden s. Ti les a e a highly dis inc i e
ac o when dis inguishing alse om ue news pieces. Gene ally, he i le holds he piece o news's main
a gumen and allows eade s o skip he ull a icle. Thus, alse news a e a ge ed o indi iduals who will
no ead beyond he i le (Ho ne, B., & Adali, S., 2017).
The news we e ex ac ed om Po uguese ac -checke websi e Políg a o and subsequen ly alida ed by
he esea che in o de be ween 1s o Augus 2019 and 28 h o Feb ua y 2020.
3.1. STUDY DESIGN
The s udy was app o ed by NOVA IMS Resea ch E hics Commi ee and complied wi h all e hical aspec s.
The ques ionnai e (Appendix A) was de eloped as pa o he s udy o analyze he suscep ibili y o
24
di e en g oups o Po uguese people in ela ion o di e en opics o news. He eby, he s udy is a ge ed
o Po uguese ci izens and Po uguese na i e speake s and was deployed in June 2020.
The ques ionnai e was designed wi h h ee pa s. In he i s pa , he e was an in oduc ion o he s udy.
Responden s consen ed o pa icipa e in he s udy and we e p esen ed wi h a se o ques ions ega ding
one’s backg ound and social media usage. The second pa p esen ed 14 di e en pieces o news which
esponden s classi ied as ue o alse and indica ed whe he hey knew he news p e iously o no .
Be ween he second and hi d pa s o he su ey he e was a ques ion used as an a en ion check ( o
mo e see Appendix G). Ul ima ely, i was no u ilized in he analysis since was conside ed oo icky and
conse a i e. The hi d pa con ained a comp ehension analysis, done h ough se en di e en pieces o
news.
The ques ionnai e was designed o a ge Po uguese na ionals and he e o e en i ely w i en in
Po uguese.
3.1.1. SURVEY PART ONE – INTRODUCTION
In he i s pa o he ques ionnai e, esponden s we e in oduced o i wi h a welcome message
(Appendix A) which explained he ques ionnai e objec i es, i s a e age du a ion and he equi emen s o
pa icipa e in he s udy. The ques ionnai e welcome message in o med ha o be pa o he su ey i
was equi ed o be Po uguese o luen in Po uguese and o e 18 yea s old. To pa icipa e in s udy
esponden s had o gi e hei consen .
The ea e , esponden s we e asked abou demog aphic backg ound da a: yea o bi h, gende , dis ic
o esidency, las le el o educa ion concluded, p o ession and cu en a ea o wo k. In case esponden s
s a ed ha hei p o ession was “S uden ”, hey we e asked abou hei a ea o specializa ion a he han
hei a ea o wo k. To s udy social media usage and online in luence, he i s pa o he ques ionnai e
also included ques ions abou social media u iliza ion. Pa icipan s we e ques ioned how o en hey used
social media and which social ne wo ks hey used among he ollowing: Facebook, Ins ag am, Twi e ,
LinkedIn and Reddi . Fo each social ne wo k selec ed, pa icipan s we e ques ioned abou how many
iends, ollowe s o connec ions hey possessed. Las ly, pa icipan s we e asked how o en hey sha ed
news on social media.
25
3.1.2. SURVEY PART TWO – ACCURACY AND PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE
To unde s and how Po uguese people pe cei e he accu acy o di e en opics o news i was equi ed
o de elop he second pa o he ques ionnai e. I s a ed wi h he ollowing message:
Now, I would ask you o classi y as ue o alse se e al news dis ibu ed by Po uguese media in
ecen mon hs.
Each esponden was p esen ed o a se o 14 di e en pieces o news. Following each piece o news,
esponden s we e asked wo ques ions: is his piece o news ue o alse? and did you al eady know his
piece o news? I he esponden answe ed he al eady knew he news a icle, he was asked wha was he
sou ce ha in o med you abou his piece o news? To answe his ques ion, he gi en op ions we e ia
mass media (newspape s, magazines, ele ision, social media), old o ally by someone else, o o he . In
his las op ion, esponden s could ype o speci y he sou ce.
To c ea e his sec ion o he ques ionnai e, h ee g oups wi h 14 i les o news we e de eloped ( o mo e
see Table 1). Each g oup consis ed o wo news om each ca ego y – Science, Hea h, Cul u e, Spo ,
Socie y, Economics and Poli ics. F om he wo pieces o news in each ca ego y, one was ue and one was
alse. The e o e, each esponden encoun e ed se en ue and se en alse news s o ies, displayed in a
andomized o de .
Table 1
News P esen ed o Responden s Du ing he Su ey
ca ego y
ype
news
Science
T ue
The closes black hole o ou plane , which is a housand ligh yea s away om
Ea h, has been disco e ed.
Science
False
A s udy by Ha a d scien is s concludes ha ca ying weapons educes c ime.
Cul u e
T ue
In 2017, 200 housand eu os o public unds we e spen o p omo e he
au omaquica cul u e so ha i could be classi ied as Imma e ial Cul u al
He i age o Po ugal unde he UNESCO Con en ion.
Cul u e
False
Leo Fende , he c ea o o he well-known Fende gui a s, was a alen ed
gui a is .
Heal h
T ue
The Cons i u ion o he Po uguese Republic does no allow manda o y
hospi aliza ion in case o con agious diseases.
Heal h
False
Be ween 1950 and 2020, China was a he o igin o nine di e en epidemics -
H2N2, H3N2, H5N1, SARS, a ian lu, swine lu, swine e e , Co ona i us, Co id-
19.
32
Apa om being inqui ed abou hei social media usage equency, pa icipan s we e also asked which
social ne wo ks hey u ilized. Facebook was he mos used social ne wo k (144 pa icipan s, 74.23%),
ollowed closely by Ins ag am (132 pa icipan s, 68.04%) among i s use s. LinkedIn was used by 81
pa icipan s (41.75%), being he e o e he hi d mos widely used social ne wo k. Twi e and Reddi we e
he wo less used social ne wo ks, being used by 23 (11.86%) and 7 (3.61%) pa icipan s, espec i ely. Fo
mo e, see Figu e 4.
Figu e 4
Responden s’ Use o Social Media
F om all social ne wo ks, Twi e and Facebook we e he only wo social media si es men ioned in his
hesis p e ious analysis o li e a u e. The e o e, we will analyze pa icipan s’ numbe o Twi e ollowe s
and Facebook iends wi h mo e de ail. Fo mo e on Twi e ollowe s, see Figu e 5.

33
Figu e 5
Pa icipan s’ Numbe o Twi e Followe s
Mos s udy pa icipan s (78.3%) who use Twi e ha e be ween ze o and 200 ollowe s. Only 21.7% o
pa icipan s wi h a Twi e accoun ha e mo e han 200 ollowe s. Conside ing Facebook, he end is
e e sed. Mos o pa icipan s in he s udy (60.4%) ha e mo e han 600 ollowe s, while he mino i y o
esponden s (39.6%) has less han 600 ollowe s.
Figu e 6
Pa icipan s’ Numbe o F iends on Facebook
34
In o de o unde s and esponden s’ po en ial impac in hei ne wo ks, esponden s we e asked abou
how o en hey sha ed pieces o news on social media. Mos esponden s (130 esponden s, 67%) sha e
news online wi h hei connec ions. Among hese, h ee esponden s (1.5%) sha ed news on social media
se e al imes a day, 10 esponden s (5.2%) decla ed ha hey sha ed news daily and 15 esponden s
(7.7%) sha ed news se e al imes a week. In addi ion, 25 pa icipan s (12.9%) sha ed news weekly on
social media, 51 pa icipan s (26.3%) sha ed news wi h a mon hly equency and 26 pa icipan s (13.4%)
sha e news on a yea ly basis. Con e sely, 64 esponden s (33%) decla ed hey ne e sha e news on social
ne wo ks.
Fo s udy pu poses he pa icipan s we e di ided in wo g oups acco ding o bo h hei academical and
p o essional backg ound: STEM (n = 87) and non-STEM ields (n = 95).
4.1.2. RESPONDENTS PERCEPTION OF NEWS HEADLINES
A e answe ing ques ions abou backg ound and social media usage, esponden s classi ied pieces o
news as ue o alse, iden i ied i hey we e p e iously awa e o he news and analyzed se e al ea u es
o he news pieces.
In his wo k we ocus on he analysis o he ollowing six ea u es:
 Accu acy, gi en by he a io be ween he numbe o esponden s who classi ied accu a ely he
piece o news as ue o alse by he o al amoun o esponden s who classi ied he piece o news
du ing he su ey.
 Knowledge, compu ed om he ac ion o he numbe o esponden s who al eady knew he
piece o news p esen ed in he ques ionnai e and he o e all numbe o esponden s o ha
ques ion.
 Comp ehension, ob ained by he mean o an o e all sco e on a scale om one – e y di icul - o
six – e y easy. The sco e was awa ded by each esponden , conside ing he piece o news in
ques ion.
 Use o echnical e ms, gi en by he mean o an o e all sco e o classi y he use o echnical e ms
in a piece o news on a scale om one – none - o six – e y much. Each pa icipan who aced he
piece o news was equi ed o assign a sco e.
35
 In e es , ob ained by he mean o he sco e a ibu ed by each esponden . This sco e e e ed
o esponden s’ in e es in he piece o news, wi h sco es anged om one - none - o six - e y
much.
 Vagueness, compu ed by he mean o he sco e gi en by each pa icipan o he piece o news.
News we e classi ied as conc e e and de ailed o abs ac and ague using a sco e anged om
one - e y conc e e - o six - e y ague.
O e all, esponden s could classi y accu a ely he pieces o news (N = 42) p esen ed in he ques ionnai e
(M = .63, SD = .19). Fu he mo e, mos esponden s didn’ know p e iously he news p esen ed in he
s udy (M = .24, SD = .12). The piece o news which mos esponden s we e al eady awa e be o e
pa icipa ing in he su ey was ecognized by 64% o esponden s, while he leas known news s o y was
ecognized by only 5% o esponden s.
Apa om obse ing accu acy classi ying news as ue o alse and ga he ing in o ma ion abou he
p e ious knowledge o news, esponden s’ comp ehension o he pieces o news was addi ionally
analyzed.
In gene al, esponden s conside ed news easily unde s andable (M = 4.80, SD = .43). Pa icipan s
conside ed ha pieces o news had an a e age usage use o echnical e ms (M = 2.52, SD = 0.64), e en
hough his ea u e was he lowes - a ed comp ehension indica o . The in e es displayed by pa icipan s
in he se e al pieces o news was ai ly high (M = 3.40, SD = .76). When classi ying agueness, pa icipan s
ended o ind he news sligh ly owa ds a ague and abs ac piece o news (M= 3.03, SD = .51). Fo mo e
see Table 2.
Table 2
Desc ip i e S a is ics o S udy Va iables
n
minimum
maximum
M
SD
Accu acy
42
0.29
0.98
0.63
0.19
Knowledge
42
0.05
0.64
0.24
0.12
Comp ehension (1 - Ve y Ha d)
42
3.70
5.75
4.80
0.43
Use o Technical Te ms (1 - None)
42
1.44
4.11
2.52
0.64
In e es (1 - None)
40
1.70
4.66
3.40
0.76
Vagueness (1 - Ve y Much Conc e e)
40
1.97
4.00
3.03
0.51
36
The di e ences classi ying ue and alse news s o ies ega ding Accu acy, Knowledge, Comp ehension,
Use o Technical Te ms, In e es and Vagueness we e also analyzed. Desc ip i e s a is ics a e displayed
below in Table 3. S udy pa icipan s classi ied alse pieces o news mo e accu a ely han ue news.
O e all, esponden s sco e a highe accu acy ca ego izing alse news (M = .72, SD = .18) han ue news
(M = .54, SD = .17). When asked i hey we a e amilia wi h news p esen ed in he s udy, pa icipan s
knew mo e ue news (M = .26, SD = .13) han alse news (M = .21, SD = .11). Al hough alse news we e
conside ed easie o unde s and, he di e ence be ween alse (M = 4.82, SD = .48) and ue (M = 4.78, SD
= .38) news s o ies comp ehension was no signi ican . Responden s conside ed ha he use o echnical
e ms was g ea e in ue (M = 2.61, SD = .54) han in alse news (M = 2.43, SD = .73). Fu he mo e,
esponden s showed a sligh ly g ea e in e es ed in ue (M = 3.58, SD = .67) han in alse news pieces (M
= 3.23, SD = .83). Las ly, when acing news in he ques ionnai e pa icipan s conside ed alse news (M =
3.14, SD = .58) somewha ague and mo e abs ac han ue news (M = 2.92, SD = .41).
Table 3
Compa ison Be ween T ue and False News
T ue News
False News
n
M
SD
M
SD
Accu acy
21
0.54
0.17
0.72
0.18
Knowledge
21
0.26
0.13
0.21
0.11
Comp ehension (1 - Ve y Ha d)
21
4.78
0.38
4.82
0.48
Use o Technical Te ms (1 - None)
21
2.61
0.54
2.43
0.73
In e es (1 - None)
20
3.58
0.67
3.23
0.83
Vagueness (1 - Ve y Much Conc e e)
20
2.92
0.41
3.14
0.58
4.1.3. NEWS CATEGORIES
To s udy esponden s’ suscep ibili y o di e en opics o news, i was analyzed how esponden s pe o m
classi ying news as ue o alse in each ca ego y and hei amilia i y wi h news p esen ed in he s udy as
displayed on Table 4.
The h ee ca ego ies wi h a highe accu acy pe cei ing news a e Science (M = .78, SD = .07), Socie y (M =
.74, SD = .20) and Economy (M = .72, SD = .14). Con e sely, he ou ca ego ies in which a lowes accu acy
is obse ed a e Poli ics (M = .62, SD = .15), Heal h (M = .54, SD = .21), Spo (M = .50, SD = .16) and Cul u e
(M = .50, SD = .21).
37
As s a ed p e iously, news p esen ed o esponden s in he s udy we e no widely known (M = .24, SD =
.12). News conce ning ca ego y Heal h (M = .33, SD = .10) we e he mos known among s udy pa icipan s,
ollowed by news conce ning Economy (M = .28, SD = .18), Poli ics (M = .25, SD = .14) and Spo (M = .23,
SD = .11) The h ee ca ego ies whe e pa icipan s we e mos un amilia wi h he news headlines
p esen ed we e Science (M = .22, SD = .11), Socie y (M = .19, SD = .10) and Cul u e (M = .17, SD = .07).
A comp ehension analysis was also de eloped wi hin he ques ionnai e. Also in Table 4 is p esen ed how
pa icipan s pe cei e he news in he se en di e en ca ego ies conside ing i s o e all comp ehension,
use o echnical e ms, agueness and pa icipan s’ in e es in he piece o news.
The mos easily unde s ood news belong o he Cul u e (M = 5.03, SD = .43), ollowed by Spo (M = 4.93,
SD = .40), Socie y (M = 4.85, SD = .54) and Science (M = 4.78, SD = .23). The ca ego ies conside ed ha de
o unde s and we e Heal h (M = 4.72, SD = .36), Economy (M = 4.62, SD = .58) and Poli ics (M = 4.57, SD =
.36).
Responden s conside ed ha Economy (M = 2.87, SD = .43) was he opic wi h highes usage o echnical
e ms, ollowed by Poli ics (M = 2.63, SD = .78), Heal h (M = 2.60, SD = 1.02) and Science (M = 2.56, SD=
.51). Acco ding o s udy pa icipan s, Spo (M = 2.49, SD = .31), Cul u e (M = 2.34, SD = .42), and Socie y
(M = 2.17, SD = .81) we e he opics o news whe e echnical e ms we e mos widely used.
Rega ding in e es shown in each news ca ego ies, esponden s displayed highes in e es in Poli ics (M =
4.00, SD = .38), Economy (M = 3.90, SD = .46) and Heal h (M = 3.78, SD = .56). Science (M = 3.66, SD =
1.00), Socie y (M = 3.14, SD = .72), Cul u e (M = 2.90, SD = .58) and Spo (M = 2.64, SD = .39) we e he
subjec s esponden s conside ed hemsel es less in e es ed in.
When asked o classi y he pieces om e y much conc e e o e y much ague, pa icipan s a ed Science
(M = 3.43, SD = .57), Economy (M = 3.16, SD = .64), Hea h (M = 3.10, SD = .51) and Socie y (M = 2.99, SD =
.31) as he ou mo e abs ac ca ego ies. Con e sely, he ca ego ies conside ed mo e conc e e we e
Cul u e (M = 2.71, SD = .27), Spo (M = 2.88, SD = .55) and Poli ics (M = 2.91, SD = .50).

38
Table 4
Desc ip i e Analysis o he Six Fea u es pe Ca ego y
Ca ego y
Accu acy
Knowledge
Comp ehension
(1 – Ve y Ha d)
Use o
echnical
e ms
(1 – None)
In e es
(1 – None)
Vagueness
(1 - Ve y Much
Conc e e)
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Science
0.78
0.07
0.22
0.11
4.78
0.23
2.56
0.51
3.66
1.00
3.43
0.57
Cul u e
0.50
0.21
0.17
0.07
5.03
0.43
2.34
0.42
2.90
0.58
2.71
0.27
Heal h
0.54
0.21
0.33
0.10
4.72
0.36
2.60
1.02
3.78
0.56
3.10
0.51
Spo
0.50
0.16
0.23
0.11
4.93
0.40
2.49
0.31
2.64
0.39
2.88
0.55
Economy
0.72
0.14
0.28
0.18
4.62
0.58
2.87
0.43
3.90
0.46
3.16
0.64
Socie y
0.74
0.20
0.19
0.10
4.85
0.54
2.17
0.81
3.14
0.72
2.99
0.31
Poli ics
0.62
0.15
0.25
0.14
4.57
0.36
2.63
0.78
4.00
0.38
2.91
0.50
4.1.4. DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE NEWS
A de ailed analysis o each news headline sco e on Accu acy, Knowledge, Use o Technical Te ms,
Comp ehension, In e es and Vagueness is on Appendix F. In his sec ion, we will p esen a ew pieces o
news highligh ed in s udy esul s.
The news headline esponden s’ classi ied mo e accu a ely was alse and belonged o ca ego y Socie y. I
was “G e a Thunbe g has publicly lied abou he age” (M = 0.98). Con e sely, s udy pa icipan s sco ed
lowes accu acy iden i ying e aci y o a Spo ue news s o y. I ead “Dejan Lo en, a Li e pool playe ,
a gues ha Co id19 is being p opaga ed o o ce he wo ld's popula ion o accina e hemsel es wi h
d ugs ha a e going o implan ” (M = 0.29).
The mos well-known news headline was ue and had o do wi h Economy: “In Po ugal, women's wages
a e on a e age 14.5% lowe han men” (M = 0.64). O e all, pa icipan s we e less awa e o a ue news
headline in ca ego y Cul u e “B uce Sp ings een's "Bo n in he USA" was he i s CD o be p oduced in he
Uni ed S a es” (M = 0.05).
Conside ing ease o comp ehension, he piece o news wi h a highe a e was he same pa icipan s’
classi ied mo e accu a ely. I was alse and had o do wi h Socie y: “G e a Thunbe g has publicly lied abou
he age (M = 5.75). The ha des news headline o unde s and was alse and belonged o Poli ics: “Nelson
39
de Sousa, Minis e o Planning, is co ec in saying ha Po ugal is a leade in he execu ion o Eu opean
unds” (M = 3.70).
Bo h highes and lowes a ed news headlines when conside ing use o echnical e ms we e alse and
conce ned Heal h. The news s o y wi h highes use o echnical e ms ead “Be ween 1950 and 2020,
China was a he o igin o nine di e en epidemics - H2N2, H3N2, H5N1, SARS, a ian lu, swine lu, swine
e e , Co ona i us, Co id-19” (M = 4.11). Con e sely, “D inking one glass o ed wine a day is equi alen
o doing one hou o physical exe cise” (M = 1.44) sco ed he lowes use o echnical e ms.
Pa icipan s’ in e es was highes in he mos well-known news headline. I was a ue news s o y
ega ding Economy: “In Po ugal, women's wages a e on a e age 14.5% lowe han men” (M = 4.66). The
news headline pa icipan s we e less in e es ed in was alse and belonged o Science. I ead “The FBI has
eleased a lis o he Zodiac signs mos likely o commi c imes” (M = 1.70).
Vagueness was conside ed highe in a alse news headline om Poli ics: “Nelson de Sousa, Minis e o
Planning, is co ec in saying ha Po ugal is a leade in he execu ion o Eu opean unds” (M = 4.00). This
piece o news conside ed he agues and mos abs ac was he same ha displayed a lowe
comp ehension a e. Con e sely, “Ben ica won he 2018/19 Po uguese league wi h a o al o 103 goals.
This was he i s ime a eam sco ed mo e han 100 goals du ing he championship” (M = 1.97) was he
mos conc e e news headline in he s udy. I was alse and had o do wi h Spo .
4.1.5. COMPARISON BETWEEN STEM AND NON-STEM BACKGROUND
When compa ing o e all su ey pe o mance o esponden s wi h STEM (n = 87) and non-STEM (n = 95)
backg ounds, he di e ences we e no g ea ly signi ican as exhibi ed on Table 5. Responden s wi h STEM
backg ounds (M = .63, SD = .20) classi ied mo e accu a ely he pieces o news p esen ed han esponden s
wi h non-STEM backg ounds (M = .62, SD = .21). In he su ey, he p e ious knowledge o news was no
signi ican ly di e en among esponden s wi h STEM (M = .24, SD = .12) and non-STEM (M = .24, SD = .16)
academical and p o essional expe ience. The comp ehension o he news was sligh ly easie o
pa icipan s wi h non-STEM backg ounds (M = 4.79, SD = .51) han o pa icipan s wi h a STEM
backg ound (M = 4.74, SD = .45). Con a y o esponden s who possessed a STEM backg ound (M = 2.50,
SD = .56), esponden s wi h a non-STEM backg ound (M = 2.59, SD = .75) belie ed ha he news had a
g ea e usage o echnical e ms. The e was no a signi ican di e ence be ween he in e es o he wo
g oups in he pieces o news, e en hough STEM esponden s (M = 3.43, SD = .81) had a highes o e all
40
in e es han non-STEM esponden s In e es (M = 3.37, SD = .76). News agueness' was classi ied
simila ly by STEM (M = 3.08, SD = .51) and non-STEM (M = 3.02, SD = .59) esponden s. Howe e , STEM
esponden s belie ed news we e ague and mo e abs ac .
Table 5
Compa ison Be ween STEM and non-STEM Responden s - Desc ip i e S a is ics
Backg ound
STEM
Non-STEM
n
M
SD
M
SD
Accu acy
42
0.63
0.20
0.62
0.21
Knowledge
42
0.24
0.12
0.24
0.16
Comp ehension (1 - Ve y Ha d)
42
4.74
0.45
4.79
0.51
Use o echnical e ms (1 – None)
42
2.50
0.56
2.59
0.75
In e es (1 – None)
40
3.43
0.81
3.37
0.76
Vagueness (1 – Ve y Much Conc e e)
40
3.08
0.51
3.02
0.59
In Table 6 below we analyze he accu acy o he pa icipan s wi h di e en academic and p o essional
backg ounds conside ing each one o se en news ca ego ies. Al hough he h ee ca ego ies whe e news
s o ies we e a ed mos accu a ely we e he same o esponden s wi h STEM and non-STEM
backg ounds, he o de o op h ee was di e en .
Socie y (M = .78, SD = .19), Science (M = .77, SD = .07) and Economy (M = .71, SD = .18) we e he ca ego ies
ca ego ized mos accu a ely by STEM esponden s. Con e sely, non-STEM esponden s we e mo e able
o iden i y accu a ely news ega ding Science (M = .81, SD = .12), Economy (M = .74, SD = .14) and Socie y
(M = .71, SD = .22).
The opics whe e accu acy classi ying news as ue o alse was lowe we e di e en o STEM and non-
STEM esponden s. Indi iduals wi h a STEM backg ound classi ied wo se he e aci y o news s o ies
ela ed wi h Cul u e (M = .49, SD = .21), while he ones wi h a non-STEM backg ound sco ed a lowe
accu acy on Spo (M = .48, SD = .21).
41
Table 6
Accu acy o STEM and non-STEM Responden s pe Ca ego y o News
Ca ego y
STEM
NON-STEM
M
SD
M
SD
Science
0.77
0.07
0.81
0.12
Cul u e
0.49
0.21
0.50
0.22
Heal h
0.52
0.22
0.54
0.22
Spo
0.49
0.14
0.48
0.21
Economy
0.71
0.18
0.74
0.14
Socie y
0.78
0.19
0.71
0.22
Poli ics
0.66
0.15
0.59
0.15
In Table 7 he di e en ca ego ies o news we e sepa a ed in o ue and alse news, o s udy he beha io
o STEM and non-STEM esponden s owa ds e aci y o news o a ious opics.
Responden s wi h a STEM backg ound classi ied mo e accu a ely alse news ela ed wi h he ollowing
ca ego ies: Socie y (M = .90, SD = .12), Economy (M = .81, SD = .07) and Science (M = .80, SD = .09),
espec i ely. When conside ing ue pieces o news, he ca ego ies wi h a highes p opo ion o accu a ely
classi ied news we e Science (M = .75, SD = .06), Socie y (M = .66, SD = .17), and Economy (M = .66, SD =
.17). Fo mo e see Table 7.
E en hough he o de o news opics iden i ied wi h highe accu acy is di e en , esponden s wi h a non-
STEM backg ound classi y he same h ee ca ego ies wi h mo e accu acy as hose wi h a STEM backg ound
as displayed in Table 7 below. When a non-STEM esponden encoun e ed alse news, he h ee news
opics wi h a highe accu acy a e we e Socie y (M = .87, SD = .16), Science (M = .82, SD = .09) and Economy
(M = .82, SD = .09). I he non-STEM indi idual aced a ue news s o y, he h ee ca ego ies wi h a highe
accu acy a e we e Science (M = .79, SD = .17), Economy (M = .73, SD = .19) and Socie y ((M = .55, SD =
.14).
48
Resul s o he one-way ANOVA, F(1,40) = 10.400, p = .003), e idence ha he ac ha a piece o news is
ue o alse eally impac s esponden s’ accu acy iden i ying e aci y o he con en . The T- es suppo s
his e idence, sugges ing ha when he news p esen ed o esponden s we e alse, hey ca ego ized i
mo e co ec ly; (40) = 3.24, p < .003. The s udied popula ion o Po uguese na ionals sco ed a highe
accu acy ca ego izing alse news (M = .72, SD = .18) han ue news (M = .54, SD = .17).
The news s o y opic was also conside ed signi ican in accu a ely classi ying alsehood o news. On he
one hand, he esul s o he MANOVA conduc ed sugges ha he opic o news has an e ec on how
news a e classi ied accu a ely as ue o alse, F(6, 35) = 2.957, p = .019. Howe e , his analysis o MANOVA
can be conside ed weak since Science and Cul u e a e he only wo ca ego ies in a o al o se en whe e
he ela ionship is s ong. The e o e, i is no clea i his signi icance is caused by he e ec o he
co a ia es. On he o he hand, a desc ip i e analysis o s udy esul s e eal ha esponden s beha ed
dis inc ly classi ying alsehood o di e en ca ego ies.
In he Po uguese na ionals sample unde s udy, accu acy was ela ed wi h how indi iduals pe cei e
pieces o news hey encoun e . This ela ionship was di e en in ue and alse pieces o news. Acco ding
o Pea son’s co ela ion, an inc ease in esponden s’ accu acy classi ying ue news s o ies indica ed an
inc ease in hei p io knowledge o he news and an inc ease in pa icipan s’ in e es on he news. In alse
news, an inc ease in accu acy classi ying news s o ies sugges ed a dec ease in he pe cei ed use o
echnical e ms. Acco ding o Pea son’s co ela ion, highe p e ious knowledge o alse news indica ed
g ea e in e es and a lowe pe cep ion o news pieces as ague and abs ac . An inc ease in
comp ehension a e o alse news indica ed bo h a dec ease in pe cei ed use o echnical e ms and in
in e es . Addi ionally, a highe use o echnical e ms in alse news indica ed g ea e in e es on news
headlines. Mo eo e , bo h in ue and alse news a highe p e ious knowledge o news pieces led o highe
in e es on i .
In o ma ion ga he ed in he su ey abou indi iduals’ backg ound allowed us o s udy i academical and
p o essional a eas o expe ise impac ed accu acy classi ying news as ue o alse. A desc ip i e analysis
e idenced ha STEM and non-STEM esponden s beha e dis inc ly: esponden s wi h STEM backg ounds
(M = .63, SD = .20) classi ied mo e accu a ely pieces o news p esen ed han esponden s wi h non-STEM
backg ounds (M = .62, SD = .21), e en hough o e all di e ence was no signi ican .

49
5. CONCLUSIONS
This hesis aimed o iden i y whe he indi iduals wi h di e en backg ounds e eal a di e en sensi i i y
o di e en news opics.
The main indings show ha no one is immune o belie e in alse news ega dless o age, le el o educa ion
o a ea o expe ise.
The i s esea ch ques ion aimed o s udy i he ac ha a piece o news is ue o alse in luences
indi iduals iden i ying accu a ely i s e aci y. This s udy shows ha o e all indi iduals classi y mo e
accu a ely alse news ha ue news. The second esea ch ques ion aimed o s udy i a ca ego y o a piece
o news has an impac on how indi iduals classi y i wi h accu acy as ue o alse. I was e idenced ha
people eac wi h mo e o less sensi i i y o alsehood depending on he news opic. The ca ego ies ha
s udy pa icipan s classi ied mo e accu a ely we e Science, Socie y and Economy. The hi d esea ch
ques ion aimed o s udy whe he an indi idual’s backg ound in luences his sensi i i y o alse news. I was
possible o conclude ha pa icipan s wi h a STEM backg ound we e able o classi y news mo e accu a ely
han esponden s wi h a non-STEM backg ound.
While he sample limi s he gene alizabili y o esul s, his app oach p o ides new insigh s in o how
Po uguese people pe cei e alse news. This hesis complemen s a c i ical li e a u e e iew wi h a su ey,
which we expec will aise awa eness on how Po uguese people eac o alse news and p o ide
addi ional in o ma ion o he gene al popula ion and o anyone in e es ed on he s udy o ake news.
50
6. LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORKS
The indings in his s udy ha e o be seen in he ligh o some limi a ions. Fi s , he possibili y o a sample
bias o which he esul s could be subjec o. The di e si y o he sample o pa icipan s ga he ed
ep esen s only a ac ion o he Po uguese popula ion, mos ly om he Lisbon a ea. This esul s in
p o iles o Po uguese indi iduals mos ly om Lisbon and he e o e could unde es ima e he impac o
alse news in he Po uguese popula ion. Addi ionally, since he s udy had o be done using an online
ques ionnai e ins ead o being applied in-pe son o a g oup o STEM and non-STEM esponden s, i can
be di icul o in e he e aci y o some answe s. Tha makes he s udy expensi e, ime consuming and
he e o e di icul o eplica e.
The second limi a ion conce ns he size o he sample (N = 194). The la ge he sample, he mo e p ecise
a e s udy esul s. A simila s udy wi h a bigge sample may ha e a g ea e accu acy.
The hi d limi a ion conce ns he a en ion check (Appendix G). I was conside ed oo conse a i e and
could mislead esponden s who would ead he i s pa - Whe e do you s and in e ms o poli ical
o ien a ion? Poli ical o ien a ion is a sys em ha cha ac e izes di e en poli ical posi ions in ela ion o
each o he - and belie ed o ha e unde s ood he ques ion, answe ing immedia ely. Thus, he second pa
– So ha we know you a e paying a en ion and a e eading his in o ma ion, lea e his ques ion blank -
would go unno iced and ick esponden s. The a en ion check was le blank by 113 esponden s and
answe ed by 81. Due o easons men ioned ea lie and in o de o ha e a la ge numbe o esponses, he
a en ion check was no u ilized o clean he da a. In u u e esea ch o his na u e, we sugges a clea e
a en ion check o esponden s, and one ha is less conse a i e.
51
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55
8. APPENDIX
Appendix A
Su ey Welcome Message
Appendix B
Responden s’ P o ession
n
%
S uden
65
33.5
Enginee
12
6.2
Teache
12
6.2
Re i ed
6
3.1
Manage
5
2.6
Consul an
4
2.1
None
4
2.1
Accoun Manage
3
1.5
56
A chi ec
3
1.5
Ci il Enginee
3
1.5
Ele ical Enginee
3
1.5
Jou nalis
3
1.5
Ju is
3
1.5
Ma ke ing
3
1.5
P ojec Manage
3
1.5
Unemployed
3
1.5
Adminis a i e Technician
2
1.0
Diploma
2
1.0
Educa ion Assis an
2
1.0
Finance In e n
2
1.0
Insu ance Agen
2
1.0
IT Technician
2
1.0
Lawye
2
1.0
Resea che
2
1.0
Tou ism Technician
2
1.0
Ac ess
1
0.5
Analys
1
0.5
Banke
1
0.5
Ba man
1
0.5
Biomedical Enginee
1
0.5
Chemical Enginee
1
0.5
Communica ions and Ma ke ing
1
0.5
Communi y De elopmen Technician
1
0.5
Da a Scien is
1
0.5
Designe
1
0.5
Doc o
1
0.5
E-Ma i ime Sys ems Enginee
1
0.5
En ep eneu
1
0.5
Financial Analys
1
0.5
Foo ball Coach
1
0.5
Geological Enginee
1
0.5
Highe Technician
1
0.5
Ho elie
1
0.5
Human Resou ces Manage
1
0.5
IT Analys
1
0.5
Ki chen Assis an
1
0.5
Legal Consul an
1
0.5
Managemen Con olle
1
0.5
Managing pa ne
1
0.5
57
Ma hema ician
1
0.5
Mo he
1
0.5
Os eopa h
1
0.5
P o esso
1
0.5
Psychologis
1
0.5
Publicis
1
0.5
Religionis
1
0.5
RPA Consul an
1
0.5
Sales Di ec o
1
0.5
So wa e Enginee
1
0.5
SQA Enginee
1
0.5
Sys em Adminis a o
1
0.5
Technical Di ec o
1
0.5
Telecomunica ions Enginee
1
0.5
Tou is Guide
1
0.5
T ansla o
1
0.5
T easu e
1
0.5
Appendix C
S uden Responden s' A ea o Specializa ion
n
%
Business
14
21.5
Heal h
10
15.4
Enginee ing
9
13.8
Law
5
7.7
Ma ke ing
4
6.2
None
4
6.2
A chi ec u e
3
4.6
A s
2
3.1
Communica ion
2
3.1
Da a Science
2
3.1
In o ma ion Managemen
2
3.1
Philosophy and Teology
2
3.1
Psicology
2
3.1
Biology and Geology
1
1.5
In e na ional Rela ions
1
1.5
Psychomo o Rehabili a ion
1
1.5
Social Se ices
1
1.5
64