INVESTIGATING THE INFLUENCE OF LANDUSE CHANGE
ON RIVER CHANNEL DYNAMICS IN DOUALA, CAMEROON
ROMARICK LEINYUY TEWIY
ii
INVESTIGATING THE INFLUENCE OF LAND USE CHANGE ON RIVER
CHANNEL DYNAMICS IN DOUALA, CAMEROON.
Disse a ion supe ised by
P o . Ped o Cab al
(NOVA IMS, Po ugal)
Co-supe ised by
D . Bakh ia Feizizadeh
(Uni e si y o Müns e , Ge many)
&
P o . Filibe o Pla
(UJI, Spain)
Feb ua y 2024
iii
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
I decla e ha he wo k desc ibed in his documen is my own and no om someone else. All he
assis ance I ha e ecei ed om o he people is duly acknowledged and all he sou ces (published o
no published) a e e e enced.
This wo k has no been p e iously e alua ed o submi ed o NOVA In o ma ion Managemen School
o elsewhe e.
Roma ick Leinyuy Tewiy
[ he signed o iginal has been a chi ed by he NOVA IMS se ices]
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like o exp ess my deepes g a i ude o P o . Ped o Cab al, my main hesis
supe iso , o his unwa e ing suppo , in aluable guidance, and schola ly insigh
h oughou he en i e esea ch p ocess.
I am also g a e ul o my co-supe iso s, P o . Filibe o Pla and D . Bakh ia Feizizadeh
o hei cons uc i e eedback and hough ul sugges ions, which g ea ly con ibu ed o
he success o his wo k.
I also ex end my app ecia ion o God and o my amily o hei encou agemen ,
unde s anding, and pa ience du ing his demanding pe iod. Thei lo e and suppo ha e
been a cons an sou ce o mo i a ion.
Finally, I would like o acknowledge my iends and colleagues who ha e sha ed hei
expe ise and p o ided encou agemen h oughou his academic jou ney. This hesis
would no ha e been possible wi hou he collec i e suppo and inspi a ion om all hese
indi iduals.
INVESTIGATING THE INFLUENCE OF LAND USE CHANGE ON RIVER
CHANNEL DYNAMICS IN DOUALA, CAMEROON.
ABSTRACT
Ri e s ha e pe ennially sculp ed he ea h's landscape, nu u ing ci iliza ions and sus aining
biodi e si y. In Douala, Came oon, he in ica e dance be ween human p og ess and he na u al low
o he Wou i Ri e p esen s a c i ical case s udy o his dynamic. In his comp ehensi e s udy, he
impac o land use changes on i e channel dynamics in Douala, Came oon, is me iculously analyzed
h ough he lens o ad anced emo e sensing da a and sophis ica ed machine lea ning algo i hms. This
s udy emba ks on a empo al jou ney, un a eling he ans o ma ion o Douala's landscape o e ecen
decades, om lush ege a ion and we lands o an inc easingly u banized milieu, and i s p o ound
implica ions on he Wou i Ri e 's mo phology. Employing a blend o Landsa image y and Google
Ea h Engine capabili ies, he esea ch delinea es shi s in land use pa e ns, emphasizing he
enc oachmen o u ban de elopmen in o c i ical na u al habi a s. The indings unde sco e he
u gency o in eg a ing sus ainable u ban planning wi h en i onmen al conse a ion s a egies o
sa egua d i e ine ecosys ems agains he backd op o explosi e u ban g ow h. The hesis a icula es
a ision o u u e u ban de elopmen ha is in ha mony wi h he ecological and hyd ological in eg i y
o i e sys ems, ad oca ing o policy amewo ks ha p io i ize en i onmen al sus ainabili y
alongside economic and demog aphic expansion. This seminal wo k con ibu es signi ican ly o he
discou se on sus ainable de elopmen , o e ing a bluep in o policymake s, u ban planne s, and
en i onmen al s ewa ds aiming o mi iga e he ecological oo p in o u baniza ion while os e ing
esilien and sus ainable u ban ecosys ems.
This s udy con ibu es o he achie emen o he ollowing Sus ainabili y De elopmen s Goals
(SDGs), Goals 6 (Clean Wa e and Sani a ion), 11 (Sus ainable Ci ies and Communi ies), 13 (Clima e
Ac ion), and 15 (Li e on Land)

i
KEYWORDS
In luence o Land Use Change
Ri e channel Dynamics
Google Ea h Engine
ii
ACRONYMS
LULC - Land Use and Land Co e
GEE - Google Ea h Engine
USGS - Uni ed S a es Geological Su ey
CEMAC - Cen al A ican Economic and Mone a y Communi y
DLA - Douala In e na ional Ai po
GIS - Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys em
RF - Random Fo es (Machine Lea ning Algo i hm)
SVM - Suppo Vec o Machine (Machine Lea ning Algo i hm)
GEE - Google Ea h Engine
NDWI - No malized Di e ence Wa e Index
UHI - U ban Hea Island
SDGs - Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
RGB - Red, G een, Blue (Colo Bands o Sa elli e Image y)
NIR - Nea In a ed
iii
INDEX OF THE TEXT
TITLE PAGE ..................................................................................................................................ii
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY …………..........................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS …………..............................................................................................i
ABSTRACT ………........................................................................................................................
KEYWORDS ……………………………….…………………………………………………… i
ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................. ii
INDEX OF TEXT …...…………………………………………..………………….. iii
INDEX OF TEXT …...…………………………………………..……………………ix
INDEX OF TABLES………………………………………………………..…….…...x
INDEX OF FIGURES …………………,………….……………………………..…...xi
INDEX OF EQUATONS …………………….…………………..…………………..xi
1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Rele ance o S udy ...................................................................................................................2
1.2 Resea ch Objec i es .................................................................................................................2
1.3 Resea ch Ques ions ..................................................................................................................3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW .........................................................................................................4
2.1 Land Use Change: T ends and D i e s……….……………………………………................4
2.2 Ri e Channel Dynamics: Responses o Land Use Change .....................................................4
2.3 In e play Be ween Land Use Change and Ri e Dynamics .....................................................5
2.4 Socio-Economic Implica ions o En i onmen al Change ........................................................5
2.5 Rela ed Wo k ............................................................................................................................6
2.6 Gaps ..........................................................................................................................................7
3 DATA AND METHODOLOGY ................………………………………………………….8
3.1 S udy A ea ...............................................................................................................................8
3.2 Da a ..........................................................................................................................................9
3.2.1 Remo e Sensing Da a ....................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Me hods ..................................................................................................................................11
3.3.1 Me hodology Wo k low……………………………………………...............................11
3.3.2 Da a P epa a ion ..............................................................................................................11
3.3.3 Indices .............................................................................................................................12
3.4 Land Use Land Co e Classi ica ion .....................................................................................12
3.4.1 Accu acy Assessmen .....................................................................................................14
3.5 Change De ec ion Analysis ....................................................................................................14
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................................16
4.1 Accu acy Assessmen ............................................................................................................16
4.2 Land Use Land Co e Classi ica ion .....................................................................................28
4.3 Change De ec ion ..................................................................................................................21
ix
4.3.1 T ansi ions om Ri e Channel o O he LULC Classes ..............................................22
4.3.2 T ansi ions om O he LULC Classes o Ri e Channel ..............................................23
5 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ……………………….26
5.1 Discussion .............................................................................................................................26
5.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................26
5.3 Recommenda ions .................................................................................................................27
Bibliog aphic Re e ences ...........................................................................................................29
4
CHAPER TWO
2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The in ica e ela ionship be ween land use changes and i e channel dynamics is a c i ical a ea
o s udy wi hin en i onmen al science, especially conce ning a eas like Douala, Came oon. This
li e a u e e iew me iculously analyzes he in luence o land use change on i e channel
dynamics h ough an ex ensi e examina ion o 17 di e se s udies. These s udies collec i ely o e
a comp ehensi e insigh in o he mul i ace ed in e play be ween an h opogenic land use
ans o ma ions and he na u al p ocesses go e ning i e sys ems. The e iew is s uc u ed
a ound ou pi o al hemes: Land Use Change: T ends and D i e s, Ri e Channel Dynamics:
Responses o Land Use Change, In e play Be ween Land Use Change and Ri e Dynamics, and
Socio-Economic Implica ions o En i onmen al Change, aiming o p o ide a nuanced
unde s anding o he subjec ma e .
2.1: Land Use Change: T ends and D i e s
The con e sion o land o ag icul u al, u ban, and indus ial uses has accele a ed globally, d i en
by economic de elopmen , popula ion g ow h, and he demands o u baniza ion. The
ans o ma ion om na u al landscapes o modi ied ones has p o ound implica ions o local and
egional hyd ology, geomo phology, and biodi e si y. James L.A. and Lecce S.A. (2013)
emphasize he his o ical dep h o human impac on i e sys ems, acing al e a ions o he
Neoli hic e a and unde sco ing he ole o echnological ad ancemen s and popula ion g ow h in
hese changes. This his o ical pe spec i e is c ucial o unde s anding he cumula i e impac o
human ac i i ies on i e sys ems. Simila ly, s udies like Mesmin e al. (2020) de ail he apid
u ban expansion in Came oon, highligh ing he p essing issue o de o es a ion and he con e sion
o land o ag icul u e and u ban de elopmen . Such changes a e emblema ic o b oade
en i onmen al ans o ma ions, whe e land use modi ica ions dis up na u al hyd ological cycles,
leading o al e ed soil composi ions and, ul ima ely, impac ing i e mo phology. The esea ch
collec i ely unde sco es a global end o en i onmen al change d i en by an h opogenic
ac i i ies, e ealing he unde lying d i e s o land use ans o ma ion as complex and
mul i ac o ial, in ol ing economic, social, and poli ical dimensions.
2.2: Ri e Channel Dynamics: Responses o Land Use Change
Ri e channels a e inhe en ly dynamic, esponding o a mul i ude o na u al and an h opogenic
in luences. The al e a ion o land use pa e ns, especially h ough u ban expansion and
ag icul u al de elopmen , has signi ican implica ions o i e mo phology. Inc eased uno
om impe ious su aces, al e ed sedimen anspo dynamics, and changes in ege a ion co e
due o land use change can lead o signi ican modi ica ions in i e channel o m and unc ion.
Fo ins ance, Tiwa i e al. (2023) and Fo si e al. (2019) p o ide de ailed analyses o how

5
u baniza ion and land use changes in luence sedimen yield and uno , he eby a ec ing i e
channel mo phology and beha io . These s udies illus a e he di ec co ela ion be ween land use
in ensi y and he shi ing o i e channels, highligh ing he i e 's ole as a dynamic indica o o
en i onmen al change. The wo k o Bhunia, Shi , and Pal (2016) on he Ganges and Sa ka e al.
(2012) on he B ahmapu a Ri e u he elucida es he geomo phological impac s o land use
changes, emphasizing he c i ical need o ongoing moni o ing and unde s anding o i e channel
dynamics in he ace o apid en i onmen al ans o ma ion. The esponsi eness o i e channels
o land use changes unde sco es he delica e balance be ween na u al i e p ocesses and he
p essu es exe ed by human ac i i ies.
2.3: In e play Be ween Land Use Change and Ri e Dynamics
The ela ionship be ween land use changes and i e dynamics is cha ac e ized by a complex
eedback loop, whe e each in luences and is in luenced by he o he . Changes in land use, such as
de o es a ion, u baniza ion, and ag icul u al expansion, p ecipi a e al e a ions in he hyd ological
egime, which in u n, p omp mo phological changes in i e channels. These mo phological
changes can mani es as a ia ions in sinuosi y, mig a ion pa e ns, and bank s abili y, which a e
c i ical o main aining ecological balance, biodi e si y, and human li elihoods. Deb, Das, and
Uddin (2012) and Hasanuzzaman e al. (2021) illus a e how i e dynamics can p omp u he
land use changes, necessi a ing lood con ol measu es and he cons uc ion o p o ec i e
in as uc u e. This cyclical in e play necessi a es a comp ehensi e unde s anding o bo h land
use and i e ine sys ems o mi iga e ad e se impac s and p omo e sus ainable de elopmen . The
s udies e iewed highligh he impo ance o adop ing an in eg a ed app oach o en i onmen al
managemen ha conside s he dynamic in e ac ions be ween land use changes and i e
mo phology.
2.4: Socio-Economic Implica ions o En i onmen al Change
The socio-economic implica ions o land use changes and he consequen al e a ions in i e
channel dynamics a e p o ound. Shi s in i e channels can e ode a able land, impac ing
ag icul u al p oduc i i y, and necessi a e signi ican in es men s in u ban planning and disas e
isk managemen o mi iga e inc eased lood isks. S udies like ha o S.S.U. (2014) on he
Jamuna Ri e and Pa anelli e al. (2019) on he Reno Ri e Ca chmen elucida e he socio-
economic impac s o i e dynamics, including esou ce des uc ion, popula ion displacemen ,
and he challenges o ensu ing sus ainable u ban de elopmen in he ace o changing i e ine
landscapes. The in e connec ion be ween en i onmen al changes, i e dynamics, and socio-
economic ac o s poin s o he need o in eg a ed land use and i e managemen s a egies ha
conside he ull spec um o impac s and
This li e a u e e iew unde sco es he in ica e and mul i ace ed ela ionship be ween land use
changes and i e channel dynamics. D awing on a b oad a ay o s udies, i highligh s he c i ical
6
need o in eg a ed, sus ainable app oaches o en i onmen al managemen . These app oaches
mus conside he complex in e play be ween geomo phological p ocesses, land use
ans o ma ions, and socio-economic ac o s. Such holis ic s a egies a e i al o add essing he
challenges posed by en i onmen al changes, pa icula ly in egions like Douala, Came oon, whe e
he balance be ween de elopmen and en i onmen al sus ainabili y emains a p essing conce n.
2.5: Rela ed wo k
The s udy by A e in, Mesh am, and Şeke (2021) on he Padma Ri e in Bangladesh illus a es
he signi ican impac s o i e channel mig a ion on LULC changes, emphasizing he c i ical ole
o GIS and Remo e Sensing (RS) echnologies in moni o ing hese dynamics. This esea ch could
in o m he Douala con ex by highligh ing he need o ad anced echnological app oaches o
assess he e ec s o LULC changes on i e channels.
Dwa akish and Ganas i (2015) e iew unde sco es he c i ical ole o hyd ological modeling in
unde s anding he hyd ological impac s o land use change. Thei discussion on a ious modeling
app oaches, including de e minis ic and s ochas ic models, p o ides a amewo k o analyzing
he hyd ological esponses o LULC changes in he Douala egion, s essing he impo ance o
in eg a ing land use models wi h hyd ological simula ions.
Kang and Kanniah (2022) demons a e he applica ion o machine lea ning classi ie s in analyzing
LULC changes and hei impac on i e mo phology in he Joho Ri e Basin, Malaysia. The use
o Google Ea h Engine (GEE) o long- e m LULC da a analysis could be pa icula ly ele an
o he Douala s udy, o e ing insigh s in o employing cu ing-edge ools o accu a e LULC
classi ica ion and unde s anding hei implica ions on i e dynamics.
The esea ch by Bekele e al. (2021) in he Awash Ri e basin, E hiopia, employs he Soil and
Wa e Assessmen Tool (SWAT) model o explo e hyd ological changes due o LULC dynamics.
This s udy's me hodology and indings on he hyd ological impac s o land use changes could
guide simila in es iga ions in Douala, emphasizing he impo ance o model calib a ion and
alida ion o accu a e hyd ological p edic ions.
Walling's (2017) ex on sedimen dynamics o e s a comp ehensi e o e iew o he challenges
in p edic ing sedimen beha io , which is c ucial o unde s anding i e channel esponses o
LULC changes. The insigh s in o sedimen anspo p ocesses and he impac o human ac i i ies
on sedimen dynamics could in o m he analysis o sedimen - ela ed i e changes in Douala.
Vanacke e al. (2005) ocus on he Deleg Ri e basin in he Andes, examining he e ec s o
human-induced LULC changes on i e mo phology. This s udy's app oach o assessing spa ial
o ganiza ion and connec i i y o land uni s could o e aluable pe spec i es on managing e osion
and op imizing wa e esou ce u iliza ion in he Douala con ex .
Finally, he s udy by Sadhwani e al. (2022) on he Pe iya Ri e Wa e shed, India, emphasizes
he SWAT model's ole in analyzing he e ec s o LULC changes on low dynamics and sedimen
7
yield. The de ailed calib a ion and alida ion p ocesses, along wi h he emphasis on sub-
wa e shed le el analysis, could p o ide a me hodological bluep in o assessing he in luence o
LULC changes on i e channel dynamics in Douala.
By in eg a ing he me hodologies, indings, and insigh s om hese s udies, a li e a u e e iew
can shed ligh on he complex in e play be ween land use change and i e channel dynamics in
Douala, Came oon. This e iew would no only con ibu e o he academic discou se bu also
o e p ac ical guidelines o sus ainable land and wa e esou ce managemen in he egion.
2.5: Gaps
The li e a u e e iew o e s a ho ough examina ion o he in ica e ela ionship be ween land use
change and i e channel dynamics in Douala, Came oon, highligh ing he mul i ace ed d i e s
o land use change, such as economic g ow h and u baniza ion, and hei consequen ial impac s
on i e mo phology and hyd ological p ocesses. Despi e he aluable insigh s gleaned om
exis ing li e a u e, signi ican gaps pe sis , pa icula ly in unde s anding he speci ic linkages
be ween u baniza ion, de o es a ion, ag icul u al p ac ices, and i e sys ems in Douala, as well
as he in eg a ion o mul iple heo ies o ully comp ehend hese in e ac ions. Add essing hese
gaps is impe a i e o ailo ing in e en ions and policy p oposals o he local con ex , ensu ing
e ec i e decision-making and sus ainable de elopmen ini ia i es in Douala, Came oon. Mo ing
o wa d, his mas e 's hesis aims o b idge hese gaps by examining he ex en and na u e o land
use changes in Douala o e he pas decades using machine lea ning algo i hms on Google Ea h
Engine (GEE), analyzing he dynamics o i e channels wi h land use change o assess hei
po en ial impac on i e channel dynamics. Th ough hese esea ch objec i es, he hesis
endea o s o con ibu e o a deepe unde s anding o he complex dynamics o land use change
and i e channels in Douala, ul ima ely in o ming sus ainable de elopmen and en i onmen al
conse a ion s a egies in he egion.
8
CHAPTER 3
3: DATA AND METHODOLOGY
3.1: S udy a ea.
Douala, he la ges ci y in Came oon, s ands as he economic and comme cial nucleus no only o
he coun y bu also o he en i e Cen al A ican Economic and Mone a y Communi y (CEMAC)
egion, encompassing Gabon, Congo, Chad, Equa o ial Guinea, Cen al A ican Republic, and
Came oon. His o ically, he a ea a ound Douala has been inhabi ed by indigenous popula ions
along he Wou i Ri e es ua y. Du ing he la e 19 h cen u y, Douala became a Ge man ading
pos unde he name Duala du ing he Ge man colonial pe iod. Pos -Wo ld Wa I, Came oon was
di ided be ween he F ench and B i ish, wi h Douala becoming pa o F ench Came oon upon
independence in 1960.
Figu e 1: Loca ion o Douala
O e he yea s, Douala has ans o med in o a cosmopoli an ci y wi h a di e se popula ion and a
dynamic cul u al scene. The ci y boas s Cen al A ica's la ges po , hough K ibi po is g adually
becoming an essen ial complemen . Douala's s a egic loca ion on he Wou i Ri e es ua y
acili a es ade, handling a signi ican po ion o Came oon's majo expo s, including oil, cocoa,
co ee, imbe , me als, and ui s. Douala In e na ional Ai po (DLA) se es as a majo
in e na ional ga eway, con ibu ing o he ci y's economic signi icance. As o 2023, Douala and
i s su ounding a ea had an es ima ed popula ion o 5,768,400, e lec ing i s s a us as one o he
mos popula ed ci ies in Came oon. Geog aphically si ua ed on he es ua y o he Wou i Ri e ,
Douala expe iences a opical clima e wi h high empe a u es and signi ican ain all. Ongoing
de elopmen s, including he cons uc ion o he K ibi po , signi y he ci y's e ol ing economic
landscape, a ac ing in es men s, and solidi ying i s pi o al ole in Came oon's economic g ow h.
9
3.2: Da a.
3.2.1 Remo e Sensing Da a
This hesis le e ages emo e sensing da a o explo e he impac s o land use changes on i e
channel dynamics wi hin he Douala egion, Came oon. A se ies o high- esolu ion Landsa
sa elli e image y, each wi h a esolu ion o 30 me e s, was sys ema ically selec ed o acili a e his
in es iga ion. Spanning om 1986 o 2022, he empo al scope o he image y allows o a
comp ehensi e analysis o he long- e m in e ac ions be ween land use ans o ma ions and lu ial
p ocesses.
Speci ically, he s udy inco po a es image y om Landsa 5 o he yea 1986, Landsa 8 o 2015,
and Landsa 9 o 2022 om USGS downloaded ia Google Ea h Engine. This selec ion no only
p o ides a his o ical pe spec i e bu also o e s con empo a y insigh s, ensu ing a obus empo al
compa ison. I is no ewo hy ha all sa elli e images we e acqui ed du ing Came oon's d y season,
which spans om Decembe o Ap il, o minimize he in luence o seasonal hyd ological
a iabili y on he analysis.
Due o he pe sis en cloud co e cha ac e is ic o he Douala egion, which equen ly obscu es
sa elli e isibili y, he in e als be ween he selec ed images a e no uni o m. This i egula i y is
a ibu ed o he necessi y o choosing cloud- ee images o main ain da a in eg i y and analy ical
p ecision. Consequen ly, he 1986 image y comp ises a mosaic o wo images om he espec i e
yea , while he image y o 2015 and 2022 a e composi ed o op imize cla i y. These images we e
p ocu ed om he Uni ed S a es Geological Su ey (USGS) ia he Google Ea h Engine
pla o m, ensu ing a high s anda d o image quali y and accessibili y o he esea ch. Below a e
he Landsa sa elli e images used o his hesis. The able below shows he a ious band
combina ions and esolu ion o he sa elli e images

10
Table 1: Da a Sou ces
The images used o his analysis can be seen below
1986 (Landsa 5) 2015 (Landsa 8) 2022 (Landsa 9)
Figu e 2: Landsa Sa elli e Image ies
Yea
Landsa
Sa elli e
Da a Sou ce and Band Desc ip ion
Image
esolu ion
(Me e s)
1986
Landsa 5
Seconda y Da a Sou ce; TM senso bands: Band 1 (Blue),
Band 2 (G een), Band 3 (Red), Band 4 (Nea -In a ed), Band
5 (Sho wa e In a ed), Band 6 (The mal), Band 7
(Sho wa e In a ed)
30
2015
Landsa 8
Seconda y Da a Sou ce; OLI senso bands: Band 1
(Coas al/Ae osol), Band 2 (Blue), Band 3 (G een), Band 4
(Red), Band 5 (Nea -In a ed), Band 6 (Sho wa e In a ed
1), Band 7 (Sho wa e In a ed 2), Band 8 (Panch oma ic),
Band 9 (Ci us); TIRS senso bands: Band 10 (The mal
In a ed 1), Band 11 (The mal In a ed 2)
30
2022
Landsa 9
Seconda y Da a Sou ce; OLI-2 senso bands simila o
Landsa 8; TIRS-2 senso bands: Band 10 (The mal In a ed
1), Band 11 (The mal In a ed 2), imp o ed calib a ion o
he mal bands
30
11
3.3: Me hods
3.3.1: Me hodology wo k low
This s udy used di e en pla o ms and So wa es o accomplish his ask. The Land use Land
co e classi ica ion was pe o med using he Google ea h engine cloud compu ing pla o m. The
change de ec ion and depic ion o i e channel dynamics was done on A c GIS. The me hodology
s eps can be seen on he me hodology low cha below.
Figu e 3: Me hodology low cha .
3.3.2: Da a p epa a ion.
Fo isualizing he Landsa image ies, he RGB bands we e employed ac oss all selec ed yea s o
main ain consis ency in he isual assessmen . The 1986 image y used he gene al RGB bands
'B4' ( ed), 'B3' (g een), and 'B2' (blue). Simila ly, he 2015 and 2022 images, om he Landsa 8
and Landsa 9 sa elli es espec i ely, u ilized hei co esponding RGB bands o isualiza ion:
'B4', 'B3', and 'B2' o 2015, and 'SR_B4', 'SR_B3', and 'SR_B2' o 2022. This s anda diza ion in
he use o RGB bands ensu ed ha he isual compa ison o land use changes o e he yea s was
consis en and accu a e o he s udy o i e channel dynamics in Douala, Came oon
12
3.3.3: Indices
The No malized Di e ence Wa e Index (NDWI) is an essen ial ool in emo e sensing ha is
u ilized o de ec and moni o he p esence o wa e on he land su ace. I is pa icula ly use ul
o di e en ia ing liquid wa e om e es ial ege a ion and soil, especially in delinea ing open
wa e ea u es such as lakes, i e s, and ese oi s.
The o mula o NDWI is exp essed as
NDWI = G een – NIR
G een + NIR
In his o mula,
G een is he e lec ance in he g een band
NIR is he e lec ance in he nea -in a ed band
The index akes ad an age o he ac ha wa e abso bs mo e in a ed and sho -wa e in a ed
ligh han i does in o he pa s o he spec um, which means ha open wa e has a low e lec ance
in he SWIR pa o he spec um while ege a ion e lec s mo e NIR. The NDWI o mula is
designed o maximize he e lec ance o wa e by using he NIR band, which ends o e lec well
o wa e su aces, and o minimize i by sub ac ing he e lec ance om he SWIR band, which
wa e abso bs. The di ision by he sum o NIR and SWIR e lec ance no malizes he index,
scaling he alues be ween -1 and 1. This no maliza ion is c ucial as i accoun s o opog aphic
and a mosphe ic a ia ions, imp o ing he eliabili y o wa e de ec ion.
In his s udy, NDWI is employed o e alua e he spa ial dis ibu ion and empo al changes o wa e
con en in he landscape o Douala. By applying NDWI, he esea ch is able o eliably quan i y
he ex en o wa e bodies, ack hei changes o e ime, and gain insigh s in o he hyd ological
dynamics a play. This con ibu es o a be e unde s anding o land-wa e in e ac ions and aids in
he e ec i e managemen and planning o wa e esou ces in he egion.
3.4: Land use Land Co e classi ica ion
In his s udy, he sa elli e da a unde wen an analy ical p ocess using a pai o machine lea ning
echniques: Random Fo es (RF) and Suppo Vec o Machine (SVM), all wi hin he con ines o
he Google Ea h Engine (GEE) en i onmen . The aim was o assess he pe o mance capabili ies
o each algo i hm h ough me ics o o e all accu acy and he kappa s a is ic. This would enable
he selec ion o he mos e ec i e machine lea ning app oach o subsequen classi ica ion asks
in he in es iga ion.
In his in es iga ion, he u ban landscape o Douala was delinea ed in o six disc e e Land Use and
Land Co e (LULC) ca ego ies o he yea s 2015 and 2022, and se en ca ego ies o he yea
1986. These ca ego ies comp ise Buil -Up a eas, Ri e Channels, Vege a ion (including bo h
13
o es ed a eas and g asslands), Ag icul u al land, Ba en Land, and We lands. Fo he 1986
da ase , an addi ional classi ica ion o 'Clouds' was necessi a ed due o he p esence o cloud
co e in he sa elli e image y. The able below p o ides a de ailed desc ip ion o he LULC
classi ica ion classes u ilized in his s udy.
Land Use Class
Desc ip ion
Ag icul u e
A eas used o a ming and c op p oduc ion
Ba en Land
Land wi h li le o no ege a ion
Buil -Up
Zones wi h esiden ial, indus ial, comme cial buildings o pa ed oads
Ri e _channel
Pa hs o he na u al wa e cou ses
Vege a ion
Regions co e ed wi h g asses, ees, and o he plan li e
We land
Land a eas sa u a ed wi h wa e , ei he pe manen ly o seasonally
Table 2: LULC Classi ica ion class desc ip ion
In mi iga ing he challenge o limi ed ield-based da a collec ion, he on-sc een selec ion o sample
poin s om high- esolu ion Google Ea h images is execu ed. This me hodological app oach,
alida ed in p io s udies (Kanniah, 2017; Lin e al., 2018), add esses he necessi y o g ound
u hing o aining and alida ion. A sys ema ic app oach in ol es he andom iden i ica ion o
sample poin s, wi h hei dis ibu ion based on he a ea o each land use class. No ably, he
emphasis is placed on main aining sample poin s a consis en loca ions h oughou he 36-yea
s udy pe iod o educe he impac o hei loca ion on he classi ica ion esul s. The selec ed sample
poin s a e hen in eg a ed in o he GEE sc ip o he classi ica ion p ocess, wi h andom di ision
in o aining samples (80%) and alida ion samples (20%). This me hod ensu es obus ness and
eliabili y in he absence o ex ensi e ield da a collec ion. This able below shows he sample
poin s o each image as well as numbe o poin s used o aining and es ing
Yea
sample poin s
T aining
Tes ing
1986
768
619
149
2015
915
713
202
2022
1083
842
241
Table 3: Sample poin s o LULC Classi ica ion
.
20
4.3: Change De ec ion
An in e sec ion was pe o med be ween he 1986 and he 2022 LULC classi ica ion images o see
he changes ha ha e occu ed o e he leng h o he s udy pe iod in Douala. The esul s o his
can be seen in he able below.
YEARS
2022
1986
LULC Classes
Ag icul u e
Ba eland
Buil Up
Ri e _channel
Vege a ion
We land
To al
Ag icul u e
0.57
0.08
26.15
0.0034
1.78
0.02
28.61
Ba eland
0.04
0.02
1.29
0.0001
0.09
0.001
1.44
Buil Up
0.44
0.19
58.70
0.16
4.82
0.08
64.39
Ri e _channel
0.24
0.07
2.35
68.38
8.70
0.52
80.26
Vege a ion
39.10
2.17
122.81
9.77
267.83
6.72
448.44
We land
1.17
0.06
6.57
1.00
8.43
0.86
18.1
To al
41.57
2.60
217.87
79.32
291.68
8.20
641.24
Table 10: LULC T ansi ion be ween 1986 and 2022
2022
LULC
Classes
Ag icul u e
(%)
Ba eland
(%)
Buil Up
(%)
Ri e _channel
(%)
Vege a ion
(%)
We land
(%)
TOTAL
(%)
1986
Ag icul u e
2.00
0.29
91.41
0.01
6.21
0.07
100
Ba eland
3.00
1.13
89.31
0.01
6.47
0.08
100
Buil Up
0.68
0.30
91.16
0.25
7.49
0.12
100
Ri e _channel
0.30
0.09
2.93
85.20
10.84
0.65
100
Vege a ion
8.72
0.48
27.39
2.18
59.72
1.50
100
We land
6.47
0.35
36.30
5.55
46.57
4.74
100
Table 11: LULC T ansi ion be ween 1986 and 2022 (%)
The LULC ansi ion ma ix indica es no able land co e changes in Douala om 1986 o 2022.
Ag icul u al land has dec eased by app oxima ely 26 km², ansi ioning la gely o buil -up a eas,
which ha e expanded by abou 176 km², e lec ing a signi ican u ban sp awl. The e has been
educ ion o i e channel a eas which ha e dec eased o e all, mainly yielding o buil -up a eas
and o ege a ion, likely due o his u ban enc oachmen o expansion o ege a ion. Vege a ion
co e has educed by app oxima ely 124 km², wi h hese a eas also becoming u banized. We lands
ha e seen a dec ease o nea ly 10 km², sugges ing a loss o hese ecologically i al a eas. These
shi s om na u al and semi-na u al landscapes o u ban en i onmen s indica e a p o ound

21
ans o ma ion in Douala's land use o e he las 36 yea s, highligh ing he need o sus ainable
u ban planning o mi iga e he impac on i e channel dynamics.
4.3.1: T ansi ions om Ri e channel o o he LULC classes be ween 1986 and 2022
Based on change de ec ion ca ied ou , i could be obse ed ha be ween 1986 and 2022, he i e
channel ans o med in o o he land use classes. The able below shows his T ansi ion
CLASS CHANGE
AREA CHANGE (KMSQ)
Ri e _channel - Ag icul u e
0.24
Ri e _channel - Ba eland
0.07
Ri e _channel - Buil Up
2.35
Ri e _channel - Vege a ion
8.7
Ri e _channel - We land
0.52
Table 12: LULC T ansi ion om Ri e channel o o he LULC classes
Figu e 6: G aphical ep esen a ion o LULC T ansi ions om Ri e channel o o he LULC
classes.
The esul s indica e a no able shi in land use om he i e channel o o he landuse classes o e
ime. A signi ican expansion in o buil -up a eas, wi h an a ea change o 2.35 squa e kilome e s,
e lec s he p essu es o u baniza ion. The i e channel's con e sion o ege a ion is he mos
subs an ial, a 8.7 squa e kilome e s, sugges ing po en ial e o es a ion o na u al ege a ion
enc oachmen . Ag icul u al land shows a modes inc ease.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Ri e _channel -
Ag icul u e Ri e _channel -
Ba eland Ri e _channel -
Buil Up Ri e _channel -
Vege a ion Ri e _channel -
We land
AREA CHANGE (KMSQ)
CLASS CHANGE
RIVER CHANNEL TRANSITIONS TO OTHER
LULC CLASSES (SQKM)
22
Figu e 7: T ansi ions om he Ri e Channel o o he LULC classes
The map dis ibu ion illus a es hese ans o ma ions, highligh ing he i e 's dec easing a ea,
pa icula ly in he main cou se o he Wou i Ri e . These changes ha e c i ical implica ions o
he i e 's dynamics, including al e ed low egimes and ecological impac s due o u ban and
ege a ion con e ion.
4.3.2: T ansi ions F om o he LULC classes o i e -channel be ween 1986 and 2022:
Du ing he s udy pe iod, he i e unde wen bo h educ ion and expansion in a ea. Some land
p e iously classi ied unde di e en uses has ansi ioned in o i e a ea, as demons a ed in he
p o ided able and g aph. This indica es a dynamic change in land use and i e mo phology.
CLASS CHANGE
AREA CHANGE (SQKM)
Ag icul u e - Ri e _channel
0.0034
Ba eland - Ri e _channel
0.0001
Buil Up - Ri e _channel
0.16
Vege a ion - Ri e _channel
9.77
We land - Ri e _channel
0.86
Table 13: LULC T ansi ion om o he LULC classes o he i e channel
23
Figu e 8: G aphical ep esen a ion o LULC T ansi ions om o he LULC classes o Ri e
Channel
As can be obse ed, he able and g aph abo e indica e a ansi ion o land co e om o he classes
o i e channel, wi h he mos signi ican change being a con e sion om ege a ion o he i e
channel a 9.77 squa e kilome e s. This sugges s a subs an ial inc ease in i e ine a ea po en ially
due o changes in land managemen o na u al eclama ion o p e iously ege a ed a eas. Buil -
up a eas show a educ ion o 0.16 squa e kilome e s, indica ing a dec ease in u ban land use
adjacen o he i e , possibly e lec ing e o s o educe enc oachmen on he i e channel o he
e ec s o e osion. Below is he ansi ion map om o he land use classes o i e channel
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Ag icul u e -
Ri e _channel Ba eland -
Ri e _channel Buil Up -
Ri e _channel Vege a ion -
Ri e _channel We land -
Ri e _channel
AREA CHANGE (KMSQ)
CLASS CHANGE
LULC TRANSITIONS TO RIVER CHANNEL
(SQKM)
24
Figu e 9: T ansi ion om o he LULC classes o he Ri e _channel
The map isualizes hese ansi ions and highligh s he pe iphe al gains in he i e 's a ea,
con as ing wi h losses in he main cou se. The expansion a ound he pe iphe ies could be
a ibu ed o sedimen deposi ion o changes in land use p ac ices, while he na owing o he main
cou se could esul om inc eased sedimen a ion o al e ed low pa e ns due o ups eam land use
changes. These shi s a e c ucial o unde s anding he dynamics o he i e sys em, as hey can
a ec hyd ological connec i i y, sedimen anspo , and loodplain dynamics.
25
CHAPTER 5
5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1: Discussion
The esul s om he Land Use Land Co e (LULC) classi ica ion e eal a nuanced pic u e o
Douala's ans o ma ion o e h ee decades, unde sco ing he c i ical in e play be ween u ban
expansion and i e channel dynamics. The supe io pe o mance o he SVM classi ie o he
yea s 1986 and 2022, and he RF classi ie o 2015, illus a es he nuanced di e ences in
algo i hm e icacy dependen on he speci ic cha ac e is ics o each da ase . This disc epancy
highligh s he impo ance o choosing he igh machine lea ning ool based on he da a's empo al
con ex and he na u e o land co e changes. The signi ican u ban sp awl e lec ed in he
expansion o buil -up a eas om 64.39 km² in 1986 o 217.87 km² in 2022 unde sco es he
agg essi e pace o u baniza ion in Douala. This g ow h has led o conside able losses in ege a ion
and we lands, c ucial o biodi e si y and lood mi iga ion, illus a ing he p o ound impac o
human ac i i ies on na u al landscapes.
The LULC ansi ion analysis be ween 1986 and 2022 u he de ails he complexi y o land use
changes, whe e ag icul u al lands and na u al ege a ion a e inc easingly con e ed o u ban
spaces. This shi no only ep esen s a loss o g een co e bu also signi ies changes in he
hyd ological cycle and sedimen anspo dynamics, po en ially exace ba ing lood isks and
al e ing i e ine ecosys ems. The ansi ion om i e channels o o he land use classes,
pa icula ly o buil -up a eas and ege a ion, e lec s he dynamic na u e o Douala's landscape,
whe e na u al wa e cou ses a e being eshaped by an h opogenic p essu es. These ans o ma ions
necessi a e a ecalib a ion o u ban planning and en i onmen al conse a ion s a egies o p ese e
he ecological and hyd ological unc ions o i e sys ems amids apid u ban de elopmen . This
discussion unde lines he impo ance o sus ainable u ban expansion ha ha monizes wi h i e ine
ecosys em p ese a ion, ensu ing he esilience o u ban landscapes agains en i onmen al and
clima ic challenges.
5.2: Conclusion
This mas e 's hesis s ands as a pi o al explo a ion in o he nuanced in e play be ween land use
changes and i e channel dynamics wi hin Douala, Came oon, agains a can as o apid u ban
de elopmen and en i onmen al shi s. Le e aging ad anced me hodologies such as emo e
sensing da a analysis, machine lea ning algo i hms, and comp ehensi e land-use and land-co e
(LULC) classi ica ion, his esea ch illumina es he p o ound impac s o human ac i i ies on he
na u al en i onmen . I unde sco es he u gen need o in eg a i e s a egies in sus ainable
de elopmen and en i onmen al conse a ion, pa icula ly in he ealm o u ban planning. The
s udy unco e s a s a k ans o ma ion in Douala's landscape o e ecen decades, cha ac e ized by
apid u ban expansion, a signi ican dec ease in ege a ion and we lands and al e a ions in
ag icul u al land use pa e ns. This u ban sp awl, ueled by economic and demog aphic g ow h,

26
p esen s conside able challenges o he ecological and hyd ological in eg i y o he a ea, especially
a ec ing he i e sys ems ha a e c ucial o he egion's ecological heal h and socio-economic
sus ainabili y. The indings no only de ail he ex en and na u e o hese land use changes bu also
a icula e hei dynamic epe cussions on he mo phology o i e channels, including shi s in
sedimen deposi ion, e osion pa e ns, and channel mig a ion a es.
A pa icula ly no ewo hy aspec o his hesis is he insigh in o he ansi ional dynamics be ween
di e en land use classes and he i e channel. The s udy me iculously documen s he con e sion
o signi ican i e channel a eas o buil -up egions and ege a ion, e lec ing a complex
in e ac ion whe e land use changes and i e dynamics mu ually in luence each o he . This
ela ionship unde sco es he necessi y o an in eg a ed app oach o u ban and en i onmen al
managemen ha add esses he complex d i e s o landscape change, om human p essu es o
na u al p ocesses. Inco po a ing he obse a ion o he na owing o he main i e cou se
alongside pe iphe al gains en iches ou unde s anding o he delica e equilib ium be ween
sedimen a ion, e osion, and land use p ac ices. This phenomenon poin s o c i ical implica ions o
hyd ological connec i i y, sedimen anspo , and loodplain dynamics, highligh ing he
sophis ica ed in e dependencies wi hin he i e ine ecosys em. By add essing he esea ch
ques ions posed, his hesis signi ican ly con ibu es o elucida ing he subs an ial land use
ans o ma ions and hei impac s on i e channel dynamics in Douala. I ad oca es o holis ic
u ban planning and en i onmen al managemen s a egies ha p io i ize he conse a ion o
na u al esou ces amid u ban de elopmen p essu es, aligned wi h he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals. In conclusion, his esea ch lays a ounda ion o u u e inqui y and policy
o mula ion aimed a econciling u ban de elopmen wi h en i onmen al conse a ion, o e ing a
bluep in o policy and en i onmen al s ewa dship ha emphasizes he uni e sal challenge o
ha monizing human de elopmen wi h he p ese a ion o he na u al wo ld. Th ough his
comp ehensi e explo a ion, he hesis highligh s he c i ical ole o in o med, sus ainable
de elopmen s a egies in ensu ing he longe i y and i ali y o i e ine ecosys ems o gene a ions
o come, unde pinning he g ea ness encapsula ed in he s udy's indings and me hodologies.
5.3: Recommenda ions
In ligh o he agg essi e u baniza ion obse ed in Douala, Came oon, and i s conside able e ec s
on i e channel dynamics and en i onmen al sus ainabili y, his mas e 's hesis s ongly
ecommends ha u u e s udies pi o owa ds in es iga ing he spa io- empo al empe a u e
a ia ions wi hin he ci y, pa icula ly in ela ion o clima e change. U ban expansion, a known
ca alys o al e ing land use pa e ns and i e mo phologies, also signi ican ly in luences local
clima e sys ems h ough mechanisms such as he u ban hea island (UHI) e ec , leading o a
a ie y o ecological and socio-economic consequences. The need o unde s and how u baniza ion
impac s local empe a u e a ia ions is c ucial, as i con ibu es o b oade clima e change
implica ions, including al e ed wea he pa e ns and inc eased hea - ela ed heal h isks. Employing
emo e sensing and geog aphic in o ma ion sys em (GIS) echnologies, which ha e p o en
27
e ec i e in analyzing land use change and i e dynamics, can p o ide p ecise da a on how u ban
g ow h in luences empe a u e dispa i ies ac oss Douala. Such an in es iga ion will no only shed
ligh on he mic o-clima ic e ec s o u baniza ion in opical ci ies bu also o e insigh s in o
global clima e change adap a ion and u ban esilience s a egies. This esea ch di ec ion is i al
o in o ming sus ainable u ban planning and clima e mi iga ion e o s, ensu ing ha u u e u ban
de elopmen in Douala, and simila se ings, aligns wi h b oade en i onmen al sus ainabili y and
clima e esilience objec i es.
To add ess he impac s o u ban de elopmen on i e dynamics e ec i ely, in as uc u e p ojec s
wi hin Douala mus be designed wi h a keen awa eness o he na u al i e low pa e ns. This
en ails adop ing enginee ing p ac ices ha p io i ize he conse a ion o wa e cou ses, ensu ing
ha cons uc ion does no impede he i e s’ ecological unc ions o con ibu e o lood isk.
In eg a i e app oaches, such as he cons uc ion o g een in as uc u e and he implemen a ion o
na u al wa e e en ion measu es, should be p io i ized. These me hods no only suppo lood
managemen bu also enhance u ban biodi e si y and ec ea ional spaces, os e ing a ha monious
coexis ence be ween u ban de elopmen and i e ine ecosys ems. This s a egic alignmen
unde sco es he necessi y o c oss-sec o al collabo a ion among u ban planne s, en i onmen al
scien is s, and ci il enginee s o de ise solu ions ha a e bo h inno a i e and sus ainable, ensu ing
he long- e m heal h and esilience o Douala's i e sys ems amids ongoing u ban expansion.
28
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