EUROPA XXI
2013, 23: 7-28
WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES
OF GENERAL INTEREST?1
EDUARDA MARQUES DA COSTA
Cen e o Geog aphical S udies
Uni e si y o Lisbon
Alameda da Uni e sidade, 1600-214, Lisbon, Po ugal
edua da.cos [email protected]
PEDRO PALMA
Cen e o Geog aphical S udies
Uni e si y o Lisbon
Alameda da Uni e sidade, 1600-214, Lisbon, Po ugal
[email protected]
DANIEL RAUHUT
Depa men o Social and Beha iou al S udies
Uni e si y Wes
Gus a a Melins ga a 2, 461 86 T ollhä an, Sweden
daniel. auhu @h .se
ALOIS HUMER
Depa men o Geog aphy and Regional Resea ch
Uni e si y o Vienna
Uni e si ae ss asse 7/5, 1200 Vienna, Aus ia
alois.hume @uni ie.ac.a
DANIELA CONSTANTIN
Academy o Economic S udies o Bucha es
Bd. Lasca Ca a giu 16 A, RO-010761 Bucha es , Romania
danielacons an [email protected]
1 This pape is pa o he applied esea ch p ojec Indica o s and Pe spec i es o Se ices o Gene al In e es in Te i o ial
Cohesion and De elopmen (SeGI), led by he Royal Ins i u e o Technology (KTH), Sweden. I has been inanced by he ESPON
2013 P og amme and his inancial suppo is g a e ully acknowledged. Tex s, maps and conclusions s emming om esea ch
p ojec s unde he ESPON p og amme p esen ed in his epo do no necessa ily e lec he opinion o he ESPON Moni o ing
Commi ee. © ESPON, 2013.
EUROPEAN UNION
Pa - inanced by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund
INVESTING IN YOUR FUTURE ESP N
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Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume ,
8 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía
XABIER VELASCO ECHEVERRÍA
Te i o ial Obse a o y o Na a e
NASUVINSA
A da. San Jo ge, 8 bajo, Pamplona, Spain
x elasce@nasu insa.es
Abs ac : The se ices o gene al in e es (SGI) ha e ecei ed inc easing a en ion o he
Eu opean Union, which conside s hem a key elemen o he Eu opean model o socie y. They
no only play an impo an ole in he ongoing compe i i eness o he Eu opean economy, bu
a e also essen ial o achie ing he goal o p omo ing social and e i o ial cohesion. Thei
po en ial ole in he pu sui o he objec i es o Eu opean cohesion and con e gence policies
may be signi ican which calls o an app op ia e measu emen and analysis o e i o ial
dis ibu ion. The indica o s a e assumed o be a key elemen in measu ing and desc ibing
he SGI, howe e , i is necessa y o make a se ious e lec ion how such indica o s should
be selec ed. The selec ion o indica o s can be condi ioned by se e al ac o s, howe e , i is
impe a i e o make a quali a i e e lec ion on he adequacy and ele ance o indica o s o
analyse he SGI. This e lec ion uns h ough he pape . The concep o indica o s is add essed,
and hei s eng hs and weaknesses a e discussed. The indica o s a e classi ied acco ding o
he ole hey play in he cause-e ec ela ions in dis inc e i o ies. Th ee ypes o indica o s
a e iden i ied. App aisal o indica o s and e iew o li e a u e ende i possible o iden i y
he mos equen ly used indica o s and o see SGI analysis om se e al pe spec i es, hus
e i ying ha indica o s can p esen di e en meanings and ele ance, based on a ange o
ac o s and he scale o analysis. Some o he unce ain ies a ising in he SGI e i o ial analysis,
which can con ibu e o he success o he policy making p ocess, a e ecognized h ough an
example based on he ICT Telecommunica ion SGI sub-domain. Some p ocedu es connec ed
wi h he in eg a ion o di e en ypes o indica o s a e p oposed in o de o limi he eme gen
unce ain ies esul ing om hei in e p e a ion.
Keywo ds: Se ices o gene al in e es , indica o s, spa ial cohesion, Eu opean Union.
INTRODUCTION
The cu en deba e on SGI is cha ac e ised by he “lack o cla i y on e minology” and by he ac ha
“concep s a e used in e changeably and inaccu a ely” (CEC, 2011). In he G een Pape on Se ices
o Gene al In e es , he Eu opean Commission poin s ou ha di e en his o ical, economic, cul u al
and poli ical de elopmen can lead o di e en e ms and de ini ions ac oss he Membe S a es (CEC,
2003). Thus, he de ini ion o SGI can a y om coun y o coun y and om egion o egion. The
EC has made an a emp o s anda dise he concep o SGI ac oss he Membe S a es, and in he G een
Pape has de ined SGI as „ma ke and non-ma ke se ices which he public au ho i ies class as being
o gene al in e es and subjec o speci ic public se ice obliga ions” (CEC, 2003).
The de ini ion o he EC unde lines a dis inc i e cha ac e is ic o SGI, namely he obliga ion o
p o ide such se ices e en in places whe e he le el o demand is no su icien o ensu e ha such
se ices a e e icien and cos -e ec i e. Thus public au ho i ies a e obliged o p o ide SGI wi hin
ce ain pa ame e s o quali y, a ailabili y, accessibili y and a o dabili y, in o de o ensu e ha such
se ices a e ully accessible o e e yone.
The EU has, o e ime, de o ed inc easing a en ion o he issue o SGI since he p o ision o
such se ices is conside ed a key elemen o he Eu opean model o socie y, being essen ial o he
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WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 9
ongoing compe i i eness o Eu ope’s global indus ies, o he Eu opean economy mo e gene ally,
and o he o e all goal o p omo ing social and e i o ial cohesion (CEC, 2003). The adop ion o he
“G een Pape on Se ices o Gene al In e es ” can be seen as ecognising he c ucial impo ance
o well- unc ioning, accessible, a o dable and high-quali y SGI o he quali y o li e o Eu opean
ci izens, he en i onmen and he compe i i eness o Eu opean en e p ises (CEC, 2004).
In his con ex , he p esen pape has been elabo a ed unde he ESPON p ojec Indica o s and
Pe spec i es o Se ices o Gene al In e es in Te i o ial Cohesion and De elopmen (SeGI). The
SeGI p ojec aims o p o ide e i o ial e idence o he p o ision o se ices o gene al in e es (SGI),
iden i ying he exis ing gaps in o de o suppo he implemen a ion, moni o ing and e alua ion o
e i o ial policy measu es o SGI.
The use o indica o s o e s se e al ad an ages in e ms o desc ibing and analysing he p o ision
o SGI ac oss Eu ope. A he same ime, howe e , i is impo an o use adequa e indica o s, based on
hei a ailabili y and he knowledge o hei meaning. The a ailable da abases a e commonly seen
as insu icien o no adequa e o suppo se e al s udies a Eu opean egional and local scale. This
equen lack o da a gi es e en mo e impo ance o his app oach.
In he con ex o SeGI p ojec , his pape is a e lexion on he ole, meaning and adequacy o
indica o s in analysing he p o ision o SGI e i o ially, and i aims o p o ide an indica o ame-
wo k ha allows o measu e SGI and o iden i y di e en e i o ial p o iles. The pape is s uc u ed
upon h ee main poin s.
The i s one ega ds he de ini ions and concep s linked wi h indica o s, including hei s eng hs
and weaknesses ha a e p esen ed and discussed. A key elemen in his poin is he discussion abou
he di e en oles and meanings ha indica o s can ha e.
The second main poin p esen s an indica o app aisal and, h ough a li e a u e e iew, di e en
pe spec i es o analyse SGI a e iden i ied. We e i y ha indica o s used and he s uc u e o he
analysis change acco ding o he scale, he da a a ailabili y, and he subjec o analysis, showing ha
indica o s can change hei meanings and ele ance in line wi h he di e en pe spec i es.
In he hi d poin , an example o SGI e i o ial analysis is p esen ed. Some o he p oblems
ha commonly a ise om he indica o s’ in e p e a ion a e iden i ied, and some solu ions based on
in eg a ing di e en ypes o indica o s a e ecommended.
INDICATORS DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS
Policy-making is a complex p ocess in eg a ing concep ual discussion and empi ical expe ience,
and is bes suppo ed by he iden i ica ion o conc e e and cohe en in o ma ion. Such in o ma ion is
commonly ep esen ed h ough he use o bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e indica o s.
Indica o s a e measu es o syn hesis o e ing he possibili y o desc ibe ac s and hen o simpli y
and measu e hem. Indica o s a e hus, pa excellence, he way o communica e in o ma ion o his
ype (Hoe ning and Seasons 2004, in Ma ques Da Cos a, 2011). Imp o ing he le el o communica ion
be ween he gene al public and decision-make s, and con ibu ing o gene al managemen unc ions
and policy de elopmen a e jus some o he impo an oles played by indica o s.
Indica o s p o ide much mo e han jus backg ound in o ma ion, hey a e “a piece o in o ma ion
which is pa o a speci ic managemen p ocess, and has been assigned signi icance beyond i s ace
alue” (Bakkes, J. e al, 1994). They ha e become indispensable ools, a e well-es ablished in a
me hodological sense and a e widely used in many ields - om economics o ecology o heal h - and
can be used a di e en le els, om he global scale o he neighbou hood one (Hammond e . al 1995).
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Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume ,
10 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía
While he limi a ions and condi ionings o hei use a e ecognised, hei u ili y is clea ly e iden in
a ious scien i ic ields, including spa ial planning and cohesion analysis.
Viewed as c i ical elemen s in he con ex o moni o ing and e alua ion, indica o s a e seen o be
o g owing impo ance o h ee main easons:
he need o unde s and and explain he main demog aphic, economic, en i onmen al and
socio-cul u al changes, in ol ing aspec s such as popula ion ageing, he es uc u ing
o p oduc i e sys ems, he de elopmen o social ne wo ks o he p ese a ion o na u al
esou ces;
he need o discuss mul i-sec ional and mul i-scale issues and concep s such as sus ainabili y,
compe i i eness, e i o ial cohesion and social equi y;
and he need o s eng hen he in o ma ion s uc u es in o de o suppo he a ious ac o s and
he go e nance sys em in he nego ia ion and decision p ocess (Ma ques da Cos a, 2011).
Ge ing indica o s o analyse he cause-e ec ela ions o e i o ial changes can be use ul o
unde s and how he in o ma ion should be o ganised. One o he main s eps owa ds he iden i ica-
ion o a sui able indica o is o dis inguish he di e en meanings and oles ha indica o s can
play acco ding o he di e en s eps o e i o ial changes and policy implemen a ion, iden i ied in
Figu e 1.
Exogenous
ac o s
Con ex /
S a ing eali y Policies
Ins i u ions
New con ex /
New Reali y
Endogenous
PERFORMANCE
PROBLEMS/
CAUSES
EFFECTS/
CONSEQUENCES
Figu e 1. Cause-e ec ela ions in he con ex ual changes o e i o ies
Conside ing all he cause-e ec ela ions we can de ine se e al ypes o indica o s in acco dance
wi h hei ole in he e i o ial ans o ma ions.
Linked wi h he i s s age, he “Con ex Indica o s” allow deeming a si ua ion in a s a ing
pe iod o analysis. They a e mos ly a iables o indices o cha ac e iza ion o he e i o y in di -
e en domains. This includes indica o s ela ed o SGI con ex bu also mo e gene al indica o s in
demog aphic, economic, social and ins i u ional opics.
The second g oup o indica o s is ela ed o policy implemen a ion and he policy’s pe o mance
in e i o ies. This second g oup o indica o s allows he measu emen o a deg ee o which a goal was
achie ed in he policy implemen a ion p ocess, wi h ela ion o policy objec i es. We a e alking abou
indica o s ha ep esen in es men e o s (like he sha e o GDP in heal h sys em) o pe o mance
in SGI domains (as numbe o beds/1,000 inhabi an s).
•
•
•
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WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 11
The hi d g oup co esponds o “e ec o esul ” indica o s. They should ep esen he “e ec ”
o a policy implemen a ion. Fo example he inc easing sha e o s uden s a a gi en educa ion le el
could ep esen he esul o a policy e o .
These a e he na u ally used indica o s when analysing he SGI bu a e hese enough o p esen a
cohe en and solid e i o ial analysis o SGI? Wha could be he ele ance o conside ing he o he
wo ypes o indica o s?
THE ROLE AND RELEVANCE OF “CONTEXT INDICATORS” AND THEIR CONNECTION TO
“SGI INDICATORS”
Iden i ying he e i o ial gaps and dispa i ies in he p o ision o SGI in he EU con ex ep esen s a
signi ican challenge. Many ac o s need o be aken in o accoun in his discussion and he con ex
indica o s can play an impo an ole in i .
As an example o con ex ual condi ions we highligh he di e en poli ical-adminis a i e o gani-
sa ion models ha exis ac oss he Membe S a es. These di e ences a e e lec ed in he p opensi y
owa ds a mo e cen alised o decen alised sys em o go e nance. Mo eo e , di e ences in he
o ganisa ion o sys ems be ween cen al- egional and cen al- egional-local powe s, e iden ly ha e
a signi ican e ec on he p ocess o se ice p o ision. This is pa icula ly e iden as shown by
social SGI in he educa ion and heal h sec o s, which display as ly di e ing le els o pe o mance
in coun ies like Po ugal, F ance and Ge many. This means ha con ex ual analysis should include
sys ems o go e nance in pa allel wi h SGI indica o s p o ision.
The ela ionship be ween he pa e n o SGI p o ision and e i o ial demog aphic and economic
dynamics is ano he ac o ha mus always be conside ed. The e i o ial dynamics and cha ac e -
is ics such as he le el o u banisa ion, he demog aphic s uc u e linked o he ageing p ocess, he
in as uc u e de elopmen and o he egional de elopmen signs can in oduce impo an shi s in
he p o ision o SGI.
The demog aphic and u ban s uc u es de e mine he way in which SGI a e de eloped (a ec ing
le els o demand and e iciency) and, in addi ion, a e a i al ac o in adjus ing he SGI p o ision o
egional se ings. Ageing a eas end o ha e poo e le els o se ice p o ision. Mo eo e , i is clea
ha ha ing a poo pa e n o se ice p o ision does no help o a ac addi ional popula ion elemen s
in o a egion. Densely u banised a eas end, on he o he hand, o ha e a wide se o accessible
se ices, bu hey o en su e om a lack o e ec i eness o simply om a lack o quali y. This is
pa icula ly due o he ac ha hese egions a ac a g owing numbe o use s.
This analysis highligh s he impo ance o in eg a ing con ex ual indica o s in o he b oade
analysis o indica o s in he con ex o SGI. In wha ollows some con ex ual indica o s a e men ioned
(Table 1).
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Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume ,
12 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía
Table 1. In eg a ing con ex indica o s in o he SGI egional di e en ia ion analysis
GDP/capi a Na u al popula ion change 2000 - 2007
Employmen a e Popula ion aged 65+ in 2005
Unemploymen Popula ion aged 14- in 2005
Depopula ion ends You h dependency a io in 2005
Popula ion densi y Old age dependency a io in 2005
Typology o ageing and depopula ion U ban- u al ypology, based on popula ion densi y,
FUA anking and land co e
Di ec indica o o depopula ion Typology o Func ional U ban A eas (FUAs)
Ageing end Regional des ina ion a ac i eness o 2005-2010
Popula ion Change 2000-2007 A eas assigned o po en ial u ban s a egic ho izon
Change in Popula ion 2005-2050 - Scena ios U ban popula ion
Sou ce: Ma ques da Cos a, E., Palma, P., Rauhu , D., Hume , A., Cons an in, D., Velasco, X., 2012, pp. 13.
In bo h examples he con ex indica o s a e use ul since hey allow o dis inguish he di e en
eali ies ha can ep esen di e en condi ions o p o ide SGI.
THE ROLE AND RELEVANCE OF “EFFECT OR RESULT INDICATORS”
Besides he p e ious ones, he e is a hi d g oup: he “e ec o esul indica o s”. As s a ed be o e,
hese a e mainly ela ed o measu ing he SGI e ec s. In o de o co ec ly cha ac e ise he se ices,
as well as p oduce a good analysis and e alua ion o hei e ec s, i is essen ial o unde s and he ole
and he meaning o he indica o s used. Be o e discussing he analysis p ocess mo e ully, howe e ,
we seek o highligh he cause-e ec ela ionship ha mus i s be aken in o accoun .
In he G een Pape on Se ices o Gene al In e es (CEC, 2003), as well in he ollowing docu-
men s (e.g. CEC, 2004), he e alua ion o se ices is one o he key elemen s unde conside a ion.
As no ed in CEC (2003), “ he e alua ion o se ices o gene al in e es is impo an because o he
signi icance o hese se ices o he economy as a whole and o e e yone’s quali y li e” (pp. 28).
This e alua ion has h ee on s:
“The egula e alua ions o ne wo k indus ies ha ha e been libe alised” (sec ional
e alua ion);
C oss-sec ional (ho izon al e alua ion);
Consume sa is ac ion su eys.
Wi h ega ds o sec o s and ho izon al e alua ions, he p ocesses o analysis and he a ailabili y
o da a a e no sys ema ic, making i impossible o in eg a e his kind o indica o s in o he e alua ion
sys em. The e is no da a a ailable on sec ional and ho izon al indica o s by egion o o a homogene-
ous pe iod, hus in alida ing hei inclusion in he indica o analysis.
The las on , as sugges ed in a CEC documen (2003), is associa ed wi h Eu oba ome e opinion
and quali a i e su eys, om which some da a and indica o s could be used. In o de o show
he ele ance and he ole o hese ypes o indica o s an example is p esen ed (Figu e 2). The
example p esen ed he e is ela ed wi h a speci ic domain o SGI, mo e associa ed wi h he heal h
ca e se ices.
–
–
–
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WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 13
Demoga phic
s uc u e
Income o amilies
Educa ion le el
o popula ion



Heal h Ca e
Expendi u es
(as % o GDP)
Sha e o P i a e
and Public
in Heal h expenses


The e alua ion
o he quali y
o he se ices

Con ex Indica o s SEGI Indica o s E ec s o Resul
Indica o s
Figu e 2. Cause-e ec ela ions in ela ion o SGI - example
Sou ce: RAUHUT, D., BORGES, L. e al (2011), pp 22.
The indica o “Heal h Ca e Expendi u es as a % o GDP” co esponds o an SGI indica o ,
while he e ec can be app aised by an indica o e alua ing he quali y o he heal h se ice. O he
common indica o s used o e alua e he e ec s a e hose ha allow us o e alua e he accessibili y and
a ailabili y o he se ices, o example he le el o use sa is ac ion, as such indica o s co espond
o he esul s o he in es men , ep esen ed by he a ailable in as uc u es and pe sonnel ela ed
o he sec o .
In some cases, howe e , i is no so easy o es ablish his indica o sequence (Con ex , SGI and
E ec s/Resul s). They can o en be much mo e complex han he example p esen ed he e, being a
he same ime SGI indica o s and e ec s indica o s, depending on he poin o iew o he con ex .
The “% o Households wi h b oadband access” is an SGI indica o bu a he same ime i is also an
e ec / esul indica o when seen as a esul o he cos o he se ice o , mo e gene ally, he shape o
na ional policies o p o ide he in as uc u e.
In gene al e ms, and conside ing all he ypes o indica o s p esen ed he e, he ela i i y o scale
should also be aken in o accoun in he compa a i e analyses since i a ec s he ele ance o indica-
o s. Indi idual SGI a e qui e di e en in na u e, depending on whe he hey a e adminis e ed om
he pa ish, municipal, egional o na ional le el, depending on ha ing ele an indica o s. Fo example
in pa ish le el, p e-school o elde ly ca e issues a e signi ican ly impo an and he a ailabili y o
se ices gene ally depends on he le el o popula ion need.
The e o e, besides he dis inc ion o indica o s based on he ole hey play, hey mus be dis in-
guished by le els and in acco dance wi h he ype o issue and i s scale. I some indica o s a e mo e
app op ia e o global o na ional issues, o he s a e mo e ele an o he local le el. Indica o s mus be
analysed a di e en le els, depending on he oles and esponsibili ies o go e nmen in managing
hese issues as well as he p e ailing deg ee o he decen alisa ion o powe s and unc ions in any
gi en si ua ion.
In he nex poin , an indica o e iew based on wo me hodological elemen s will be p esen ed,
and some o he issues p e iously co e ed will unde pin his analysis, mainly he ela i i y o scale
and he a ailabili y o da a. Besides p esen ing a e iew o indica o ’s ele ance and adequacy o
analyse he SGI e i o ial dispa i ies, a li e a u e e iew allows o iden i y di e en pe spec i es o
analysis.
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Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume ,
14 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía
INDICATORS APPRAISAL AND PERSPECTIVES OF ANALYSIS
In o de o comp ehend he egional di e en ia ion in he p o ision o SGI and o e alua e i s e ec ,
a di e en scales and in he social cohesion p ocess, a discussion and a e iew o he mos equen ly
used indica o s is made in he ollowing analysis. In addi ion o he indica o s, he app oach, o he
s uc u e o analysis, also plays an impo an ole.
To deal wi h hese wo issues, wo me hodological s eps a e made. The i s one consis s in an
in en o y o a ailable indica o s which a e hen classi ied acco ding o hei ele ance and adequacy
o analyse he egional dispa i ies in he SGI p o ision ac oss Eu opean egions. The second s ep is
suppo ed in a li e a u e e iew ha gi es an impo an con ibu ion o he iden i ica ion o he mos
commonly used indica o s bu , mo e han ha , allows o ecognize and o unde s and he di e si y
o pe spec i es in analysing SGI.
Fi s o all, i is impo an o es ablish a amewo k o all he a angemen s, schemes and
unc ions, o en co e ing a a he b oad and o en he e ogeneous ield ha can be conside ed unde
he ub ic o SGI. In acco dance wi h he poli ical-no ma i e de ini ion in EU ea ies and com-
munica ions, wo main domains a e dis inguished: social se ices o gene al in e es (SSGI) and
se ices o gene al economic in e es (SGEI). The SSGI domain con ains ou sub-domains, namely:
labou ma ke , educa ion, ca e se ices and social housing. SGEI in u n co e s wo sub-domains,
he in as uc u e (e.g. ene gy, anspo a ion) and ICT Telecommunica ion (eg. communica ion
in as uc u e).The ollowing analyses a e hus pe o med acco ding o he sub-domains se .
THE NEED TO DISCUSS AND REVIEW THE RELEVANCE AND ADEQUACY OF SGI
INDICATORS
The in en o y o indica o s a ailable in Eu os a has gi en us access o a la ge, bu a he dispe se, se
o in o ma ion. I has been possible o ind indica o s linked o he p e iously poin ed six sub-domains
o SGI: some indica o s a e associa ed wi h employmen in SGI se ices, o he s a e ela ed o he
a ailabili y (exp essed in numbe s) o in as uc u e and equipmen , and s ill o he s a e linked o he
quali y o se ices. Ne e heless, he la ge numbe o indica o s is signi ican ly sho ened a e he
analysis o in o ma ion a ailabili y and scale o analysis.
Ano he aspec ha we mus ake in o accoun is he dispa i y be ween domains: he lack o indi-
ca o s in espec o social housing o he ICT domain con as s wi h he a ailabili y in he domains o
heal h o in as uc u e and equipmen , namely in as uc u e o accessibili y by oad, mo o way and
ain, as well as in he en i onmen domain, o example wa e and was e managemen . In addi ion,
he a ailable in o ma ion on SGI in ela ion o he labou ma ke domain is also qui e limi ed.
The abili y o each indica o o e ec i ely measu e SGI se ice p o ision o i s e ec on he
cohesion p ocess should also be kep in mind when indica o lis s a e p esen ed.
A classi ica ion o indica o s was made, in o de o u he con ibu e o his discussion, based
on hei ele ance, o analyse he p o ision o SGI. The indica o s we e sco ed in acco dance wi h
3 c i e ia: e y ele an – posi ion 1; medium ele ance – posi ion 2; lowes ele ance – posi ion 3.
This ask was unde aken by six eam membe s wi h he inal allo ed alue being he a e age alue
o all assessmen s, hus educing he in luence o indi idual subjec i i y. Realizing i indica o s
a e ele an o measu e SGI o unde s anding he e ec o he SGI in ma e o social and e i o ial
cohesion, is no so ob ious, especially because we a e wo king wi h he e ogeneous ypes o se ices,
some speci ically linked o he economy, while o he s p ima ily ela ed o social and popula ion
se ices. Besides hei classi ica ion in o economic o social domain, he ques ion o how o measu e
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WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 15
and analyse e i o ial e ec s and e i o ial cohesion, is also impo an he e. This is ano he a ea
whe e he discussion on he use o indica o s could and should be imp o ed.
In his con ex , in pa allel wi h he o e iew/classi ica ion o s a is ical indica o s, an empi ical
s udy (li e a u e e iew and poli ical documen s) e iew was unde aken. This helped o de elop
a ange o a he mo e quali a i e ways in which o discuss he ele ance and u ili y o indica o s.
In o de o ca y ou he li e a u e e iew a da abase o scien i ic pape s whe e a ious SGI we e
analysed was c ea ed. The main objec i e has been o unde s and which indica o s a e commonly
used by he scien i ic communi y, bu also o collec o he in o ma ion ha may p o e use ul in
ela ion o he SGI analysis.
38 documen s we e analysed in o al. They we e sp ead ac oss he six SGI sub-domains and
we e aken om a ious Eu opean con ex s. In Table 2, we can see he numbe o a icles by heme
and we can no e he e ha se e al hemes we e co e ed. The numbe s p esen ed clea ly illus a e he
impo ance o sub-domains like in as uc u e o se ices wi h an economic basis, like elecom-
munica ions, labou ma ke assis ance sys ems, ene gy, pos al se ices, and anspo .
Table 2. Main hemes analysed in he eadings
Theme
Numbe
o
a icles
Theme
Numbe
o
a icles
Telecommunica ions (in as uc u es,
accessibili y and/o se ices p o ided) 15 Pos al Se ices 2
Labou Ma ke social cos s and assis ance) 9 Social equi y 2
Ene gy 8 Demog aphic ends and elde ly se ices 2
T anspo in as uc u es and se ices
( oad, ail) 8 Mone a y and iscal policies/Expo s 2
Child ca e 4 Public adminis a ion and Public/social
spending 2
Se ices in gene al 4 Wa e /Was e 2
Social housing 4 Mone a y and iscal policies/Expo s 2
Educa ion le el 3 Public adminis a ion and social spending 2
Financial se ices 2
En i onmen al p o ec ion and g ow h
(unde s ood as wa e supply/collec ion o
was e and ai pollu ion)
1
Heal h Ca e Se ices 2 Long- e m ca e 1
Housing 2
Sou ce: Ma ques Cos a, E., Ma ques Cos a, N., Palma, P. e al. (2011), pp. 13.
F om his p ocess he e eme ges a lis o indica o s commonly used o s udy each sub-domain
o SGI. By compa ing he wo lis s ( he s a is ical one om Eu os a sys ems and he li e a u e
e iew one) we a e able o gene a e a mo e accu a e pic u e o which indica o s could be use ul in
unde s anding and measu ing he po en ial egional di e en ia ion and in luence, in e ms o SGI,
in espec o e i o ial and social cohesion. Besides hese indica ions, we can also gene a e some
impo an in o ma ion abou da a a ailabili y and sou ces.
An example o he ou pu gene a ed based on hese wo lis s is p o ided in Table 3. As a esul
o he sco e ele ance exe cise, some indica o s s and ou as displaying high le els o ele ance.
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Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume ,
22 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía
TERRITORIAL ANALYSIS OF SGI – INTEGRATING ICT INDICATORS ANALYSIS
When using indica o s in a e i o ial analysis o SGI i is impo an o be awa e o hei limi a ions.
Se e al ac o s ha ha e al eady been men ioned can ans o m he indica o s in o useless ins u-
men s and be ha m ul o he policy making p ocess. The da a a ailabili y gaps, he ela i i y o scale
issues, he lack o meaning, ele ance and adequacy o indica o s, he na u e o indica o s, and he
pe spec i es o analysis a e ac o s o huge ele ance o a eliable analysis o SGI. The challenge is
o conside all hese ac o s h oughou he p ocess o e i o ial analysis, and e en knowing ha i is
impossible o achie e a pe ec si ua ion, i is essen ial o minimize he mis akes and he unce ain ies
ha a ise du ing he p ocess.
The example shown below in ends o iden i y p oblems ha commonly a ise in his kind o
analysis and o p esen ce ain good p ac ices ha can be ollowed o p o ide be e and mo e eliable
in o ma ion o he decision make s. Fo his pu pose, he SGI sub-domain o ICT Telecommunica ion
is he esea ch subjec .
The s a is ical da a ega ding his sub-domain p esen signi ican gaps. The ICT and ela ed
echnologies a e no uni o mly sp ead a ound he wo ld, and in some egions his ecen end can
con ibu e o a ce ain sho age o da a. The e a e a ew indica o s a ailable, and some o hem ha e
se e al gaps, bo h in e i o ial and ime pe spec i e. F om he p e ious exe cises o li e a u e e iew
and indica o s app aisal i is possible o iden i y ha one o he mos widely used indica o s o analyse
he ICT sub-domain is Households wi h b oadband access (Figu e 3). As we will see, he meaning
and u ili y o his indica o is e y doub ul and ulne able o some ac o s.
One o he aspec s ha con ibu e o he weakness o i s meaning is he echnological p og ess
inhe en o ICT sub-domain. The cons an inno a ion and p og ess can change he meaning o indica-
o s ha we e once conside ed use ul and app op ia e. The inc ease o ee and uni e sal access o
he In e ne , h ough wi eless connec ions o ho spo s, allows he access o in e ne in a ious places
and by a ious means. I in he wo kplaces and homes o en he e is he possibili y o access in e ne ,
he ac ual end is he sp awling o in e ne access poin s in di e en places like ca es o ba s, public
spaces such as g een a eas, malls o e en on public anspo .
In his con ex , does he indica o Households wi h b oadband access aduce now he eali y o
10 yea s ago? Nowadays, he compu e is also no longe he only means h ough which one can access
he in e ne . I is inc easingly common o use o he means o access he in e ne , as in he case o
Table o Sma phone. All hese inno a ions ha e con ibu ed o a si ua ion in which in e ne access
is no con ined o a ixed connec ion a home, making i di icul o ende he eal dimension o he
p o ision and consump ion o his se ice h ough he p esen ed indica o .
Howe e , a leas in he p esen con ex , we expec a s ong co ela ion be ween he in e ne access
and he pe cen age o households wi h b oadband access. In he case o coun ies wi h less de eloped
ICT sec o , he indica o may also desc ibe a si ua ion close o eali y, since he ways o access in e ne
s ill he adi ional ones, ela ed wi h ixed connec ions. On he o he hand, he indica o may e eal
a si ua ion unde sized in he mos ICT de eloped coun ies, like he No dic coun ies.
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WHA
TIND1CA TORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 23
This is a e y common si ua ion ha can signi ican ly bias he cons uc ion o policies and
hus, hese policies will ha e undesi ed p ac ical e ec s. Following he p e ious discussion on he
ele ance o o he ypes o indica o s, we conside i ex emely impo an o combine he p e ious
indica o , an SGI indica o , wi h some con ex indica o s and, i possible, also wi h e ec indica o s.
One con ex indica o ha can help us o unde s and he pa e ns iden i ied ough he Households
wi h b oadband access indica o , could be he indica o o Indi iduals ha ne e used a compu e
(Figu e 4).
zlecenie 002 .indb 23 28-01-2014 09:21:55
Da a a ailabili y:
Pe cen age o households (%) In o ma ion a NUTS 1
:
DE, GR, FR, PL
Figu e 3. Households wi h b oadband access, 2009.
Sou ce: Ma ques da Cos a, E., Palma, P., Rauhu , D., Hume , A., Cons an in, D., Velasco, X., 2012, pp. 18.
24
Edua do Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume ,
Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía
Pe cen age o indi iduals* (%)
Regional le el: NUTS 2
Sou ce: EUROSTAT, 2011
O igin o da a: EUROSTAT, 2010
© Eu oGeog aphics Associa ion o adminis a i e bounda ies
Da a a ailabili y:
NUTS 1: DE(2011), GR, FR, PL
'All Indi iduals aged 16 o 74
Figu e 4. Indi iduals (16-74 yea s old) who ha e ne e used a compu e , 2009.
Sou ce: Ma ques da Cos a, E., Palma, P., Rauhu , D., Hume , A., Cons an in, D., Velasco, X., 2012, pp. 18.
Compa ing he wo indica o s and espec i e maps shows ha he egions wi h smalle pe cen age
o households wi h access o b oadband a e he egions wi h he highes pe cen ages o people who
ha e ne e used a compu e . Examples o his si ua ion a e he coun ies o Eas e n Eu ope and in
gene al e ms, he Medi e anean coun ies. On he con a y s and ou he No dic coun ies wi h
highe a es o compu e use and highe a es o b oadband co e age.
zlecenie 002 .indb 24 28-01-2014 09:21:56
WHA
TIND1CA TORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 25
Pa - inanced by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund
INVESTING IN YOUR FUTURE
Pe cen age o indi iduals* (%)
Sou ce: EUROSTAT, 2011
O igin o da a: EUROSTAT, 2010
) Eu oGeoo aohics Associa ion o adminis a i e bounda ies
All indi iduals aged 25 o 64
3,3-14
14,1 -23
23,1 -39
39,1 -65
65,1 -81,9
Figu e 5. Indi iduals aged 25-64 wi h lowe seconda y educa ion a ainmen , 2010.
Sou ce: Ma ques da Cos a, E., Palma, P., Rauhu , D., Hume , A., Cons an in, D., Velasco, X., 2012.
In a simila app oach, and conside ing a con ex indica o ela ed o educa ion - People aged25-64
wi h lowe seconda y a ainmen (Figu e 5), i is also possible o iden i y an e iden pa e n. The
coun ies o Sou he n Eu ope a e hose wi h he highes a es o people who comple ed compulso y
educa ion bu no con inued hei educa ion in highe le els o educa ion. These a e also he coun ies/
egions ha we e al eady iden i ied as ha ing he lowes co e age in b oadband access.
zlecenie 002 .indb 25 28-01-2014 09:21:58
Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume ,
26 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía
Wi h he isola ed analysis o he Households wi h b oadband access indica o i was possible
o iden i y in a clea way he egions and coun ies wi h he mos signi ican gaps conce ning he
p o ision o his speci ic se ice. Looking exclusi ely o his indica o he decision make s would
c ea e a g oup o incen i es o educe hese pe cei ed gaps, o example, by in es ing mo e in he
cons uc ion o ICT in as uc u es. Howe e , he indica o has, by i sel , se e al weaknesses ha
can a ec he success o he esul ing policies. Conside ing he o he wo indica o s, i is possible o
be e unde s and he pa e ns iden i ied and e i y ha some o he low alues a e closely ela ed o
egions whe e he popula ion le el o educa ion, in e es s and habi s a e no op imal o do no p esen
he adi ional cha ac e is ics o a highly de eloped ICT socie y.
Mo e han a ma e o exis ing gaps in he p o ision o se ice, i is a ma e ela ed o he demand.
The lack o abili y/need/in e es o he popula ion o access he in e ne can nega i ely a ec he le els
o se ice p o ision and hus, he aims o he policies mus be dis inc , and lead wi h he demand
ins ead o ocus on he o e .
Following he in eg a i e app oach shown be o e i is also impo an o combine some e ec
indica o s, such as consume opinions ega ding he e ec i eness and quali y o he p o ision o
se ice, bu in his speci ic case he a ailable da a does no allow o do i .
I is ob ious ha his analysis could be much mo e complex, and mo e indica o s conside ed,
bu we conside ha his example al eady highligh s some impo an aspec s ha mus be aken
in o accoun when he objec i e is o iden i y exis ing SGI p o ision gaps in o de o suppo he
implemen a ion, as well as moni o and e alua e he e i o ial policy measu es o SGI.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The policy making p ocess and he ela ed moni o ing and e alua ion p ocesses equi e in o ma ion,
which is ep esen ed by indica o s. This in o ma ion mus be o ganised in an up- o-da e sys em,
and i mus be ha monised o each sec o and acco ding di e en e i o ies o analysis. In his
pa icula case, he sea ch o e i o ial e idence o he p o ision o se ices o gene al in e es is
highly dependen on he indica o s ha a e used. Indica o s a e measu es ha enable a simpli ica ion
o eali y and en ail a numbe o ad an ages, which makes hem a undamen al ool o a wide ange
o opics. This abili y o simpli y eali y p omo es a se o issues ha dese e special a en ion as hey
could pu in o ques ion he use ulness and he eal ele ance o he indica o s. I is undeniable ha he
use ulness and alue o indica o s a e essen ial o suppo a ious p ocesses; howe e , i is necessa y
o ensu e a c i ical iew on hei meaning and be awa e o hei limi a ions.
The da a a ailabili y gaps, he ela i i y o scale issues, he lack o meaning, and he pe spec i es
o analysis a e jus some o he ac o s ha can change he ele ance and meaning o he indica o s,
and hus make he di e ence be ween a eliable o un eliable analysis o SGI. The challenge is
o conside all hese ac o s along he p ocess o e i o ial analysis. Mo eo e , knowing ha i is
impossible o achie e a pe ec si ua ion, i is essen ial o minimize unce ain ies ha a ise om
da a analysis.
The indings o his pape sugges ha he e is a need o in eg a e he SGI indica o s wi h con ex
indica o s as he a ea o SGI is mul i ace ed and he e ogeneous. Te i o ial e idence iden i ied a he
ou se , wi h he analysis o a single indica o , is o en illuso y, which becomes no iceable only a e
o he indica o s o di e en na u e ha e been examined.
Ano he conclusion is ela ed o he need o measu e SGI e ec s. In ac , his p ocess is di icul
no only due o he sca ci y o ele an da a, bu also because e ec s should be e alua ed in di e en
__zlecenie_002__.indb 26__zlecenie_002__.indb 26 28-01-2014 09:21:5928-01-2014 09:21:59
WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 27
dimensions (in di ec way - ela ed o equency, accessibili y and quali y o se ices, in indi ec way
- he con ibu ion o social and e i o ial cohesion). The SGI e ec s analysis obliges o unde ake
an in e -sec o ial analysis.
A hi d big conclusion is ela ed o he need o imp o e e lexion abou he concep s and indica-
o s o measu e SGI p o ision: a ailabili y, accessibili y, quali y, equi y, e iciency. The indings o
li e a u e e iew highligh he gaps in some se ices (aspec s ela ed o a ailabili y o quali y) and
he need o adjus i o an ongoing ageing popula ion p ocess and o u al and depopula ed a eas
(namely hinking on accessibili y, equi y and e iciency). Con ex indica o s as complemen a y o
SGI indica o s ha e become ele an o be e unde s anding o eali y.
Beyond all he limi a ions iden i ied in his pape , indica o s a e needed o p o ide be e
knowledge.
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