What indicators to use when measuring Services of General Interest?

EUROPA XXI 2013, 23: 7-28 WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST?1 EDUARDA MARQUES DA COSTA Cen e o Geog aphical S udies Uni e si y o Lisbon Alameda da Uni e sidade, 1600-214, Lisbon, Po ugal edua da.cos [email protected] PEDRO PALMA Cen e o Geog aphical S udies Uni e si y o Lisbon Alameda da Uni e sidade, 1600-214, Lisbon, Po ugal [email protected] DANIEL RAUHUT Depa men o Social and Beha iou al S udies Uni e si y Wes Gus a a Melins ga a 2, 461 86 T ollhä an, Sweden daniel. auhu @h .se ALOIS HUMER Depa men o Geog aphy and Regional Resea ch Uni e si y o Vienna Uni e si ae ss asse 7/5, 1200 Vienna, Aus ia alois.hume @uni ie.ac.a DANIELA CONSTANTIN Academy o Economic S udies o Bucha es Bd. Lasca Ca a giu 16 A, RO-010761 Bucha es , Romania danielacons an [email protected] 1 This pape is pa o he applied esea ch p ojec Indica o s and Pe spec i es o Se ices o Gene al In e es in Te i o ial Cohesion and De elopmen (SeGI), led by he Royal Ins i u e o Technology (KTH), Sweden. I has been inanced by he ESPON 2013 P og amme and his inancial suppo is g a e ully acknowledged. Tex s, maps and conclusions s emming om esea ch p ojec s unde he ESPON p og amme p esen ed in his epo do no necessa ily e lec he opinion o he ESPON Moni o ing Commi ee. © ESPON, 2013. EUROPEAN UNION Pa - inanced by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund INVESTING IN YOUR FUTURE ESP N __zlecenie_002__.indb 7__zlecenie_002__.indb 7 28-01-2014 09:21:5328-01-2014 09:21:53 Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume , 8 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía XABIER VELASCO ECHEVERRÍA Te i o ial Obse a o y o Na a e NASUVINSA A da. San Jo ge, 8 bajo, Pamplona, Spain x elasce@nasu insa.es Abs ac : The se ices o gene al in e es (SGI) ha e ecei ed inc easing a en ion o he Eu opean Union, which conside s hem a key elemen o he Eu opean model o socie y. They no only play an impo an ole in he ongoing compe i i eness o he Eu opean economy, bu a e also essen ial o achie ing he goal o p omo ing social and e i o ial cohesion. Thei po en ial ole in he pu sui o he objec i es o Eu opean cohesion and con e gence policies may be signi ican which calls o an app op ia e measu emen and analysis o e i o ial dis ibu ion. The indica o s a e assumed o be a key elemen in measu ing and desc ibing he SGI, howe e , i is necessa y o make a se ious e lec ion how such indica o s should be selec ed. The selec ion o indica o s can be condi ioned by se e al ac o s, howe e , i is impe a i e o make a quali a i e e lec ion on he adequacy and ele ance o indica o s o analyse he SGI. This e lec ion uns h ough he pape . The concep o indica o s is add essed, and hei s eng hs and weaknesses a e discussed. The indica o s a e classi ied acco ding o he ole hey play in he cause-e ec ela ions in dis inc e i o ies. Th ee ypes o indica o s a e iden i ied. App aisal o indica o s and e iew o li e a u e ende i possible o iden i y he mos equen ly used indica o s and o see SGI analysis om se e al pe spec i es, hus e i ying ha indica o s can p esen di e en meanings and ele ance, based on a ange o ac o s and he scale o analysis. Some o he unce ain ies a ising in he SGI e i o ial analysis, which can con ibu e o he success o he policy making p ocess, a e ecognized h ough an example based on he ICT Telecommunica ion SGI sub-domain. Some p ocedu es connec ed wi h he in eg a ion o di e en ypes o indica o s a e p oposed in o de o limi he eme gen unce ain ies esul ing om hei in e p e a ion. Keywo ds: Se ices o gene al in e es , indica o s, spa ial cohesion, Eu opean Union. INTRODUCTION The cu en deba e on SGI is cha ac e ised by he “lack o cla i y on e minology” and by he ac ha “concep s a e used in e changeably and inaccu a ely” (CEC, 2011). In he G een Pape on Se ices o Gene al In e es , he Eu opean Commission poin s ou ha di e en his o ical, economic, cul u al and poli ical de elopmen can lead o di e en e ms and de ini ions ac oss he Membe S a es (CEC, 2003). Thus, he de ini ion o SGI can a y om coun y o coun y and om egion o egion. The EC has made an a emp o s anda dise he concep o SGI ac oss he Membe S a es, and in he G een Pape has de ined SGI as „ma ke and non-ma ke se ices which he public au ho i ies class as being o gene al in e es and subjec o speci ic public se ice obliga ions” (CEC, 2003). The de ini ion o he EC unde lines a dis inc i e cha ac e is ic o SGI, namely he obliga ion o p o ide such se ices e en in places whe e he le el o demand is no su icien o ensu e ha such se ices a e e icien and cos -e ec i e. Thus public au ho i ies a e obliged o p o ide SGI wi hin ce ain pa ame e s o quali y, a ailabili y, accessibili y and a o dabili y, in o de o ensu e ha such se ices a e ully accessible o e e yone. The EU has, o e ime, de o ed inc easing a en ion o he issue o SGI since he p o ision o such se ices is conside ed a key elemen o he Eu opean model o socie y, being essen ial o he __zlecenie_002__.indb 8__zlecenie_002__.indb 8 28-01-2014 09:21:5328-01-2014 09:21:53 WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 9 ongoing compe i i eness o Eu ope’s global indus ies, o he Eu opean economy mo e gene ally, and o he o e all goal o p omo ing social and e i o ial cohesion (CEC, 2003). The adop ion o he “G een Pape on Se ices o Gene al In e es ” can be seen as ecognising he c ucial impo ance o well- unc ioning, accessible, a o dable and high-quali y SGI o he quali y o li e o Eu opean ci izens, he en i onmen and he compe i i eness o Eu opean en e p ises (CEC, 2004). In his con ex , he p esen pape has been elabo a ed unde he ESPON p ojec Indica o s and Pe spec i es o Se ices o Gene al In e es in Te i o ial Cohesion and De elopmen (SeGI). The SeGI p ojec aims o p o ide e i o ial e idence o he p o ision o se ices o gene al in e es (SGI), iden i ying he exis ing gaps in o de o suppo he implemen a ion, moni o ing and e alua ion o e i o ial policy measu es o SGI. The use o indica o s o e s se e al ad an ages in e ms o desc ibing and analysing he p o ision o SGI ac oss Eu ope. A he same ime, howe e , i is impo an o use adequa e indica o s, based on hei a ailabili y and he knowledge o hei meaning. The a ailable da abases a e commonly seen as insu icien o no adequa e o suppo se e al s udies a Eu opean egional and local scale. This equen lack o da a gi es e en mo e impo ance o his app oach. In he con ex o SeGI p ojec , his pape is a e lexion on he ole, meaning and adequacy o indica o s in analysing he p o ision o SGI e i o ially, and i aims o p o ide an indica o ame- wo k ha allows o measu e SGI and o iden i y di e en e i o ial p o iles. The pape is s uc u ed upon h ee main poin s. The i s one ega ds he de ini ions and concep s linked wi h indica o s, including hei s eng hs and weaknesses ha a e p esen ed and discussed. A key elemen in his poin is he discussion abou he di e en oles and meanings ha indica o s can ha e. The second main poin p esen s an indica o app aisal and, h ough a li e a u e e iew, di e en pe spec i es o analyse SGI a e iden i ied. We e i y ha indica o s used and he s uc u e o he analysis change acco ding o he scale, he da a a ailabili y, and he subjec o analysis, showing ha indica o s can change hei meanings and ele ance in line wi h he di e en pe spec i es. In he hi d poin , an example o SGI e i o ial analysis is p esen ed. Some o he p oblems ha commonly a ise om he indica o s’ in e p e a ion a e iden i ied, and some solu ions based on in eg a ing di e en ypes o indica o s a e ecommended. INDICATORS DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS Policy-making is a complex p ocess in eg a ing concep ual discussion and empi ical expe ience, and is bes suppo ed by he iden i ica ion o conc e e and cohe en in o ma ion. Such in o ma ion is commonly ep esen ed h ough he use o bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e indica o s. Indica o s a e measu es o syn hesis o e ing he possibili y o desc ibe ac s and hen o simpli y and measu e hem. Indica o s a e hus, pa excellence, he way o communica e in o ma ion o his ype (Hoe ning and Seasons 2004, in Ma ques Da Cos a, 2011). Imp o ing he le el o communica ion be ween he gene al public and decision-make s, and con ibu ing o gene al managemen unc ions and policy de elopmen a e jus some o he impo an oles played by indica o s. Indica o s p o ide much mo e han jus backg ound in o ma ion, hey a e “a piece o in o ma ion which is pa o a speci ic managemen p ocess, and has been assigned signi icance beyond i s ace alue” (Bakkes, J. e al, 1994). They ha e become indispensable ools, a e well-es ablished in a me hodological sense and a e widely used in many ields - om economics o ecology o heal h - and can be used a di e en le els, om he global scale o he neighbou hood one (Hammond e . al 1995). __zlecenie_002__.indb 9__zlecenie_002__.indb 9 28-01-2014 09:21:5328-01-2014 09:21:53 Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume , 10 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía While he limi a ions and condi ionings o hei use a e ecognised, hei u ili y is clea ly e iden in a ious scien i ic ields, including spa ial planning and cohesion analysis. Viewed as c i ical elemen s in he con ex o moni o ing and e alua ion, indica o s a e seen o be o g owing impo ance o h ee main easons: he need o unde s and and explain he main demog aphic, economic, en i onmen al and socio-cul u al changes, in ol ing aspec s such as popula ion ageing, he es uc u ing o p oduc i e sys ems, he de elopmen o social ne wo ks o he p ese a ion o na u al esou ces; he need o discuss mul i-sec ional and mul i-scale issues and concep s such as sus ainabili y, compe i i eness, e i o ial cohesion and social equi y; and he need o s eng hen he in o ma ion s uc u es in o de o suppo he a ious ac o s and he go e nance sys em in he nego ia ion and decision p ocess (Ma ques da Cos a, 2011). Ge ing indica o s o analyse he cause-e ec ela ions o e i o ial changes can be use ul o unde s and how he in o ma ion should be o ganised. One o he main s eps owa ds he iden i ica- ion o a sui able indica o is o dis inguish he di e en meanings and oles ha indica o s can play acco ding o he di e en s eps o e i o ial changes and policy implemen a ion, iden i ied in Figu e 1. Exogenous ac o s Con ex / S a ing eali y Policies Ins i u ions New con ex / New Reali y Endogenous PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS/ CAUSES EFFECTS/ CONSEQUENCES Figu e 1. Cause-e ec ela ions in he con ex ual changes o e i o ies Conside ing all he cause-e ec ela ions we can de ine se e al ypes o indica o s in acco dance wi h hei ole in he e i o ial ans o ma ions. Linked wi h he i s s age, he “Con ex Indica o s” allow deeming a si ua ion in a s a ing pe iod o analysis. They a e mos ly a iables o indices o cha ac e iza ion o he e i o y in di - e en domains. This includes indica o s ela ed o SGI con ex bu also mo e gene al indica o s in demog aphic, economic, social and ins i u ional opics. The second g oup o indica o s is ela ed o policy implemen a ion and he policy’s pe o mance in e i o ies. This second g oup o indica o s allows he measu emen o a deg ee o which a goal was achie ed in he policy implemen a ion p ocess, wi h ela ion o policy objec i es. We a e alking abou indica o s ha ep esen in es men e o s (like he sha e o GDP in heal h sys em) o pe o mance in SGI domains (as numbe o beds/1,000 inhabi an s). • • • __zlecenie_002__.indb 10__zlecenie_002__.indb 10 28-01-2014 09:21:5428-01-2014 09:21:54 WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 11 The hi d g oup co esponds o “e ec o esul ” indica o s. They should ep esen he “e ec ” o a policy implemen a ion. Fo example he inc easing sha e o s uden s a a gi en educa ion le el could ep esen he esul o a policy e o . These a e he na u ally used indica o s when analysing he SGI bu a e hese enough o p esen a cohe en and solid e i o ial analysis o SGI? Wha could be he ele ance o conside ing he o he wo ypes o indica o s? THE ROLE AND RELEVANCE OF “CONTEXT INDICATORS” AND THEIR CONNECTION TO “SGI INDICATORS” Iden i ying he e i o ial gaps and dispa i ies in he p o ision o SGI in he EU con ex ep esen s a signi ican challenge. Many ac o s need o be aken in o accoun in his discussion and he con ex indica o s can play an impo an ole in i . As an example o con ex ual condi ions we highligh he di e en poli ical-adminis a i e o gani- sa ion models ha exis ac oss he Membe S a es. These di e ences a e e lec ed in he p opensi y owa ds a mo e cen alised o decen alised sys em o go e nance. Mo eo e , di e ences in he o ganisa ion o sys ems be ween cen al- egional and cen al- egional-local powe s, e iden ly ha e a signi ican e ec on he p ocess o se ice p o ision. This is pa icula ly e iden as shown by social SGI in he educa ion and heal h sec o s, which display as ly di e ing le els o pe o mance in coun ies like Po ugal, F ance and Ge many. This means ha con ex ual analysis should include sys ems o go e nance in pa allel wi h SGI indica o s p o ision. The ela ionship be ween he pa e n o SGI p o ision and e i o ial demog aphic and economic dynamics is ano he ac o ha mus always be conside ed. The e i o ial dynamics and cha ac e - is ics such as he le el o u banisa ion, he demog aphic s uc u e linked o he ageing p ocess, he in as uc u e de elopmen and o he egional de elopmen signs can in oduce impo an shi s in he p o ision o SGI. The demog aphic and u ban s uc u es de e mine he way in which SGI a e de eloped (a ec ing le els o demand and e iciency) and, in addi ion, a e a i al ac o in adjus ing he SGI p o ision o egional se ings. Ageing a eas end o ha e poo e le els o se ice p o ision. Mo eo e , i is clea ha ha ing a poo pa e n o se ice p o ision does no help o a ac addi ional popula ion elemen s in o a egion. Densely u banised a eas end, on he o he hand, o ha e a wide se o accessible se ices, bu hey o en su e om a lack o e ec i eness o simply om a lack o quali y. This is pa icula ly due o he ac ha hese egions a ac a g owing numbe o use s. This analysis highligh s he impo ance o in eg a ing con ex ual indica o s in o he b oade analysis o indica o s in he con ex o SGI. In wha ollows some con ex ual indica o s a e men ioned (Table 1). __zlecenie_002__.indb 11__zlecenie_002__.indb 11 28-01-2014 09:21:5428-01-2014 09:21:54 Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume , 12 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía Table 1. In eg a ing con ex indica o s in o he SGI egional di e en ia ion analysis GDP/capi a Na u al popula ion change 2000 - 2007 Employmen a e Popula ion aged 65+ in 2005 Unemploymen Popula ion aged 14- in 2005 Depopula ion ends You h dependency a io in 2005 Popula ion densi y Old age dependency a io in 2005 Typology o ageing and depopula ion U ban- u al ypology, based on popula ion densi y, FUA anking and land co e Di ec indica o o depopula ion Typology o Func ional U ban A eas (FUAs) Ageing end Regional des ina ion a ac i eness o 2005-2010 Popula ion Change 2000-2007 A eas assigned o po en ial u ban s a egic ho izon Change in Popula ion 2005-2050 - Scena ios U ban popula ion Sou ce: Ma ques da Cos a, E., Palma, P., Rauhu , D., Hume , A., Cons an in, D., Velasco, X., 2012, pp. 13. In bo h examples he con ex indica o s a e use ul since hey allow o dis inguish he di e en eali ies ha can ep esen di e en condi ions o p o ide SGI. THE ROLE AND RELEVANCE OF “EFFECT OR RESULT INDICATORS” Besides he p e ious ones, he e is a hi d g oup: he “e ec o esul indica o s”. As s a ed be o e, hese a e mainly ela ed o measu ing he SGI e ec s. In o de o co ec ly cha ac e ise he se ices, as well as p oduce a good analysis and e alua ion o hei e ec s, i is essen ial o unde s and he ole and he meaning o he indica o s used. Be o e discussing he analysis p ocess mo e ully, howe e , we seek o highligh he cause-e ec ela ionship ha mus i s be aken in o accoun . In he G een Pape on Se ices o Gene al In e es (CEC, 2003), as well in he ollowing docu- men s (e.g. CEC, 2004), he e alua ion o se ices is one o he key elemen s unde conside a ion. As no ed in CEC (2003), “ he e alua ion o se ices o gene al in e es is impo an because o he signi icance o hese se ices o he economy as a whole and o e e yone’s quali y li e” (pp. 28). This e alua ion has h ee on s: “The egula e alua ions o ne wo k indus ies ha ha e been libe alised” (sec ional e alua ion); C oss-sec ional (ho izon al e alua ion); Consume sa is ac ion su eys. Wi h ega ds o sec o s and ho izon al e alua ions, he p ocesses o analysis and he a ailabili y o da a a e no sys ema ic, making i impossible o in eg a e his kind o indica o s in o he e alua ion sys em. The e is no da a a ailable on sec ional and ho izon al indica o s by egion o o a homogene- ous pe iod, hus in alida ing hei inclusion in he indica o analysis. The las on , as sugges ed in a CEC documen (2003), is associa ed wi h Eu oba ome e opinion and quali a i e su eys, om which some da a and indica o s could be used. In o de o show he ele ance and he ole o hese ypes o indica o s an example is p esen ed (Figu e 2). The example p esen ed he e is ela ed wi h a speci ic domain o SGI, mo e associa ed wi h he heal h ca e se ices. – – – __zlecenie_002__.indb 12__zlecenie_002__.indb 12 28-01-2014 09:21:5428-01-2014 09:21:54 WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 13 Demoga phic s uc u e Income o amilies Educa ion le el o popula ion    Heal h Ca e Expendi u es (as % o GDP) Sha e o P i a e and Public in Heal h expenses   The e alua ion o he quali y o he se ices  Con ex Indica o s SEGI Indica o s E ec s o Resul Indica o s Figu e 2. Cause-e ec ela ions in ela ion o SGI - example Sou ce: RAUHUT, D., BORGES, L. e al (2011), pp 22. The indica o “Heal h Ca e Expendi u es as a % o GDP” co esponds o an SGI indica o , while he e ec can be app aised by an indica o e alua ing he quali y o he heal h se ice. O he common indica o s used o e alua e he e ec s a e hose ha allow us o e alua e he accessibili y and a ailabili y o he se ices, o example he le el o use sa is ac ion, as such indica o s co espond o he esul s o he in es men , ep esen ed by he a ailable in as uc u es and pe sonnel ela ed o he sec o . In some cases, howe e , i is no so easy o es ablish his indica o sequence (Con ex , SGI and E ec s/Resul s). They can o en be much mo e complex han he example p esen ed he e, being a he same ime SGI indica o s and e ec s indica o s, depending on he poin o iew o he con ex . The “% o Households wi h b oadband access” is an SGI indica o bu a he same ime i is also an e ec / esul indica o when seen as a esul o he cos o he se ice o , mo e gene ally, he shape o na ional policies o p o ide he in as uc u e. In gene al e ms, and conside ing all he ypes o indica o s p esen ed he e, he ela i i y o scale should also be aken in o accoun in he compa a i e analyses since i a ec s he ele ance o indica- o s. Indi idual SGI a e qui e di e en in na u e, depending on whe he hey a e adminis e ed om he pa ish, municipal, egional o na ional le el, depending on ha ing ele an indica o s. Fo example in pa ish le el, p e-school o elde ly ca e issues a e signi ican ly impo an and he a ailabili y o se ices gene ally depends on he le el o popula ion need. The e o e, besides he dis inc ion o indica o s based on he ole hey play, hey mus be dis in- guished by le els and in acco dance wi h he ype o issue and i s scale. I some indica o s a e mo e app op ia e o global o na ional issues, o he s a e mo e ele an o he local le el. Indica o s mus be analysed a di e en le els, depending on he oles and esponsibili ies o go e nmen in managing hese issues as well as he p e ailing deg ee o he decen alisa ion o powe s and unc ions in any gi en si ua ion. In he nex poin , an indica o e iew based on wo me hodological elemen s will be p esen ed, and some o he issues p e iously co e ed will unde pin his analysis, mainly he ela i i y o scale and he a ailabili y o da a. Besides p esen ing a e iew o indica o ’s ele ance and adequacy o analyse he SGI e i o ial dispa i ies, a li e a u e e iew allows o iden i y di e en pe spec i es o analysis. __zlecenie_002__.indb 13__zlecenie_002__.indb 13 28-01-2014 09:21:5428-01-2014 09:21:54 Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume , 14 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía INDICATORS APPRAISAL AND PERSPECTIVES OF ANALYSIS In o de o comp ehend he egional di e en ia ion in he p o ision o SGI and o e alua e i s e ec , a di e en scales and in he social cohesion p ocess, a discussion and a e iew o he mos equen ly used indica o s is made in he ollowing analysis. In addi ion o he indica o s, he app oach, o he s uc u e o analysis, also plays an impo an ole. To deal wi h hese wo issues, wo me hodological s eps a e made. The i s one consis s in an in en o y o a ailable indica o s which a e hen classi ied acco ding o hei ele ance and adequacy o analyse he egional dispa i ies in he SGI p o ision ac oss Eu opean egions. The second s ep is suppo ed in a li e a u e e iew ha gi es an impo an con ibu ion o he iden i ica ion o he mos commonly used indica o s bu , mo e han ha , allows o ecognize and o unde s and he di e si y o pe spec i es in analysing SGI. Fi s o all, i is impo an o es ablish a amewo k o all he a angemen s, schemes and unc ions, o en co e ing a a he b oad and o en he e ogeneous ield ha can be conside ed unde he ub ic o SGI. In acco dance wi h he poli ical-no ma i e de ini ion in EU ea ies and com- munica ions, wo main domains a e dis inguished: social se ices o gene al in e es (SSGI) and se ices o gene al economic in e es (SGEI). The SSGI domain con ains ou sub-domains, namely: labou ma ke , educa ion, ca e se ices and social housing. SGEI in u n co e s wo sub-domains, he in as uc u e (e.g. ene gy, anspo a ion) and ICT Telecommunica ion (eg. communica ion in as uc u e).The ollowing analyses a e hus pe o med acco ding o he sub-domains se . THE NEED TO DISCUSS AND REVIEW THE RELEVANCE AND ADEQUACY OF SGI INDICATORS The in en o y o indica o s a ailable in Eu os a has gi en us access o a la ge, bu a he dispe se, se o in o ma ion. I has been possible o ind indica o s linked o he p e iously poin ed six sub-domains o SGI: some indica o s a e associa ed wi h employmen in SGI se ices, o he s a e ela ed o he a ailabili y (exp essed in numbe s) o in as uc u e and equipmen , and s ill o he s a e linked o he quali y o se ices. Ne e heless, he la ge numbe o indica o s is signi ican ly sho ened a e he analysis o in o ma ion a ailabili y and scale o analysis. Ano he aspec ha we mus ake in o accoun is he dispa i y be ween domains: he lack o indi- ca o s in espec o social housing o he ICT domain con as s wi h he a ailabili y in he domains o heal h o in as uc u e and equipmen , namely in as uc u e o accessibili y by oad, mo o way and ain, as well as in he en i onmen domain, o example wa e and was e managemen . In addi ion, he a ailable in o ma ion on SGI in ela ion o he labou ma ke domain is also qui e limi ed. The abili y o each indica o o e ec i ely measu e SGI se ice p o ision o i s e ec on he cohesion p ocess should also be kep in mind when indica o lis s a e p esen ed. A classi ica ion o indica o s was made, in o de o u he con ibu e o his discussion, based on hei ele ance, o analyse he p o ision o SGI. The indica o s we e sco ed in acco dance wi h 3 c i e ia: e y ele an – posi ion 1; medium ele ance – posi ion 2; lowes ele ance – posi ion 3. This ask was unde aken by six eam membe s wi h he inal allo ed alue being he a e age alue o all assessmen s, hus educing he in luence o indi idual subjec i i y. Realizing i indica o s a e ele an o measu e SGI o unde s anding he e ec o he SGI in ma e o social and e i o ial cohesion, is no so ob ious, especially because we a e wo king wi h he e ogeneous ypes o se ices, some speci ically linked o he economy, while o he s p ima ily ela ed o social and popula ion se ices. Besides hei classi ica ion in o economic o social domain, he ques ion o how o measu e __zlecenie_002__.indb 14__zlecenie_002__.indb 14 28-01-2014 09:21:5428-01-2014 09:21:54 WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 15 and analyse e i o ial e ec s and e i o ial cohesion, is also impo an he e. This is ano he a ea whe e he discussion on he use o indica o s could and should be imp o ed. In his con ex , in pa allel wi h he o e iew/classi ica ion o s a is ical indica o s, an empi ical s udy (li e a u e e iew and poli ical documen s) e iew was unde aken. This helped o de elop a ange o a he mo e quali a i e ways in which o discuss he ele ance and u ili y o indica o s. In o de o ca y ou he li e a u e e iew a da abase o scien i ic pape s whe e a ious SGI we e analysed was c ea ed. The main objec i e has been o unde s and which indica o s a e commonly used by he scien i ic communi y, bu also o collec o he in o ma ion ha may p o e use ul in ela ion o he SGI analysis. 38 documen s we e analysed in o al. They we e sp ead ac oss he six SGI sub-domains and we e aken om a ious Eu opean con ex s. In Table 2, we can see he numbe o a icles by heme and we can no e he e ha se e al hemes we e co e ed. The numbe s p esen ed clea ly illus a e he impo ance o sub-domains like in as uc u e o se ices wi h an economic basis, like elecom- munica ions, labou ma ke assis ance sys ems, ene gy, pos al se ices, and anspo . Table 2. Main hemes analysed in he eadings Theme Numbe o a icles Theme Numbe o a icles Telecommunica ions (in as uc u es, accessibili y and/o se ices p o ided) 15 Pos al Se ices 2 Labou Ma ke social cos s and assis ance) 9 Social equi y 2 Ene gy 8 Demog aphic ends and elde ly se ices 2 T anspo in as uc u es and se ices ( oad, ail) 8 Mone a y and iscal policies/Expo s 2 Child ca e 4 Public adminis a ion and Public/social spending 2 Se ices in gene al 4 Wa e /Was e 2 Social housing 4 Mone a y and iscal policies/Expo s 2 Educa ion le el 3 Public adminis a ion and social spending 2 Financial se ices 2 En i onmen al p o ec ion and g ow h (unde s ood as wa e supply/collec ion o was e and ai pollu ion) 1 Heal h Ca e Se ices 2 Long- e m ca e 1 Housing 2 Sou ce: Ma ques Cos a, E., Ma ques Cos a, N., Palma, P. e al. (2011), pp. 13. F om his p ocess he e eme ges a lis o indica o s commonly used o s udy each sub-domain o SGI. By compa ing he wo lis s ( he s a is ical one om Eu os a sys ems and he li e a u e e iew one) we a e able o gene a e a mo e accu a e pic u e o which indica o s could be use ul in unde s anding and measu ing he po en ial egional di e en ia ion and in luence, in e ms o SGI, in espec o e i o ial and social cohesion. Besides hese indica ions, we can also gene a e some impo an in o ma ion abou da a a ailabili y and sou ces. An example o he ou pu gene a ed based on hese wo lis s is p o ided in Table 3. As a esul o he sco e ele ance exe cise, some indica o s s and ou as displaying high le els o ele ance. __zlecenie_002__.indb 15__zlecenie_002__.indb 15 28-01-2014 09:21:5428-01-2014 09:21:54 Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume , 22 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía TERRITORIAL ANALYSIS OF SGI – INTEGRATING ICT INDICATORS ANALYSIS When using indica o s in a e i o ial analysis o SGI i is impo an o be awa e o hei limi a ions. Se e al ac o s ha ha e al eady been men ioned can ans o m he indica o s in o useless ins u- men s and be ha m ul o he policy making p ocess. The da a a ailabili y gaps, he ela i i y o scale issues, he lack o meaning, ele ance and adequacy o indica o s, he na u e o indica o s, and he pe spec i es o analysis a e ac o s o huge ele ance o a eliable analysis o SGI. The challenge is o conside all hese ac o s h oughou he p ocess o e i o ial analysis, and e en knowing ha i is impossible o achie e a pe ec si ua ion, i is essen ial o minimize he mis akes and he unce ain ies ha a ise du ing he p ocess. The example shown below in ends o iden i y p oblems ha commonly a ise in his kind o analysis and o p esen ce ain good p ac ices ha can be ollowed o p o ide be e and mo e eliable in o ma ion o he decision make s. Fo his pu pose, he SGI sub-domain o ICT Telecommunica ion is he esea ch subjec . The s a is ical da a ega ding his sub-domain p esen signi ican gaps. The ICT and ela ed echnologies a e no uni o mly sp ead a ound he wo ld, and in some egions his ecen end can con ibu e o a ce ain sho age o da a. The e a e a ew indica o s a ailable, and some o hem ha e se e al gaps, bo h in e i o ial and ime pe spec i e. F om he p e ious exe cises o li e a u e e iew and indica o s app aisal i is possible o iden i y ha one o he mos widely used indica o s o analyse he ICT sub-domain is Households wi h b oadband access (Figu e 3). As we will see, he meaning and u ili y o his indica o is e y doub ul and ulne able o some ac o s. One o he aspec s ha con ibu e o he weakness o i s meaning is he echnological p og ess inhe en o ICT sub-domain. The cons an inno a ion and p og ess can change he meaning o indica- o s ha we e once conside ed use ul and app op ia e. The inc ease o ee and uni e sal access o he In e ne , h ough wi eless connec ions o ho spo s, allows he access o in e ne in a ious places and by a ious means. I in he wo kplaces and homes o en he e is he possibili y o access in e ne , he ac ual end is he sp awling o in e ne access poin s in di e en places like ca es o ba s, public spaces such as g een a eas, malls o e en on public anspo . In his con ex , does he indica o Households wi h b oadband access aduce now he eali y o 10 yea s ago? Nowadays, he compu e is also no longe he only means h ough which one can access he in e ne . I is inc easingly common o use o he means o access he in e ne , as in he case o Table o Sma phone. All hese inno a ions ha e con ibu ed o a si ua ion in which in e ne access is no con ined o a ixed connec ion a home, making i di icul o ende he eal dimension o he p o ision and consump ion o his se ice h ough he p esen ed indica o . Howe e , a leas in he p esen con ex , we expec a s ong co ela ion be ween he in e ne access and he pe cen age o households wi h b oadband access. In he case o coun ies wi h less de eloped ICT sec o , he indica o may also desc ibe a si ua ion close o eali y, since he ways o access in e ne s ill he adi ional ones, ela ed wi h ixed connec ions. On he o he hand, he indica o may e eal a si ua ion unde sized in he mos ICT de eloped coun ies, like he No dic coun ies. __zlecenie_002__.indb 22__zlecenie_002__.indb 22 28-01-2014 09:21:5528-01-2014 09:21:55 WHA TIND1CA TORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 23 This is a e y common si ua ion ha can signi ican ly bias he cons uc ion o policies and hus, hese policies will ha e undesi ed p ac ical e ec s. Following he p e ious discussion on he ele ance o o he ypes o indica o s, we conside i ex emely impo an o combine he p e ious indica o , an SGI indica o , wi h some con ex indica o s and, i possible, also wi h e ec indica o s. One con ex indica o ha can help us o unde s and he pa e ns iden i ied ough he Households wi h b oadband access indica o , could be he indica o o Indi iduals ha ne e used a compu e (Figu e 4). zlecenie 002 .indb 23 28-01-2014 09:21:55 Da a a ailabili y: Pe cen age o households (%) In o ma ion a NUTS 1 : DE, GR, FR, PL Figu e 3. Households wi h b oadband access, 2009. Sou ce: Ma ques da Cos a, E., Palma, P., Rauhu , D., Hume , A., Cons an in, D., Velasco, X., 2012, pp. 18. 24 Edua do Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume , Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía Pe cen age o indi iduals* (%) Regional le el: NUTS 2 Sou ce: EUROSTAT, 2011 O igin o da a: EUROSTAT, 2010 © Eu oGeog aphics Associa ion o adminis a i e bounda ies Da a a ailabili y: NUTS 1: DE(2011), GR, FR, PL 'All Indi iduals aged 16 o 74 Figu e 4. Indi iduals (16-74 yea s old) who ha e ne e used a compu e , 2009. Sou ce: Ma ques da Cos a, E., Palma, P., Rauhu , D., Hume , A., Cons an in, D., Velasco, X., 2012, pp. 18. Compa ing he wo indica o s and espec i e maps shows ha he egions wi h smalle pe cen age o households wi h access o b oadband a e he egions wi h he highes pe cen ages o people who ha e ne e used a compu e . Examples o his si ua ion a e he coun ies o Eas e n Eu ope and in gene al e ms, he Medi e anean coun ies. On he con a y s and ou he No dic coun ies wi h highe a es o compu e use and highe a es o b oadband co e age. zlecenie 002 .indb 24 28-01-2014 09:21:56 WHA TIND1CA TORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 25 Pa - inanced by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund INVESTING IN YOUR FUTURE Pe cen age o indi iduals* (%) Sou ce: EUROSTAT, 2011 O igin o da a: EUROSTAT, 2010 ) Eu oGeoo aohics Associa ion o adminis a i e bounda ies All indi iduals aged 25 o 64 3,3-14 14,1 -23 23,1 -39 39,1 -65 65,1 -81,9 Figu e 5. Indi iduals aged 25-64 wi h lowe seconda y educa ion a ainmen , 2010. Sou ce: Ma ques da Cos a, E., Palma, P., Rauhu , D., Hume , A., Cons an in, D., Velasco, X., 2012. In a simila app oach, and conside ing a con ex indica o ela ed o educa ion - People aged25-64 wi h lowe seconda y a ainmen (Figu e 5), i is also possible o iden i y an e iden pa e n. The coun ies o Sou he n Eu ope a e hose wi h he highes a es o people who comple ed compulso y educa ion bu no con inued hei educa ion in highe le els o educa ion. These a e also he coun ies/ egions ha we e al eady iden i ied as ha ing he lowes co e age in b oadband access. zlecenie 002 .indb 25 28-01-2014 09:21:58 Edua da Ma ques da Cos a, Ped o Palma, Daniel Rauhu , Alois Hume , 26 Daniela Cons an in, Xabie Velasco Eche e ía Wi h he isola ed analysis o he Households wi h b oadband access indica o i was possible o iden i y in a clea way he egions and coun ies wi h he mos signi ican gaps conce ning he p o ision o his speci ic se ice. Looking exclusi ely o his indica o he decision make s would c ea e a g oup o incen i es o educe hese pe cei ed gaps, o example, by in es ing mo e in he cons uc ion o ICT in as uc u es. Howe e , he indica o has, by i sel , se e al weaknesses ha can a ec he success o he esul ing policies. Conside ing he o he wo indica o s, i is possible o be e unde s and he pa e ns iden i ied and e i y ha some o he low alues a e closely ela ed o egions whe e he popula ion le el o educa ion, in e es s and habi s a e no op imal o do no p esen he adi ional cha ac e is ics o a highly de eloped ICT socie y. Mo e han a ma e o exis ing gaps in he p o ision o se ice, i is a ma e ela ed o he demand. The lack o abili y/need/in e es o he popula ion o access he in e ne can nega i ely a ec he le els o se ice p o ision and hus, he aims o he policies mus be dis inc , and lead wi h he demand ins ead o ocus on he o e . Following he in eg a i e app oach shown be o e i is also impo an o combine some e ec indica o s, such as consume opinions ega ding he e ec i eness and quali y o he p o ision o se ice, bu in his speci ic case he a ailable da a does no allow o do i . I is ob ious ha his analysis could be much mo e complex, and mo e indica o s conside ed, bu we conside ha his example al eady highligh s some impo an aspec s ha mus be aken in o accoun when he objec i e is o iden i y exis ing SGI p o ision gaps in o de o suppo he implemen a ion, as well as moni o and e alua e he e i o ial policy measu es o SGI. CONCLUDING REMARKS The policy making p ocess and he ela ed moni o ing and e alua ion p ocesses equi e in o ma ion, which is ep esen ed by indica o s. This in o ma ion mus be o ganised in an up- o-da e sys em, and i mus be ha monised o each sec o and acco ding di e en e i o ies o analysis. In his pa icula case, he sea ch o e i o ial e idence o he p o ision o se ices o gene al in e es is highly dependen on he indica o s ha a e used. Indica o s a e measu es ha enable a simpli ica ion o eali y and en ail a numbe o ad an ages, which makes hem a undamen al ool o a wide ange o opics. This abili y o simpli y eali y p omo es a se o issues ha dese e special a en ion as hey could pu in o ques ion he use ulness and he eal ele ance o he indica o s. I is undeniable ha he use ulness and alue o indica o s a e essen ial o suppo a ious p ocesses; howe e , i is necessa y o ensu e a c i ical iew on hei meaning and be awa e o hei limi a ions. The da a a ailabili y gaps, he ela i i y o scale issues, he lack o meaning, and he pe spec i es o analysis a e jus some o he ac o s ha can change he ele ance and meaning o he indica o s, and hus make he di e ence be ween a eliable o un eliable analysis o SGI. The challenge is o conside all hese ac o s along he p ocess o e i o ial analysis. Mo eo e , knowing ha i is impossible o achie e a pe ec si ua ion, i is essen ial o minimize unce ain ies ha a ise om da a analysis. The indings o his pape sugges ha he e is a need o in eg a e he SGI indica o s wi h con ex indica o s as he a ea o SGI is mul i ace ed and he e ogeneous. Te i o ial e idence iden i ied a he ou se , wi h he analysis o a single indica o , is o en illuso y, which becomes no iceable only a e o he indica o s o di e en na u e ha e been examined. Ano he conclusion is ela ed o he need o measu e SGI e ec s. In ac , his p ocess is di icul no only due o he sca ci y o ele an da a, bu also because e ec s should be e alua ed in di e en __zlecenie_002__.indb 26__zlecenie_002__.indb 26 28-01-2014 09:21:5928-01-2014 09:21:59 WHAT INDICATORS TO USE WHEN MEASURING SERVICES OF GENERAL INTEREST? 27 dimensions (in di ec way - ela ed o equency, accessibili y and quali y o se ices, in indi ec way - he con ibu ion o social and e i o ial cohesion). The SGI e ec s analysis obliges o unde ake an in e -sec o ial analysis. A hi d big conclusion is ela ed o he need o imp o e e lexion abou he concep s and indica- o s o measu e SGI p o ision: a ailabili y, accessibili y, quali y, equi y, e iciency. The indings o li e a u e e iew highligh he gaps in some se ices (aspec s ela ed o a ailabili y o quali y) and he need o adjus i o an ongoing ageing popula ion p ocess and o u al and depopula ed a eas (namely hinking on accessibili y, equi y and e iciency). Con ex indica o s as complemen a y o SGI indica o s ha e become ele an o be e unde s anding o eali y. Beyond all he limi a ions iden i ied in his pape , indica o s a e needed o p o ide be e knowledge. REFERENCES Bakkes J., an de Bo n G.J., Helde J.C., Swa R.J., Hope C.W., Pa ke J.D.E., 1994. An O e iew o En i onmen al Indica o s: S a e o he a and pe spec i es. UNEP En i onmen Assessmen Technical Repo 94-01, 82 pp. Bauby P., Hall D., Be na d T., Sak B., 2004. 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