RESEARCH ARTICLE
Valuing and mapping co k and ca bon ac oss
land use scena ios in a Po uguese mon ado
landscape
Ma ius on EssenID
1¤
*, Inês T. do Rosa
´ io
2
, Ma ga ida San os-Reis
2
, Kimbe ly
A. Nicholas
1
1Lund Uni e si y Cen e o Sus ainabili y S udies, Lund, Sweden, 2cE3c –Cen e o Ecology, E olu ion
and En i onmen al Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Po ugal
¤Cu en add ess: School o Ea h, Ene gy & En i onmen al Sciences, S an o d Uni e si y, S an o d, CA,
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica
* onessen@s an o d.edu
Abs ac
The ecosys em se ices app oach can in o m decision-making by accoun ing o bo h sho -
and long- e m bene i s om di e en land use op ions. He e we used he InVEST oolki o
quan i y and map key ecosys em se ices a he la ges publicly-owned ag o-sil o-pas o al
a ms ead in Po ugal–a si e ep esen a i e o he mon ado landscape. We analyzed how
P o isioning (co k p oduc ion) and Regula ing & Main enance (ca bon s o age and seques-
a ion) se ices would be a ec ed unde h ee land use change scena ios, which we e
de eloped in collabo a ion wi h he o es manage o he s udy a ea: Ca le In ensi ica ion,
Fo es Imp o emen , and Residen ial De elopmen . Resul s show ha inc easing ca le o
esiden ial de elopmen would deli e subs an ially lowe le els o se ices. We ind ha
ex ensi e managemen , imp o emen s o o es quali y, and p omo ion o adi ional li e-
s ock g azing would p o ide he highes le els o assessed ecosys em se ices, esul ing in
13.5% mo e ca bon s o age (wo h be ween $0.34-$7.79 million USD depending on ca bon
p ice) and 62.7% mo e co k p oduc ion ( o al alue o USD $3.5 million) han he cu en
land use. Howe e , a shi in economic incen i es o make sus ainable co k ha es ing and
adi ional low-densi y g azing o smalle uminan s like sheep and goa s p o i able a e likely
needed o ewa d adi ional land s ewa dship and help suppo his iconic Medi e anean
landscape in he u u e.
In oduc ion
Fo cen u ies, he mon ado co k oak sa annah-like landscapes o Cen al and Sou he n Po u-
gal ha e ea u ed a biodi e se and p oduc i e mix o co k and holm oaks wi h c ops, allows,
pas u es o sh ubby unde s o y and g azing li es ock. T adi ional managemen p ac ices ha e
shaped an ecosys em which suppo s ag o-sil o-pas o al p oduc ion ac i i ies and p o ides
mul iple ecosys em se ices [1,2]. Desc ibed as low-inpu managemen sys em, he mon ado is
adi ionally used o co k and imbe p oduc ion, li es ock g azing, sheep and goa aising,
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 1 / 13
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OPEN ACCESS
Ci a ion: on Essen M, do Rosa
´ io IT, San os-Reis
M, Nicholas KA (2019) Valuing and mapping co k
and ca bon ac oss land use scena ios in a
Po uguese mon ado landscape. PLoS ONE 14(3):
e0212174. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.
pone.0212174
Edi o : Manu E. Saunde s, Uni e si y o New
England, AUSTRALIA
Recei ed: May 1, 2018
Accep ed: Janua y 29, 2019
Published: Ma ch 7, 2019
Copy igh : ©2019 on Essen e al. This is an open
access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal
au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a on he s udy
a ea a e publicly a ailable on he websi e o he
a ms ead Companhia das Lezi ias, accessible
unde h p://www.cl.p /h mls/en/emp esa_
ela o ios.sh ml. All emaining da a a e wi hin he
pape , i s e e ences, and suppo ing in o ma ion.
The au ho s con i m ha hey had no special
access o he da a ha o he s would no ha e.
Funding: This esea ch was conduc ed wi hin he
Eu opean Commission F amewo k P og amme 7
esea ch p ojec OPERAs, g an ag eemen no.
and collec ion o non- imbe o es p oduc s such as aco ns and mush ooms [2,3]. Cul u al
alues such as na u e-based ou ism, adi ional ag icul u al p ac ices (e.g. s ipping he co k
by hand wi h a small axe) o adi ional songs ( he music gen e Can e Alen ejano is pa o he
UNESCO In angible Cul u al He i age Lis s) ha e been inc easingly ecognized o his land-
scape [4].
The mon ado suppo s high le els o biodi e si y and is lis ed unde he EU Habi a s di ec-
i e (habi a 6310) and ep esen ed wi hin he Na u a 2000 ne wo k [5–7]. I s he e ogeneous
cha ac e p o ides a mosaic o habi a s which a e home o a di e se assemblage o in e e-
b a es and e eb a es, including endange ed species such as he Ibe ian lynx (Lynx pa dinus)
and he Ibe ian impe ial eagle (Aquila adalbe i) [2,8].
The co k oak ee (Que cus sube ) is eponymous o he co k oak mon ado and is a he cen-
e o bo h he local landscape and economy. Co k is a enewable esou ce ex ac ed by s ip-
ping o he co ky ba k om he li ing co k oak wi hou damaging he i al issue laye o he
ee. A e he i s s ipping a an age o app oxima ely 25 yea s, co k oaks can be comme -
cially ha es ed e e y 9–12 yea s o an a e age pe iod o 150 yea s [9]. O e he pas wo cen-
u ies, along wi h ex ensi e sheep and goa ea ing, he co k oak mon ado has been p ima ily
managed o co k p oduc ion as a esul o soa ing demand o wine s oppe s [10].
Po ugal is he wo ld’s la ges co k p oduce , accoun ing o almos 50% o global co k p o-
duc ion [11]. The co k indus y plays an impo an economic ole a he na ional le el, gene -
a ing almos USD $990 million in expo s and employing 8,295 people [11]. In he mon ado,
many a ms depend p ima ily on co k o income. Al hough he co k indus y has unde gone
a di e si ica ion p ocess which allows o he wide u iliza ion o low-quali y co k and agglom-
e a ed co k [12–14], high-quali y co k bo le s oppe s s ill play an impo an ole in o e all
co k demand, making he mon ado sys em ulne able o co k p ice ola ili y [15]
Mon ado landscapes a e exposed o na u al p essu es including in ense wild i es, d ough s
and plagues and diseases o co k oaks, as well as an h opogenic p essu es ela ed o u al land
use, including bo h u al abandonmen and he in ensi ica ion o ag icul u al ac i i ies, pa ic-
ula ly o e g azing by ca le [1,16]. These an h opogenic p essu es a e closely ela ed o his o ic
and ongoing socio-economic ac o s such as inc eased ag icul u al wages, u al mig a ion,
highe subsidies o ca le aising compa ed o o he li es ock, and ola ili y o co k p ices [3].
Clima e change exace ba es p essu es like ee and o es diseases and d ough , u he endan-
ge ing iable co k p oduc ion [17].
Ecosys em se ices a e con ibu ions o human well-being de i ed om ecosys ems and a e
g ouped in o he h ee sec ions P o isioning, Regula ion & Main enance, and Cul u al unde
he CICES amewo k [18]. Despi e he economic and ecological impo ance o he mon ado
landscape, o ou knowledge ecosys em se ice quan i ica ion emains a sca cely used suppo
ool by land manage s and spa ial plane s, he eby omi ing an elemen om decision making.
Howe e , iden i ica ion and quan i ica ion o ecosys em se ices o assess he consequences o
a ious land use scena ios could be a cen al elemen in conse ing his landscape [19]. Fo
success ul p ac ical implemen a ion, s akeholde s should be p o ided wi h angible and com-
pa able in o ma ion abou ecosys em se ices o managemen and decision-making [20],
which migh include e alua ions such as se ice quan i ica ion and mone a y alua ion.
In he ace o a changing clima e, economic unce ain y, and a dynamic EU Biodi e si y
S a egy, landowne s need o be incen i ized o main ain co k p oduc ion and ex ensi e li e-
s ock g azing egimes ha suppo esilien landscapes and biodi e si y. We explo e di e en
land use scena ios o a ep esen a i e mon ado si e based on pas esea ch and s akeholde
inpu o assess how ecosys em se ice p o ision could change in a dynamic landscape unde
p essu e. We gene a e a baseline o ecosys em se ice alua ion wi h a ocus on p o isioning
se ices (exp essed h ough co k p oduc ion) and egula ing & main enance se ices
Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal
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FP7-ENV-2012-308393-2. The unde s had no ole
in s udy design, da a collec ion and analysis,
decision o publish, o p epa a ion o he
manusc ip .
Compe ing in e es s: The au ho s ha e decla ed
ha no compe ing in e es s exis .
(exp essed h ough ca bon s o age and seques a ion). Speci ically, we add ess h ee esea ch
ques ions: (1) Wha u u e land use scena ios do esea che s and he land manage conside
plausible? (2) How would ecosys em se ice deli e y change o each land use scena io? (3)
Wha is he economic alue o he ecosys em se ices p o ided unde each scena io? Answe -
ing hese ques ions can in o m u u e land use decisions in an a ea expe iencing inc easing
human and en i onmen al p essu es.
Me hods
Ou s udy was based a Companhia das Lezı
´ ias S.A., he la ges ag o-sil o-pas o al a ms ead
in he Alen ejo egion [21,22]. Es ablished in 1836, Companhia das Lezı
´ ias (Companhia) has a
s ong his o ical legacy and is ope a ed as a public limi ed company wholly-owned by public
unds since 1989 [21]. Companhia ollows a ‘philosophy o a sus ained de elopmen ’ and aims
o ‘p ese e, alue and make use o i s pa imony and esou ces h ough an in eg a ed, sus ain-
able managemen ha con ibu es o he needs o socie y and he ag o o es y sec o ’ [21]. The
a ms ead is loca ed 50 km no h-eas o he capi al Lisbon and comp ises a ound 18,000 hec -
a es, 5,814 ha o which a e co e ed wi h co k oak s ands (mon ado) wi h a ying unde s o y
ege a ion including pe manen and na u al pas u es as well as dense and spa se sh ubs (Fig
1). Cu en ly he a m owns a ound 3,000 ca le heads, which g aze on open o mon ado pas-
u es in he ds o 50–300 animals. The a ms ead’s co k oaks a e p o ec ed by Po uguese law,
which p o ec s his species om cu ing [23,24]. Fu he , pa s o Companhia a e p o ec ed
om con e sion h ough he Na u a 2000 ne wo k and he mon ado’s only paymen o eco-
sys em se ices scheme, he p i a ely- unded G een Hea o Co k p ojec , o ganized by WWF
in collabo a ion wi h he Fo es P oduce s Associa ion o Co uche (APFC) o ewa d he posi-
i e in luence o Fo es S ewa dship Council (FSC) ce i ied mon ado o he conse a ion o
wa e sheds in he a ge ed a eas [25].
We analyzed he cu en land use map as well as he h ee land use scena ios using he spa-
ially explici InVEST oolki (h ps://www.na u alcapi alp ojec .o g/in es /) o map, quan i y
and compa e ecosys em se ices p o ision [28,29]. We employed wo InVEST models: he
‘Managed Timbe P oduc ion’ model o quan i y co k p o isioning, and he ‘Ca bon S o age
and Seques a ion: Clima e Regula ion’ model o quan i y ca bon. InVEST gene a es bio-phys-
ical as well as mone a y esul s when including a use -de ined alua ion o he ecosys em se -
ices unde conside a ion–in ou case co k and ca bon seques a ion.
The land use maps used in bo h InVEST models we e adap ed om p e ious maps o he
s udy si e gene a ed by Gonc¸al es, Alcobia, Simões, & San os-Reis [26] and las upda ed in
2013 by Cu ei a-San os, Ma ques, Bjo¨ klund, & San os-Reis [27]. In addi ion o quan i ica-
ion and alua ion o ecosys em se ices, bo h models p oduce ec o maps. The Ca bon
model uses i e ca bon pools o calcula e s o age and seques a ion: abo e-g ound biomass
[30–33], below-g ound biomass [32,34–36], soil ca bon [37,38], dead o ganic ma e [33,39],
and ha es ed wood p oduc s (calcula ion based on annual epo s om Companhia, Com-
panhia das Lezı
´ ias, Rela o
´ ios 2011–2015). The model assumes ha ca bon s o age wi hin
each land use ype is cons an o e ime, hus accoun ing only o changes in ha es ed wood
p oduc s, no na u al a ia ion, i he land use ype emains unchanged [29].
The imbe model uses a se o ha es in o ma ion including ha es equency, ha es ed
biomass, and ma ke alue o ha es ed p oduc s o quan i y ha es ed mass, olume and eco-
nomic alue o he imbe p oduc –in ou case co k. I allows o mone a y alua ion by sub-
ac ing main enance and ha es cos s om he ma ke p ice o co k. The model assumes ha
ce ain alues emain cons an o e he de ined ime pe iod, such as ha es equency, cos ,
yield, and ma ke p ice [29]. We chose o exp ess alues in e ms o he 50-yea alua ion
Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal
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because o he slow g ow h a e o co k oaks and he associa ed pe iod be o e co k oak can be
comme cially ha es ed.
Mone a y alua ion o ecosys em se ices equi es pu ing a p ice on biophysical p oduc-
ion. To de e mine he e enues om co k sales, we iden i ied he ma ke p ice o $1.33 USD/
kg co k ha Companhia gene a ed o e he pas 5 yea s (Companhia das Lezı
´ ias, Rela o
´ ios
2011–2015) a an a e age exchange a e o EUR 1 o USD 1.107. Fo he Ca bon Seques a ion
model we employed a 7% discoun a e o e a pe iod o 50 yea s [29].
Ca bon ma ke s a e ola ile and p ices be ween ca bon s anda ds a y g ea ly. As o oday,
he e is no single, globally ep esen a i e p ice o ca bon and cu en ma ke alues o ca -
bon emain signi ican ly lowe compa ed o ecommended p ices deemed adequa e o main-
aining empe a u e change below 2˚C [40]. To ep esen he cu en ma ke si ua ion and
inco po a e u u e p ice ecommenda ions, we used p ices o h ee di e en ca bon s anda ds:
High-Le el Commission on Ca bon P ices 2017 ($75 USD/ CO
2
eq), IPCC AFOLU low
Fig 1. Land use dis ibu ion map o he s udy a ea. Cu en land use composi ion o he s udy si e a he a ms ead Companhia das Lezı
´ ias S.A., Po ugal,
abou 50 km ou side Lisbon. Adap ed om Gonc¸al es, Alcobia, Simões, & San os-Reis [26] and las upda ed in 2013 by Cu ei a-San os, Ma ques, Bjo¨ klund,
& San os-Reis [27], inse map: Opens ee map showing Po ugal (g ey bo de ) and loca ion o he a ms ead (pin).
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174.g001
Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal
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u iliza ion ($20 USD/ CO
2
eq) [41], and he a e age p ice o olun a y ca bon ma ke s an-
da ds in 2015 ($3.3 USD/ CO
2
eq) [42].
Scena ios
To e alua e ecosys em se ices om co k p oduc ion and ca bon seques a ion unde di e en
land uses, we de eloped h ee scena ios ep esen ing plausible u u e de elopmen ajec o ies
o he a ms ead, esul ing in new land use maps o analysis. To de elop he scena ios, we
d ew on he esul s o p e ious esea ch collabo a ions be ween he Science Facul y o Lisbon
Uni e si y and he a ms ead [26], assump ions ega ding plausible land use composi ion and
consul ed wi h he a ms ead’s o es manage o ensu e he plausibili y o he scena ios. We
de ined wo scena ios ep esen ing an in es men in o one o he wo main ac i i ies a Com-
panhia (co k and ca le espec i ely), as well as a hi d scena io whe e ag o o es y e enue is
assumed o dec ease and pa o he land is sold and/o used o sca e ed, low densi y housing
de elopmen . We decided collabo a i ely in a mee ing and h ough p io communica ion
wi h he esea ch eam and he land manage which land uses should be con e ed (e.g. mon-
ado o pas u e), he deg ee o change o landscape a ibu es (e.g. ee densi y) and whe e
hese changes would ake place. The esiden ial de elopmen scena io ook in o conside a ion
ha 8% o Companhia’s e i o y is a Na u e Rese e and 64% is included in he Special P o ec-
ion A ea and Si e o Communi y Impo ance o he Tagus es ua y, hus canno be de eloped.
O he emaining unp o ec ed land, we alloca ed 10 ha o esiden ial de elopmen .
The i s scena io, Ca le In ensi ica ion, en ails mo e han ipling ca le densi y compa ed
o he cu en densi y, om 0.32 unde he cu en land use o 1.4 heads ha
-1
– he uppe limi
o ex ensi e li es ock a ming as de ined by he EU Common Ag icul u al Policy [43,44]. This
would equi e an inc ease in he a ea o odde c op cul i a ions (used as a supplemen a y
eed) and mo e g azing land (mon ado wi h pas u e) o suppo a la ge numbe o ca le.
Highe g azing p essu e om he inc ease in ca le educes he a ea o mon ado wi h unde -
s o y ege a ion (see Fig 2).
The second scena io, Fo es Imp o emen , conside s an in es men in co k p oduc ion,
exp essed by a 50% inc ease in co k oak densi y om 80 o 120 ees ha
-1
. Focusing on co k
p oduc ion co esponds wi h a educ ion o he numbe o ca le, since co k sales would be he
majo income o he a ms ead and high numbe s o ca le impede he expansion o co k oak
mon ado as he animals eed on shoo s and compac he soil. Because o he dec eased numbe
o ca le, less odde c op cul i a ion a ea and pas u es a e needed o suppo ca le and a e
plan ed ins ead wi h co k ees. Sh ub lands would also be pa ially eplaced by mon ado wi h
co k oaks (Fig 2). This scena io would be mo e p obable in he case o educed p o i s om
ca le ea ing o inc easing demand o co k, which could igge an expansion o he mon ado
wi hin he a ms ead wi h a ocus on co k p oduc ion (see Fig 2), in line wi h Companhia’s sus-
ainable managemen philosophy.
Al e na i ely, in he hi d scena io pa s o Companhia’s land would be sold and/o used o
housing de elopmen (Residen ial De elopmen ), concen a ed in wo a eas o 602 ha o al
(3.3% o he s udy a ea). To main ain a isually appealing landscape which ea u es he cha ac-
e is ics ypically associa ed wi h co k oak mon ado, sh ubby unde s o y ege a ion would be
eplaced by pas u e alongside a educ ion o ee densi y o 20 ees ha
-1
(Fig 2). While co k
oak ees hemsel es a e p o ec ed by law (DL n˚169/2001 de 25 de Maio), excep ions can be
made in cases o na ional in e es . The egion’s p oximi y o Lisbon has made i an a ac i e
loca ion o bo h exu ban and ec ea ional de elopmen esul ing in. Simila de elopmen
p ojec s ha e been ealized nea by such as he O izon e Lisbon Gold [45] and Mon ado Ho el
& Gol Reso [46]. The ex ension and con e sion o he Mon ijo Ai Base in o a comme cial
Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal
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ai po o Lisbon would u he inc ease he p essu e o de elop his mon ado o in as uc-
u e, u al ou ism, o esiden ial p ojec s [47]. Howe e , acco ding o Companhia’s land man-
age la ge scale housing de elopmen in he s udy a ea is unlikely o happen ende ing he
Residen ial De elopmen scena io he leas likely.
The mos signi ican land use changes unde he h ee u u e scena ios ake place in he
cen al and eas e n pa s o he s udy si e (Fig 3), ep esen ing mon ado wi h pas u e and mon-
ado wi h sh ubs along wi h a eas o odde c op cul i a ion. The sou h-wes e n ip o he
s udy a ea emains mos ly unchanged, e aining i s cu en con igu a ion o oli e g o es, ine-
ya ds, and a eas o odde c op cul i a ion, and he wa e bodies and ipa ian a eas a e also
undis u bed in he u u e scena ios (Fig 3).
Resul s
The Fo es Imp o emen scena io yielded he highes le els o bo h ca bon s o age and co k
p oduc ion, while he Residen ial De elopmen scena io deli e ed close o cu en p o ision
le els, and Ca le In ensi ica ion sco es lowes . Fo es Imp o emen s o es 13.5% mo e ca bon
annually compa ed o he cu en land composi ion, esul ing in 104 Gg o seques e ed ca bon
o e a 50-yea pe iod (Table 1). Ca bon s o age unde he Residen ial De elopmen scena io
dec eased by 29 Gg (-3.8%) and by 83 Gg (-11%) unde Ca le In ensi ica ion.
In he Fo es Imp o emen scena io co k p oduc ion inc eases om 6.5 Gg o 10.5 Gg o
biomass (+61.5%) while in he Ca le In ensi ica ion scena io p oduc ion declines by 1.0 Gg
Fig 2. Land use dis ibu ion in cu en s a e and scena ios. Visual ep esen a ions o he h ee u u e land use scena ios de eloped by consul ing he o es
manage o Companhia das Lezı
´ ias. Numbe s shown a e absolu e o numbe o ca le pe hec a e and pe cen change compa ed o cu en a ea o each land
use.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174.g002
Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal
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compa ed o he cu en land composi ion (-15.4%). Co k p oduc ion unde Residen ial
De elopmen d ops o 6.0 Gg (-7.7%).
Con e ing he p oduc ion o ou s udied ecosys em se ices in o mone a y alues co obo-
a es he end obse ed o bio-physical alues: Fo es Imp o emen gene a es he highes
amoun o po en ial e enue om ecosys em se ices while Ca le Imp o emen p oduces he
lowes .
Fig 3. Land use composi ion maps o cu en s a e and scena ios. S udy a ea maps showing he baseline scena io (cu en land use composi ion) and how
land use would be changed unde he h ee u u e land use scena ios desc ibed in Fig 2. Inse map a) shows he No h-Wes esiden ial de elopmen a ea, inse
map b) he Sou h-Wes esiden ial de elopmen a ea.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174.g003
Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal
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Based on he 5-yea a e age ma ke p ice o Companhia’s co k p oduc s, we calcula ed e e-
nue om co k sales o $23.31 million USD o he Fo es Imp o emen scena io. In con as ,
he e enue om co k sales in he Ca le In ensi ica ion scena io is lowe by $11.11 million
USD (-47.7%), o aling $12.20 million USD (Table 1) while he Residen ial De elopmen sce-
na io gene a es $13.23 million USD o sales e enue.
The mone a y alua ion o ca bon seques a ion p o ides a simila pic u e. Fo es Imp o e-
men shows posi i e income om seques a ion, wi h alues anging om $0.34 o $7.79 mil-
lion USD o e 50 yea s while Ca le In ensi ica ion (-$0.27 o -$6.20 million USD) and
Residen ial De elopmen (-$0.10 o -$2.27 million USD) ep esen losses (Fig 4).
Al hough he ends o ca bon seques a ion a e he same be ween scena ios, a ying he
alue o he p ice o ca bon esul s in s a k di e ences o absolu e mone a y alue be ween
he scena ios. When applying he a e age p ice o olun a y ca bon ma ke s anda ds in 2015
($3.3 USD/ CO
2
eq) [42], he absolu e di e ence in seques a ion alue be ween Ca le In ensi-
ica ion and Fo es Imp o emen is $0.61 million USD. The same wo scena ios, howe e ,
show an absolu e ma gin in seques a ion alues o $13.99 million USD when applying he
IPCC 2014 AFOLU alue o ca bon–mo e han a six- old di e ence.
Table 1. Co k biomass p oduc ion and ca bon seques a ion in Gg o e a 50-yea pe iod.
Cu en Land Composi ion Ca le
In ensi ica ion
Fo es
Imp o emen
Residen ial
De elopmen
To al co k biomass
p oduc ion (Gg)
6.5 5.5 10.5 6.0
Re enue om co k sales (million USD) 14.32 $23.31 $12.20 $13.23
Ca bon
seques a ion (Gg)
- -82.6 103.9 -28.9
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174. 001
Fig 4. Ca bon seques a ion alue o a 50-yea pe iod in million USD. Ca bon seques a ion alue calcula ed using he h ee sou ces
o p ices shown, based on he ca bon seques a ion calcula ed by InVEST o he h ee land use scena ios ( esul s shown in Table 1).
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174.g004
Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 8 / 13
When combining he mone a y alues o bo h ca bon s o age and co k p oduc ion, di e -
ences in ecosys em se ices alues be ween he scena ios inc ease u he : he Ca le In ensi i-
ca ion scena io gene a es a o al ecosys em se ice alue be ween $-0.5 million o $5.23 million
USD. The o al alue o ca bon seques a ion and co k p o ision in he Fo es Imp o emen
scena io anges om $10.84 million o $18.29 million USD and in he Residen ial De elop-
men om $3.83 million o $5.9 million USD.
Discussion
The mon ado landscape is subjec o bo h an h opogenic (e.g. ag icul u al in ensi ica ion, luc-
ua ing demand o co k, u al abandonmen ) and na u al p essu es (e.g. d ough , wild i es),
challenging adi ional co k p oduc ion p ac ices and ex ensi e li es ock g azing egimes
which a e i al o main aining he mon ado’s ecological esilience and biodi e si y [10,15].
Howe e , ag icul u al policies and subsidy schemes, dominan land managemen philoso-
phies, and inadequa e ca bon p icing mechanisms ins ead a o in ensi e ca le p oduc ion
o e uminan s adi ionally ound in he mon ado, such as sheep and goa s [48,49]. In addi-
ion, e enue om co k p oduc ion is subjec o ma ke demands and p ice ola ili y, despi e a
di e si ica ion p ocess o he co k indus y [12–15]. Clima e change u he exace ba es his
issue wi h a empe a u e inc ease o 2.9˚C es ima ed o dec ease co k p oduc ion by 20% [50].
Thus, including al e na i e indica o s like ecosys em se ice p o ision in o decision and policy
making p ocesses may gene a e addi ional incen i es o sus ainable use in he mon ado [51].
A equen ly sugges ed solu ion o in eg a ing ecosys em se ices in o decision making p o-
cesses and incen i izing sus ainable p ac ices is paymen o ecosys em se ices (PES) [52].
Wi h he G een Hea o Co k p ojec , a PES scheme has been es ablished in he Po uguese
Alen ejo and Riba ejo egions in which Companhia also pa akes [25]. The scheme ecognizes
he posi i e in luence o High Conse a ion Value a ea and Fo es S ewa dship Council (FSC)
ce i ied mon ado o he conse a ion o wa e sheds [2,15,53]. Pa icipa ing land owne s
ecei e $17.80 USD pe hec a e o high conse a ion alue a ea, o aling $11,070 USD pe
annum o Companhia [54,55]. Fu he , he a ms ead pa icipa es in he Ca bono Ze o p oj-
ec , h ough which hey sold 1,300 CO
2
om 55ha o mon ado in 2017 [56].
These wo examples o compa a i ely low and/o in equen income gene a ed h ough
PES schemes poin owa ds a c i ical issue: alua ion o ecosys em se ices does no di ec ly
ansla e in o income o he pa icipan s. While in he case o Companhia co k is a di ec
sou ce o income, ca bon seques a ion and wa e shed p o ec ion gene a e negligible p o i s.
Fo ca bon, his is mos ly due o he absence o a iable ca bon seques a ion paymen sys em,
high ma ke ola ili y, and low a e age p ices [42].
In addi ion o co k p oduc ion as a p o isioning se ice and ca bon seques a ion as a egu-
la ion and main enance se ice, we a emp ed o u ilize he ‘Visi a ion: Rec ea ion and Tou -
ism’ model o cul u al alua ion, bu he online da abase Flick , used by he InVEST model,
had oo ew en ies o geo agged pho og aphs o gene a e signi ican esul s. Howe e , ela ed
wo k has shown ha adi ional mon ado was he mos alued landscape by pa icipan s o a
Po uguese s udy ca ied ou in 2016 [57]. The high aes he ical and cul u al app ecia ion o he
mon ado could p o ide a u he pa hway o landowne o capi alize on main aining and
adop ing sus ainable managemen p ac ices. Fu u e s udies will bene i om sys ema ically
selec ing ecosys em se ices o ep esen he h ee CICES sec ions o ecosys em se ices (P o-
isioning, Regula ion & Main enance, and Cul u al) in o de o cap u e po en ial adeo s
[18].
A u he oppo uni y o highligh he alue o a heal hy mon ado lies in i s capaci y o con-
ibu e o ca bon mi iga ion a ge s. Wi h 5,814 ha o co k oak woodland, Companhia
Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 9 / 13