Valuing and mapping cork and carbon across land use scenarios in a Portuguese montado landscape

RESEARCH ARTICLE Valuing and mapping co k and ca bon ac oss land use scena ios in a Po uguese mon ado landscape Ma ius on EssenID 1¤ *, Inês T. do Rosa ´ io 2 , Ma ga ida San os-Reis 2 , Kimbe ly A. Nicholas 1 1Lund Uni e si y Cen e o Sus ainabili y S udies, Lund, Sweden, 2cE3c –Cen e o Ecology, E olu ion and En i onmen al Changes, Faculdade de Ciências, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Po ugal ¤Cu en add ess: School o Ea h, Ene gy & En i onmen al Sciences, S an o d Uni e si y, S an o d, CA, Uni ed S a es o Ame ica * onessen@s an o d.edu Abs ac The ecosys em se ices app oach can in o m decision-making by accoun ing o bo h sho - and long- e m bene i s om di e en land use op ions. He e we used he InVEST oolki o quan i y and map key ecosys em se ices a he la ges publicly-owned ag o-sil o-pas o al a ms ead in Po ugal–a si e ep esen a i e o he mon ado landscape. We analyzed how P o isioning (co k p oduc ion) and Regula ing & Main enance (ca bon s o age and seques- a ion) se ices would be a ec ed unde h ee land use change scena ios, which we e de eloped in collabo a ion wi h he o es manage o he s udy a ea: Ca le In ensi ica ion, Fo es Imp o emen , and Residen ial De elopmen . Resul s show ha inc easing ca le o esiden ial de elopmen would deli e subs an ially lowe le els o se ices. We ind ha ex ensi e managemen , imp o emen s o o es quali y, and p omo ion o adi ional li e- s ock g azing would p o ide he highes le els o assessed ecosys em se ices, esul ing in 13.5% mo e ca bon s o age (wo h be ween $0.34-$7.79 million USD depending on ca bon p ice) and 62.7% mo e co k p oduc ion ( o al alue o USD $3.5 million) han he cu en land use. Howe e , a shi in economic incen i es o make sus ainable co k ha es ing and adi ional low-densi y g azing o smalle uminan s like sheep and goa s p o i able a e likely needed o ewa d adi ional land s ewa dship and help suppo his iconic Medi e anean landscape in he u u e. In oduc ion Fo cen u ies, he mon ado co k oak sa annah-like landscapes o Cen al and Sou he n Po u- gal ha e ea u ed a biodi e se and p oduc i e mix o co k and holm oaks wi h c ops, allows, pas u es o sh ubby unde s o y and g azing li es ock. T adi ional managemen p ac ices ha e shaped an ecosys em which suppo s ag o-sil o-pas o al p oduc ion ac i i ies and p o ides mul iple ecosys em se ices [1,2]. Desc ibed as low-inpu managemen sys em, he mon ado is adi ionally used o co k and imbe p oduc ion, li es ock g azing, sheep and goa aising, PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 1 / 13 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 OPEN ACCESS Ci a ion: on Essen M, do Rosa ´ io IT, San os-Reis M, Nicholas KA (2019) Valuing and mapping co k and ca bon ac oss land use scena ios in a Po uguese mon ado landscape. PLoS ONE 14(3): e0212174. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal. pone.0212174 Edi o : Manu E. Saunde s, Uni e si y o New England, AUSTRALIA Recei ed: May 1, 2018 Accep ed: Janua y 29, 2019 Published: Ma ch 7, 2019 Copy igh : ©2019 on Essen e al. This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a on he s udy a ea a e publicly a ailable on he websi e o he a ms ead Companhia das Lezi ias, accessible unde h p://www.cl.p /h mls/en/emp esa_ ela o ios.sh ml. All emaining da a a e wi hin he pape , i s e e ences, and suppo ing in o ma ion. The au ho s con i m ha hey had no special access o he da a ha o he s would no ha e. Funding: This esea ch was conduc ed wi hin he Eu opean Commission F amewo k P og amme 7 esea ch p ojec OPERAs, g an ag eemen no. and collec ion o non- imbe o es p oduc s such as aco ns and mush ooms [2,3]. Cul u al alues such as na u e-based ou ism, adi ional ag icul u al p ac ices (e.g. s ipping he co k by hand wi h a small axe) o adi ional songs ( he music gen e Can e Alen ejano is pa o he UNESCO In angible Cul u al He i age Lis s) ha e been inc easingly ecognized o his land- scape [4]. The mon ado suppo s high le els o biodi e si y and is lis ed unde he EU Habi a s di ec- i e (habi a 6310) and ep esen ed wi hin he Na u a 2000 ne wo k [5–7]. I s he e ogeneous cha ac e p o ides a mosaic o habi a s which a e home o a di e se assemblage o in e e- b a es and e eb a es, including endange ed species such as he Ibe ian lynx (Lynx pa dinus) and he Ibe ian impe ial eagle (Aquila adalbe i) [2,8]. The co k oak ee (Que cus sube ) is eponymous o he co k oak mon ado and is a he cen- e o bo h he local landscape and economy. Co k is a enewable esou ce ex ac ed by s ip- ping o he co ky ba k om he li ing co k oak wi hou damaging he i al issue laye o he ee. A e he i s s ipping a an age o app oxima ely 25 yea s, co k oaks can be comme - cially ha es ed e e y 9–12 yea s o an a e age pe iod o 150 yea s [9]. O e he pas wo cen- u ies, along wi h ex ensi e sheep and goa ea ing, he co k oak mon ado has been p ima ily managed o co k p oduc ion as a esul o soa ing demand o wine s oppe s [10]. Po ugal is he wo ld’s la ges co k p oduce , accoun ing o almos 50% o global co k p o- duc ion [11]. The co k indus y plays an impo an economic ole a he na ional le el, gene - a ing almos USD $990 million in expo s and employing 8,295 people [11]. In he mon ado, many a ms depend p ima ily on co k o income. Al hough he co k indus y has unde gone a di e si ica ion p ocess which allows o he wide u iliza ion o low-quali y co k and agglom- e a ed co k [12–14], high-quali y co k bo le s oppe s s ill play an impo an ole in o e all co k demand, making he mon ado sys em ulne able o co k p ice ola ili y [15] Mon ado landscapes a e exposed o na u al p essu es including in ense wild i es, d ough s and plagues and diseases o co k oaks, as well as an h opogenic p essu es ela ed o u al land use, including bo h u al abandonmen and he in ensi ica ion o ag icul u al ac i i ies, pa ic- ula ly o e g azing by ca le [1,16]. These an h opogenic p essu es a e closely ela ed o his o ic and ongoing socio-economic ac o s such as inc eased ag icul u al wages, u al mig a ion, highe subsidies o ca le aising compa ed o o he li es ock, and ola ili y o co k p ices [3]. Clima e change exace ba es p essu es like ee and o es diseases and d ough , u he endan- ge ing iable co k p oduc ion [17]. Ecosys em se ices a e con ibu ions o human well-being de i ed om ecosys ems and a e g ouped in o he h ee sec ions P o isioning, Regula ion & Main enance, and Cul u al unde he CICES amewo k [18]. Despi e he economic and ecological impo ance o he mon ado landscape, o ou knowledge ecosys em se ice quan i ica ion emains a sca cely used suppo ool by land manage s and spa ial plane s, he eby omi ing an elemen om decision making. Howe e , iden i ica ion and quan i ica ion o ecosys em se ices o assess he consequences o a ious land use scena ios could be a cen al elemen in conse ing his landscape [19]. Fo success ul p ac ical implemen a ion, s akeholde s should be p o ided wi h angible and com- pa able in o ma ion abou ecosys em se ices o managemen and decision-making [20], which migh include e alua ions such as se ice quan i ica ion and mone a y alua ion. In he ace o a changing clima e, economic unce ain y, and a dynamic EU Biodi e si y S a egy, landowne s need o be incen i ized o main ain co k p oduc ion and ex ensi e li e- s ock g azing egimes ha suppo esilien landscapes and biodi e si y. We explo e di e en land use scena ios o a ep esen a i e mon ado si e based on pas esea ch and s akeholde inpu o assess how ecosys em se ice p o ision could change in a dynamic landscape unde p essu e. We gene a e a baseline o ecosys em se ice alua ion wi h a ocus on p o isioning se ices (exp essed h ough co k p oduc ion) and egula ing & main enance se ices Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 2 / 13 FP7-ENV-2012-308393-2. The unde s had no ole in s udy design, da a collec ion and analysis, decision o publish, o p epa a ion o he manusc ip . Compe ing in e es s: The au ho s ha e decla ed ha no compe ing in e es s exis . (exp essed h ough ca bon s o age and seques a ion). Speci ically, we add ess h ee esea ch ques ions: (1) Wha u u e land use scena ios do esea che s and he land manage conside plausible? (2) How would ecosys em se ice deli e y change o each land use scena io? (3) Wha is he economic alue o he ecosys em se ices p o ided unde each scena io? Answe - ing hese ques ions can in o m u u e land use decisions in an a ea expe iencing inc easing human and en i onmen al p essu es. Me hods Ou s udy was based a Companhia das Lezı ´ ias S.A., he la ges ag o-sil o-pas o al a ms ead in he Alen ejo egion [21,22]. Es ablished in 1836, Companhia das Lezı ´ ias (Companhia) has a s ong his o ical legacy and is ope a ed as a public limi ed company wholly-owned by public unds since 1989 [21]. Companhia ollows a ‘philosophy o a sus ained de elopmen ’ and aims o ‘p ese e, alue and make use o i s pa imony and esou ces h ough an in eg a ed, sus ain- able managemen ha con ibu es o he needs o socie y and he ag o o es y sec o ’ [21]. The a ms ead is loca ed 50 km no h-eas o he capi al Lisbon and comp ises a ound 18,000 hec - a es, 5,814 ha o which a e co e ed wi h co k oak s ands (mon ado) wi h a ying unde s o y ege a ion including pe manen and na u al pas u es as well as dense and spa se sh ubs (Fig 1). Cu en ly he a m owns a ound 3,000 ca le heads, which g aze on open o mon ado pas- u es in he ds o 50–300 animals. The a ms ead’s co k oaks a e p o ec ed by Po uguese law, which p o ec s his species om cu ing [23,24]. Fu he , pa s o Companhia a e p o ec ed om con e sion h ough he Na u a 2000 ne wo k and he mon ado’s only paymen o eco- sys em se ices scheme, he p i a ely- unded G een Hea o Co k p ojec , o ganized by WWF in collabo a ion wi h he Fo es P oduce s Associa ion o Co uche (APFC) o ewa d he posi- i e in luence o Fo es S ewa dship Council (FSC) ce i ied mon ado o he conse a ion o wa e sheds in he a ge ed a eas [25]. We analyzed he cu en land use map as well as he h ee land use scena ios using he spa- ially explici InVEST oolki (h ps://www.na u alcapi alp ojec .o g/in es /) o map, quan i y and compa e ecosys em se ices p o ision [28,29]. We employed wo InVEST models: he ‘Managed Timbe P oduc ion’ model o quan i y co k p o isioning, and he ‘Ca bon S o age and Seques a ion: Clima e Regula ion’ model o quan i y ca bon. InVEST gene a es bio-phys- ical as well as mone a y esul s when including a use -de ined alua ion o he ecosys em se - ices unde conside a ion–in ou case co k and ca bon seques a ion. The land use maps used in bo h InVEST models we e adap ed om p e ious maps o he s udy si e gene a ed by Gonc¸al es, Alcobia, Simões, & San os-Reis [26] and las upda ed in 2013 by Cu ei a-San os, Ma ques, Bjo¨ klund, & San os-Reis [27]. In addi ion o quan i ica- ion and alua ion o ecosys em se ices, bo h models p oduce ec o maps. The Ca bon model uses i e ca bon pools o calcula e s o age and seques a ion: abo e-g ound biomass [30–33], below-g ound biomass [32,34–36], soil ca bon [37,38], dead o ganic ma e [33,39], and ha es ed wood p oduc s (calcula ion based on annual epo s om Companhia, Com- panhia das Lezı ´ ias, Rela o ´ ios 2011–2015). The model assumes ha ca bon s o age wi hin each land use ype is cons an o e ime, hus accoun ing only o changes in ha es ed wood p oduc s, no na u al a ia ion, i he land use ype emains unchanged [29]. The imbe model uses a se o ha es in o ma ion including ha es equency, ha es ed biomass, and ma ke alue o ha es ed p oduc s o quan i y ha es ed mass, olume and eco- nomic alue o he imbe p oduc –in ou case co k. I allows o mone a y alua ion by sub- ac ing main enance and ha es cos s om he ma ke p ice o co k. The model assumes ha ce ain alues emain cons an o e he de ined ime pe iod, such as ha es equency, cos , yield, and ma ke p ice [29]. We chose o exp ess alues in e ms o he 50-yea alua ion Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 3 / 13 because o he slow g ow h a e o co k oaks and he associa ed pe iod be o e co k oak can be comme cially ha es ed. Mone a y alua ion o ecosys em se ices equi es pu ing a p ice on biophysical p oduc- ion. To de e mine he e enues om co k sales, we iden i ied he ma ke p ice o $1.33 USD/ kg co k ha Companhia gene a ed o e he pas 5 yea s (Companhia das Lezı ´ ias, Rela o ´ ios 2011–2015) a an a e age exchange a e o EUR 1 o USD 1.107. Fo he Ca bon Seques a ion model we employed a 7% discoun a e o e a pe iod o 50 yea s [29]. Ca bon ma ke s a e ola ile and p ices be ween ca bon s anda ds a y g ea ly. As o oday, he e is no single, globally ep esen a i e p ice o ca bon and cu en ma ke alues o ca - bon emain signi ican ly lowe compa ed o ecommended p ices deemed adequa e o main- aining empe a u e change below 2˚C [40]. To ep esen he cu en ma ke si ua ion and inco po a e u u e p ice ecommenda ions, we used p ices o h ee di e en ca bon s anda ds: High-Le el Commission on Ca bon P ices 2017 ($75 USD/ CO 2 eq), IPCC AFOLU low Fig 1. Land use dis ibu ion map o he s udy a ea. Cu en land use composi ion o he s udy si e a he a ms ead Companhia das Lezı ´ ias S.A., Po ugal, abou 50 km ou side Lisbon. Adap ed om Gonc¸al es, Alcobia, Simões, & San os-Reis [26] and las upda ed in 2013 by Cu ei a-San os, Ma ques, Bjo¨ klund, & San os-Reis [27], inse map: Opens ee map showing Po ugal (g ey bo de ) and loca ion o he a ms ead (pin). h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174.g001 Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 4 / 13 u iliza ion ($20 USD/ CO 2 eq) [41], and he a e age p ice o olun a y ca bon ma ke s an- da ds in 2015 ($3.3 USD/ CO 2 eq) [42]. Scena ios To e alua e ecosys em se ices om co k p oduc ion and ca bon seques a ion unde di e en land uses, we de eloped h ee scena ios ep esen ing plausible u u e de elopmen ajec o ies o he a ms ead, esul ing in new land use maps o analysis. To de elop he scena ios, we d ew on he esul s o p e ious esea ch collabo a ions be ween he Science Facul y o Lisbon Uni e si y and he a ms ead [26], assump ions ega ding plausible land use composi ion and consul ed wi h he a ms ead’s o es manage o ensu e he plausibili y o he scena ios. We de ined wo scena ios ep esen ing an in es men in o one o he wo main ac i i ies a Com- panhia (co k and ca le espec i ely), as well as a hi d scena io whe e ag o o es y e enue is assumed o dec ease and pa o he land is sold and/o used o sca e ed, low densi y housing de elopmen . We decided collabo a i ely in a mee ing and h ough p io communica ion wi h he esea ch eam and he land manage which land uses should be con e ed (e.g. mon- ado o pas u e), he deg ee o change o landscape a ibu es (e.g. ee densi y) and whe e hese changes would ake place. The esiden ial de elopmen scena io ook in o conside a ion ha 8% o Companhia’s e i o y is a Na u e Rese e and 64% is included in he Special P o ec- ion A ea and Si e o Communi y Impo ance o he Tagus es ua y, hus canno be de eloped. O he emaining unp o ec ed land, we alloca ed 10 ha o esiden ial de elopmen . The i s scena io, Ca le In ensi ica ion, en ails mo e han ipling ca le densi y compa ed o he cu en densi y, om 0.32 unde he cu en land use o 1.4 heads ha -1 – he uppe limi o ex ensi e li es ock a ming as de ined by he EU Common Ag icul u al Policy [43,44]. This would equi e an inc ease in he a ea o odde c op cul i a ions (used as a supplemen a y eed) and mo e g azing land (mon ado wi h pas u e) o suppo a la ge numbe o ca le. Highe g azing p essu e om he inc ease in ca le educes he a ea o mon ado wi h unde - s o y ege a ion (see Fig 2). The second scena io, Fo es Imp o emen , conside s an in es men in co k p oduc ion, exp essed by a 50% inc ease in co k oak densi y om 80 o 120 ees ha -1 . Focusing on co k p oduc ion co esponds wi h a educ ion o he numbe o ca le, since co k sales would be he majo income o he a ms ead and high numbe s o ca le impede he expansion o co k oak mon ado as he animals eed on shoo s and compac he soil. Because o he dec eased numbe o ca le, less odde c op cul i a ion a ea and pas u es a e needed o suppo ca le and a e plan ed ins ead wi h co k ees. Sh ub lands would also be pa ially eplaced by mon ado wi h co k oaks (Fig 2). This scena io would be mo e p obable in he case o educed p o i s om ca le ea ing o inc easing demand o co k, which could igge an expansion o he mon ado wi hin he a ms ead wi h a ocus on co k p oduc ion (see Fig 2), in line wi h Companhia’s sus- ainable managemen philosophy. Al e na i ely, in he hi d scena io pa s o Companhia’s land would be sold and/o used o housing de elopmen (Residen ial De elopmen ), concen a ed in wo a eas o 602 ha o al (3.3% o he s udy a ea). To main ain a isually appealing landscape which ea u es he cha ac- e is ics ypically associa ed wi h co k oak mon ado, sh ubby unde s o y ege a ion would be eplaced by pas u e alongside a educ ion o ee densi y o 20 ees ha -1 (Fig 2). While co k oak ees hemsel es a e p o ec ed by law (DL n˚169/2001 de 25 de Maio), excep ions can be made in cases o na ional in e es . The egion’s p oximi y o Lisbon has made i an a ac i e loca ion o bo h exu ban and ec ea ional de elopmen esul ing in. Simila de elopmen p ojec s ha e been ealized nea by such as he O izon e Lisbon Gold [45] and Mon ado Ho el & Gol Reso [46]. The ex ension and con e sion o he Mon ijo Ai Base in o a comme cial Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 5 / 13 ai po o Lisbon would u he inc ease he p essu e o de elop his mon ado o in as uc- u e, u al ou ism, o esiden ial p ojec s [47]. Howe e , acco ding o Companhia’s land man- age la ge scale housing de elopmen in he s udy a ea is unlikely o happen ende ing he Residen ial De elopmen scena io he leas likely. The mos signi ican land use changes unde he h ee u u e scena ios ake place in he cen al and eas e n pa s o he s udy si e (Fig 3), ep esen ing mon ado wi h pas u e and mon- ado wi h sh ubs along wi h a eas o odde c op cul i a ion. The sou h-wes e n ip o he s udy a ea emains mos ly unchanged, e aining i s cu en con igu a ion o oli e g o es, ine- ya ds, and a eas o odde c op cul i a ion, and he wa e bodies and ipa ian a eas a e also undis u bed in he u u e scena ios (Fig 3). Resul s The Fo es Imp o emen scena io yielded he highes le els o bo h ca bon s o age and co k p oduc ion, while he Residen ial De elopmen scena io deli e ed close o cu en p o ision le els, and Ca le In ensi ica ion sco es lowes . Fo es Imp o emen s o es 13.5% mo e ca bon annually compa ed o he cu en land composi ion, esul ing in 104 Gg o seques e ed ca bon o e a 50-yea pe iod (Table 1). Ca bon s o age unde he Residen ial De elopmen scena io dec eased by 29 Gg (-3.8%) and by 83 Gg (-11%) unde Ca le In ensi ica ion. In he Fo es Imp o emen scena io co k p oduc ion inc eases om 6.5 Gg o 10.5 Gg o biomass (+61.5%) while in he Ca le In ensi ica ion scena io p oduc ion declines by 1.0 Gg Fig 2. Land use dis ibu ion in cu en s a e and scena ios. Visual ep esen a ions o he h ee u u e land use scena ios de eloped by consul ing he o es manage o Companhia das Lezı ´ ias. Numbe s shown a e absolu e o numbe o ca le pe hec a e and pe cen change compa ed o cu en a ea o each land use. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174.g002 Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 6 / 13 compa ed o he cu en land composi ion (-15.4%). Co k p oduc ion unde Residen ial De elopmen d ops o 6.0 Gg (-7.7%). Con e ing he p oduc ion o ou s udied ecosys em se ices in o mone a y alues co obo- a es he end obse ed o bio-physical alues: Fo es Imp o emen gene a es he highes amoun o po en ial e enue om ecosys em se ices while Ca le Imp o emen p oduces he lowes . Fig 3. Land use composi ion maps o cu en s a e and scena ios. S udy a ea maps showing he baseline scena io (cu en land use composi ion) and how land use would be changed unde he h ee u u e land use scena ios desc ibed in Fig 2. Inse map a) shows he No h-Wes esiden ial de elopmen a ea, inse map b) he Sou h-Wes esiden ial de elopmen a ea. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174.g003 Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 7 / 13 Based on he 5-yea a e age ma ke p ice o Companhia’s co k p oduc s, we calcula ed e e- nue om co k sales o $23.31 million USD o he Fo es Imp o emen scena io. In con as , he e enue om co k sales in he Ca le In ensi ica ion scena io is lowe by $11.11 million USD (-47.7%), o aling $12.20 million USD (Table 1) while he Residen ial De elopmen sce- na io gene a es $13.23 million USD o sales e enue. The mone a y alua ion o ca bon seques a ion p o ides a simila pic u e. Fo es Imp o e- men shows posi i e income om seques a ion, wi h alues anging om $0.34 o $7.79 mil- lion USD o e 50 yea s while Ca le In ensi ica ion (-$0.27 o -$6.20 million USD) and Residen ial De elopmen (-$0.10 o -$2.27 million USD) ep esen losses (Fig 4). Al hough he ends o ca bon seques a ion a e he same be ween scena ios, a ying he alue o he p ice o ca bon esul s in s a k di e ences o absolu e mone a y alue be ween he scena ios. When applying he a e age p ice o olun a y ca bon ma ke s anda ds in 2015 ($3.3 USD/ CO 2 eq) [42], he absolu e di e ence in seques a ion alue be ween Ca le In ensi- ica ion and Fo es Imp o emen is $0.61 million USD. The same wo scena ios, howe e , show an absolu e ma gin in seques a ion alues o $13.99 million USD when applying he IPCC 2014 AFOLU alue o ca bon–mo e han a six- old di e ence. Table 1. Co k biomass p oduc ion and ca bon seques a ion in Gg o e a 50-yea pe iod. Cu en Land Composi ion Ca le In ensi ica ion Fo es Imp o emen Residen ial De elopmen To al co k biomass p oduc ion (Gg) 6.5 5.5 10.5 6.0 Re enue om co k sales (million USD) 14.32 $23.31 $12.20 $13.23 Ca bon seques a ion (Gg) - -82.6 103.9 -28.9 h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174. 001 Fig 4. Ca bon seques a ion alue o a 50-yea pe iod in million USD. Ca bon seques a ion alue calcula ed using he h ee sou ces o p ices shown, based on he ca bon seques a ion calcula ed by InVEST o he h ee land use scena ios ( esul s shown in Table 1). h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174.g004 Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 8 / 13 When combining he mone a y alues o bo h ca bon s o age and co k p oduc ion, di e - ences in ecosys em se ices alues be ween he scena ios inc ease u he : he Ca le In ensi i- ca ion scena io gene a es a o al ecosys em se ice alue be ween $-0.5 million o $5.23 million USD. The o al alue o ca bon seques a ion and co k p o ision in he Fo es Imp o emen scena io anges om $10.84 million o $18.29 million USD and in he Residen ial De elop- men om $3.83 million o $5.9 million USD. Discussion The mon ado landscape is subjec o bo h an h opogenic (e.g. ag icul u al in ensi ica ion, luc- ua ing demand o co k, u al abandonmen ) and na u al p essu es (e.g. d ough , wild i es), challenging adi ional co k p oduc ion p ac ices and ex ensi e li es ock g azing egimes which a e i al o main aining he mon ado’s ecological esilience and biodi e si y [10,15]. Howe e , ag icul u al policies and subsidy schemes, dominan land managemen philoso- phies, and inadequa e ca bon p icing mechanisms ins ead a o in ensi e ca le p oduc ion o e uminan s adi ionally ound in he mon ado, such as sheep and goa s [48,49]. In addi- ion, e enue om co k p oduc ion is subjec o ma ke demands and p ice ola ili y, despi e a di e si ica ion p ocess o he co k indus y [12–15]. Clima e change u he exace ba es his issue wi h a empe a u e inc ease o 2.9˚C es ima ed o dec ease co k p oduc ion by 20% [50]. Thus, including al e na i e indica o s like ecosys em se ice p o ision in o decision and policy making p ocesses may gene a e addi ional incen i es o sus ainable use in he mon ado [51]. A equen ly sugges ed solu ion o in eg a ing ecosys em se ices in o decision making p o- cesses and incen i izing sus ainable p ac ices is paymen o ecosys em se ices (PES) [52]. Wi h he G een Hea o Co k p ojec , a PES scheme has been es ablished in he Po uguese Alen ejo and Riba ejo egions in which Companhia also pa akes [25]. The scheme ecognizes he posi i e in luence o High Conse a ion Value a ea and Fo es S ewa dship Council (FSC) ce i ied mon ado o he conse a ion o wa e sheds [2,15,53]. Pa icipa ing land owne s ecei e $17.80 USD pe hec a e o high conse a ion alue a ea, o aling $11,070 USD pe annum o Companhia [54,55]. Fu he , he a ms ead pa icipa es in he Ca bono Ze o p oj- ec , h ough which hey sold 1,300 CO 2 om 55ha o mon ado in 2017 [56]. These wo examples o compa a i ely low and/o in equen income gene a ed h ough PES schemes poin owa ds a c i ical issue: alua ion o ecosys em se ices does no di ec ly ansla e in o income o he pa icipan s. While in he case o Companhia co k is a di ec sou ce o income, ca bon seques a ion and wa e shed p o ec ion gene a e negligible p o i s. Fo ca bon, his is mos ly due o he absence o a iable ca bon seques a ion paymen sys em, high ma ke ola ili y, and low a e age p ices [42]. In addi ion o co k p oduc ion as a p o isioning se ice and ca bon seques a ion as a egu- la ion and main enance se ice, we a emp ed o u ilize he ‘Visi a ion: Rec ea ion and Tou - ism’ model o cul u al alua ion, bu he online da abase Flick , used by he InVEST model, had oo ew en ies o geo agged pho og aphs o gene a e signi ican esul s. Howe e , ela ed wo k has shown ha adi ional mon ado was he mos alued landscape by pa icipan s o a Po uguese s udy ca ied ou in 2016 [57]. The high aes he ical and cul u al app ecia ion o he mon ado could p o ide a u he pa hway o landowne o capi alize on main aining and adop ing sus ainable managemen p ac ices. Fu u e s udies will bene i om sys ema ically selec ing ecosys em se ices o ep esen he h ee CICES sec ions o ecosys em se ices (P o- isioning, Regula ion & Main enance, and Cul u al) in o de o cap u e po en ial adeo s [18]. A u he oppo uni y o highligh he alue o a heal hy mon ado lies in i s capaci y o con- ibu e o ca bon mi iga ion a ge s. Wi h 5,814 ha o co k oak woodland, Companhia Co k and ca bon alua ion in Po ugal PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0212174 Ma ch 7, 2019 9 / 13