Inclusions
and exclusions
in he p oduc ion
and ci cula ion
o scien i ic
knowledge:
he case o he Royal
An h opological
Ins i u e ( ai) and o
he Po uguese Socie y
o An h opology
and E hnology (spae)
Pa ícia Fe az de Ma os
1 7.
408 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in
in oduc ion
This ex examines and demons a es why he ac i i y o wo Eu opean
scien i ic socie ies ca ied ou app oxima ely om 1918 o 1960 (al hough bo h
a e s ill ac i e oday) enables us o s udy inclusion and exclusion dynamics.1
These dynamics will be analysed based on he s udy o he ela ionship
be ween he Royal An h opological Ins i u e ( ai) – c ea ed in 1871 and s ill
ecognised and enowned in e na ionally oday – and he Po uguese Socie y
o An h opology and E hnology (spae, Sociedade Po uguesa de An opologia
e E nologia) – ounded in 1918 and whose ac i i y is nowadays conside ed
pe iphe al. Ne e heless, du ing he i s hal o he 20 h cen u y, hese socie ies
sha ed some o hei membe s, exchanged ideas, esea ch and publica ions,
and coope a ed in he o ganisa ion o se e al in e na ional e en s.
The esea ch p esen ed in his ex is ela ed o wo wide esea ch p ojec s:
one en i led “The wea ings o science: an an h opological iew on he ne wo ks
unde lying he o ging o scien i ic knowledge”, which I am wo king on a he
Ins i u e o Social Sciences o he Uni e si y o Lisbon; and ano he on he
his o y o he ai, sponso ed by his same ins i u ion. My p ojec a ics aims
o con ibu e owa ds he s udy o he ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology in
Po ugal, based on an analysis o he people and knowledge ne wo ks connec ed
o spae and he Uni e si y o Po o, up o he 1970s. On he o he hand, he ai
p ojec , encompassing he his o y o he ins i u ion i sel , is a long- e m s udy
on which specialis s om se e al coun ies a e cu en ly wo king. The analysis
p esen ed he e is he e o e se ou as wo k in p og ess and no as an accoun
o inal esul s, since bo h p ojec s a e s ill unning. This is, as ye , an unde -
explo ed subjec , mainly om he pe spec i e o he social s udies o science,
and some o he ma e ials used, and which I in end o le e age, a e widely
unknown, o ha e been sca cely s udied. This can also be due o he di icul y
in accessing and wo king on a signi ican pa o hose p ima y sou ces.
The eason why I decided o widen my esea ch o he ai a chi e is he ac
ha his ins i u ion has played a cen al ole in he his o y o an h opology,
ga he ing a ound i a se o people who ha e o ganised se e al ac i i ies
ela ed o his ield. I has also been a s a ing poin o se e al ini ia i es, bo h
1 My since e hanks o Sa ah Walpole (a chi is a he ai) o he suppo gi en o me du ing my
esea ch. I also hank spae’s boa d, pa icula ly i s chai man, Ví o Oli ei a Jo ge, o allowing me o
access he a chi e.
p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 409
a a na ional and in e na ional le el. I s a chi e has a conside able olume
o co espondence sen by people and ins i u ions om all con inen s, which
could be he possible basis o mapping a ela ionship.
Al hough his analysis is ocused on he ela ionship be ween hese
wo ins i u ions, in some ins ances i can be widened, conside ing o he
Po uguese ins i u ions wi h which he ai has had connec ions, namely he
Uni e si ies o Coimb a and Lisbon, as well as ins i u ions in o he e i o ies
once adminis a ed by he Po uguese, such as Goa (in he hen Po uguese
India and unde Po uguese dominion un il 1961). The ma e ial held by
spae and he ai may o e us much use ul in o ma ion o he s udy o he
ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology, as a discipline, bo h in Po ugal and in
England, bu also a a global le el.
My me hodology is inspi ed, among o he s, by he wo k o B uno La ou
(1987), bu i is no s ic ly guided by i , as in o he s udies (Bas os and Ba e o
2013), and conside s i s limi a ions. Conce ning he analysis o a ne wo k o
people, i is impo an o keep in mind he bounda ies o he ac o -ne wo k
heo y and o he social s udies o science and echnology2 (Mendes 2010).
On he o he hand, we canno o ge ha he e a e indi iduals and e en s
o ced in o silence and in isibili y. Any c i ical analysis mus bea in mind
he limi a ions o he scien is ’s scope and he ci cums an ial cha ac e o i s
conclusions, when s udying he way scien i ic knowledge has been buil and
dissemina ed.
The ma e o in isibili y may also be ela ed o p ocesses o app ecia ion,
selec ion and sponso ing. Some au ho s ha e classi ied he Po uguese
scien i ic sys em as pe iphe al. Fo example, João A iscado Nunes and Ma ia
Edua da Gonçal es (2001, 19) conside ha “ om he poin o iew o he
capi alis economy/wo ld and o he in e s a e sys em, Po ugal is a pe iphe al
coun y” and ha his condi ion is one o he “keys o unde s anding he
speci ic ea u es o he his o y o science in Po ugal”. As ega ds an h opology,
we ealise ha some examples ha e been shown o play a mo e cen al ole
in he his o y o his a ea. This is he case o B i ish social an h opology, o
Ame ican cul u al an h opology and also o an h opology in F ance, which,
du ing he 1960s and 1970s, gained impo an s a us, mainly due o au ho s
such as Claude Lé i-S auss (1908-2009). On he o he hand, wi h espec o
he ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology, no all con ibu o s o his p ocess a e
2 On he challenges b ough o hese heo ies by he new echnologies, see Ma os (2017).
410 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in
conside ed as such, and su ely no as p ecu so s, o as ha ing p esen ed wo k
ha dese es o be emembe ed. These a e he ones Richa d Handle (2000)
designa ed as “excluded ances o s”, ha is, hose au ho s who, despi e ha ing
played a ole ha was conside ed impo an du ing hei li e ime, we e a ed
o obli ion o o he denial o hei con ibu ion.3
Fo he easons p esen ed abo e, o s udy he way he wo scien i ic
socie ies (spae and ai) we e ela ed a some ime is a con ibu ion o
con i ming Po ugal’s pe iphe al s a us, al hough, in some ci cums ances, i
has played a p ominen ole in compa ison o o he coun ies.4 I will s a by
cha ac e ising he pa icula i ies I ound in bo h a chi es, ai’s and spae’s.
I will hen desc ibe he con ex in which hese socie ies we e bo n and he
ac i i ies hey ca ied ou , as well as hei publica ions. In a la e sec ion, I
will analyse he ela ionship be ween hese socie ies, based on ins i u ional
and pe sonal co espondence, on he exchange o esea ch and publica ions,
on he in i a ion o o eign scien is s o become hono a y o co esponden
membe s, and also on he o ganisa ion o scien i ic mee ings.
This analysis was based, no only on he a chi al documen a ion o hese
socie ies (in London and Po o, espec i ely), bu also on hei pe iodical
publica ions, ha is, he Jou nal o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e
( o me ly Man) and T abalhos de An opologia e E nologia ( ae). Wi hin he
scope o he wo k exchange and o he coope a ion in he jou nals published
by bo h socie ies, I will app oach some o he subjec s inco po a ed in hese
publica ions ha a e di ec ly ela ed o he his o ical con ex whe e hey we e
b ough o li e. Fu he mo e, I will analyse he co espondence exchanged
be ween he ai and o he Po uguese ins i u ions besides spae, as well as
he join e o s a o ganising e en s, such as in e na ional cong esses, o
he o ma ion o scien i ic commi ees de o ed o speci ic ma e s. We will
see, in he pe iod unde analysis, ha bo h socie ies ha e con ibu ed o he
specialisa ion o a g ea e numbe o people in a speci ic scien i ic domain –
an h opology –, as dis inguished om o he a eas, as well as o sp eading he
knowledge p oduced by his new s udy ield.
3 An example o hese au ho s in he Po uguese scien i ic wo ld, and pa icula ly in he his o y
o an h opology, is Mendes Co eia (1888-1960), whose li e and wo k I analysed in my doc o al
disse a ion (Ma os 2012).
4 On he ela ionship be ween Po ugal and B azil, o example, om some o he mos enowned
scien is s o his pe iod (1910s – 1960s), see Ma os (2013a).
p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 411
The analysis o he ai and spae’s ela ionship will allow us o de e mine he
inclusion and exclusion dynamics ega ding he p oduc ion and ci cula ion o
scien i ic knowledge. This ela ionship, which in ol ed he selec ion o ac o s
and a eas, o he p omo ion o ini ia i es, shows us ha some s uc u es ha e
e ealed g ea e s eng h (by being associa ed wi h coun ies like he Uni ed
Kingdom o F ance) and e en ually de e mined he s anda ds based on which
a i udes we e s a ed, posi ions held and powe s a egies consolida ed, and
which we e la e on ep oduced. E en oday we s ill ind some emnan s o
hose phenomena.
he ield and he con ex
The challenges an a chi e esea ch p esen s o us a e huge, bu acco ding o
T is an Pla , i can be as ocused as ieldwo k. Documen s e e o he same
people and he same places we ind in he chao ic ieldwo k no es, ela ing
hem o o he s, as unknown places (Pla 2012, 31). The e o e, simila ly o he
li e o indi iduals, he a chi e sou ces a e open. They answe ce ain ques ions
bu aise u he ones ha emain unanswe ed (Pla 2012, 32).
The ai a chi e is comp ised o a g ea a ie y o ma e ials (documen s,
pho og aphs, ilms and objec s). I is in a mul i-s o ey building, is well o ganised
and accessible o esea che s; and my esea ch he e was an in e es ing and
p oduc i e expe ience (Figu e 17.1).
When I wen o spae, howe e , I did no ind an o ganised a chi e (Figu e
17.2). My s udy o ced me o c ea e he necessa y condi ions o an a chi e o ,
in his case, o my own ield. This ma e ial included monog aphs, pe iodicals,
mul imedia documen s, he a chi e sec ion i sel , and a se o publica ions by
he socie y. Gi en i s impo ance, I s essed i s alue o he membe s o his
socie y and he need o i s due p ese a ion, in en o y and accessibili y o
o he esea che s. Following se e al measu es aken since 2013, he ma e ial
was in en o ied o he i s ime in 20155, in a p ocedu e ha in ol ed he
P esiden o spae, he Rec o y o he Uni e si y o Po o, he Di ec o o he
Facul y o Humani ies o his uni e si y, as well as he suppo o wo assis an s
wi h a chi e aining.
5 Once he in en o y was comple ed, in Oc obe 2015, wi h minimal in o ma ion (au ho , da e, and
edi ion), we ealised ha i con ained 36,403 eco ds, di ided in o 27,921 pe iodicals, 8,470 monog aphs
and 12 mul imedia uni s. Addi ionally he e a e 12,048 olumes o publica ions by spae, ga he ed in 902
boxes.

412 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in
ai A chi e, London, 2016.
spae A chi e, Po o, 2015.
Figu e 17.1
Figu e 17.2
All pho og aphies © Pa ícia Fe az de Ma os.
p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 413
The pa pe aining o a chi e ma e ial has no ye been in en o ied, bu
I ha e al eady s a ed consul ing i (Figu e 17.2). F om he monog aph and
pe iodical in en o y, we can conclude ha he numbe o exchanges, as well
as he numbe o indi iduals and places ha ha e had con ac wi h spae a e
highe han p edic ed. This will allow me o make a wide and mo e comple e
mapping han ini ially planned.
The appea ance o ai and spae, as well as he ac i i ies hese ins i u ions
ha e os e ed and de eloped, mus be seen in he con ex o he his o ic
pe iod in which hey occu ed. On he o he hand, bo h he local and global
ocus a e impo an , as well as conside ing he dynamics a a o mal and
in o mal le el. Besides his, i is impo an o unde s and wha was decided
o be included and excluded wi hin his con ex . As men ioned by Adam
Kupe :
Ea nes science s o ies, such as good e hnog aphies, mus encompass he p ac ices o i s
ac o s, ins i u ional s uc u es, social ne wo ks, in ellec ual and ma e ial esou ces, as well
as he ela ionships o o he disciplines and o eign schools o wi h o icial bodies. (…) We
mus no e lec only upon wha an h opologis s speak o , bu also upon who hey speak
o and who hey exclude om ha in e ac ion.
The pe iod analysed in his ex uns om he end o he Fi s o ha
o he Second Wo ld Wa . This pe iod also wi nesses he ounda ion and
a i ma ion o spae as a scien i ic socie y, which s imula ed he de elopmen
o an h opology and sough i s ecogni ion in he uni e si y en i onmen
as an independen s udy domain. In England, he pe iod om 1918 o 1945
was ma ked by he eme gence o unc ionalis e hnog aphy, he di ision o
an h opology in o sub-disciplines and he de ini i e ins i u ionalisa ion
o an h opology in uni e si ies. The ai was connec ed o hese p ocesses
and ollowed hei e olu ion by o ganising con e ences and publica ions.
A he same ime, i expanded i s lib a y, c ea ed he In e na ional Union
o An h opological and E hnological Sciences, and made se e al a emp s
o allow an h opology o also play a ole as an applied science. Du ing ha
pe iod, he ai was a con luence poin o indi iduals connec ed o se e al
ins i u ions and sub-a eas in an h opology.
The ai, c ea ed in 1871, and spae, c ea ed in 1918, we e p eceded by o he
scien i ic socie ies, bu sough o bene i om hose p e ious expe iences, bo h
in hei own, as well as in o he Eu opean coun ies and in he usa. In Eu ope,
414 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in
he mos signi ican lea ned socie y, he E hnological Socie y o London,
was ounded in 1843; and, in 1871, i was me ged wi h he An h opological
Socie y o London (c ea ed in 1862) o o m he ai. I s i s membe s we e
ama eu s and, la e on, colonial o ice s and missiona ies ollowed sui . These
membe s we e g adually eplaced by p o essional an h opologis s and, in
1992, i s membe ship al eady eached 2,408 (U y 2006, 44). To ecei e ull
ai ellowship, po en ial membe s mus be p oposed by Fellows who a e
pe sonally acquain ed wi h hem. ai Membe ship is aimed mainly a schola s
who ha e dis inguished hemsel es p o essionally o academically wi hin he
scope o humani ies o social sciences. Fellows a e elec ed by he ai Council
and can use he hono i ic pos -nominal le e s ai. Howe e , he ai does
no include only academic an h opologis s, bu also indi iduals in e es ed
in an h opology, o quali ied in an h opology, who a e cu en ly wo king in
o he a eas.
The ai publishes h ee jou nals: Jou nal o he Royal An h opological
Ins i u e6 ( o me ly Man); An h opology Today; An h opological Index
Online (launched in 1997). Besides hese, wi h he au ho isa ion o he ai
Council, he i le Indian An iqua y was published, be ween 1925 and 1932.
The ai’s collec ion is composed o ilms, pho og aphs, a chi e ma e ial and
manusc ip s. Bo h he a chi e and he manusc ip s co espond o a pe iod
o o e 150 yea s. The ai s ill main ains a close ela ionship wi h he B i ish
Museum’s An h opology Lib a y, which inco po a es he o me ai Lib a y
dona ed o he Museum in 1976.
The ai encompasses all ields in an h opology (a a biological, e olu iona y,
social, cul u al, isual and medical le el) and sha es in e es s wi h o he a eas,
such as a chaeology, linguis ics and human gene ics. I s ield o ac ion is
di e si ied by seeking o combine academic adi ion wi h he se ices o e ed
o he an h opological communi y. The ac i i ies p omo ed by he ai seek o
each a wide audience and in o m on he bene i s an h opology may o e in he
esolu ion o cu en , conc e e issues. Among hese ac i i ies a e con e ences,
wo kshops o e en s on speci ic opics. One o he mos app ecia ed is he
In e na ional Film Fes i al, aking place e e y wo yea s in pa ne ship wi h
Uni ed Kingdom uni e si ies.
6 The i le used be ween 1907 and 1965 was The Jou nal o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e o
G ea B i ain and I eland. F om 1995 onwa ds, i bo e he i le The Jou nal o he Royal An h opological
Ins i u e.
p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 415
Such ai ac i i ies, indi idually and pa ne ed by o he ins i u ions, ha e
con ibu ed o he di usion o his socie y and i s consolida ion in e na ionally.
The publishing o se e al jou nals has allowed i o ake in new au ho s and
ends, and o each mo e di e si ied audiences. The same applies o he
o ganisa ion o e en s di ec ed a a specialised audience, bu also a he public
in gene al.
In he Po uguese case, he ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology was pa allel
o he a i ma ion and ins i u ionalisa ion o o he a eas. This occu ed in a
simila manne o o he Eu opean and No h Ame ican coun ies, bu did
bea i s own speci ici ies bo h a a local and egional le el (Ma os 2016). On
he o he hand, his p ocess was in luenced by he poli ical and ideological
con ex owa ds he end o he 19 h and he beginning o he 20 h cen u y
(Ma os 2012).
spae was ounded in Po o in 1918. Conside ing he da es o o he
an h opological socie ies c ea ed in Eu ope – in Pa is (1858), Be lin (1869),
Vienna (1870), London and I aly (1871), and Sweden (1872) – spae (1918)
was a he la e in appea ing. I is, howe e , impo an o no e ha spae
had impo an p edecesso s in Po ugal, namely he Ca los Ribei o Socie y,
c ea ed in Po o in 1888 (which included ou depa men s: Geology and
Palaeon ology; Zoology and Bo any; An h opology; E hnog aphy), and he
Socie y o An h opology, c ea ed in Coimb a in 1896. spae was ounded on he
ini ia i e o Mendes Co eia (1888-1960), who g adua ed in Medicine om
he Po o Medical and Su gical School in 1911 and would become he p ima y
men o o he Po o School o An h opology, which exis ed as such in he
i s hal o he 20 h cen u y. In he p ocess o c ea ing spae, Mendes Co eia
coun ed on he suppo o mo e expe ienced pe sonali ies, connec ed o he
Facul y o Medicine and o he Facul y o Sciences o he Uni e si y o Po o,
and o he Poly echnic Academy in Po o. Howe e , despi e he p edominance
o academics in i s di ec i e bodies, spae has always coun ed on he p esence
o indi iduals om ou side academia, ha is, om he mili a y, eligious and
business domains (Ma os 2016).
The name o he socie y illus a es he ini ial di ision be ween an h opology
( he s udy o he human being in e ms o hei physical and biological
dimension) and e hnology ( he s udy o he human being in e ms o hei
social and cul u al dimension). spae ope a ed a he Ins i u e o An h opology
o he Uni e si y o Po o (iaup), o ganised se e al scien i ic mee ings and
egula ly published he jou nal T abalhos de An opologia e E nologia ( ae).
422 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in
in 1948, in B ussels and Te u en. Subsequen ly, i was o ganised e e y ou
yea s, as ini ially planned. The e o e, he ou h mee ing happened in 1952, in
Vienna, he i h in 1956, in Philadelphia, and he six h in 1960, in Pa is.
This cong ess had a Pe manen Council ha coo dina ed he e en . I
included ou membe s o each coun y, assis ed by one o wo Na ional
Sec e a ies.18 The membe s o his Pe manen Council we e elec ed, and i also
included au ho s connec ed o Po ugal. Fo example, a he cong ess’ London
Session, in 1934, he ollowing Po uguese ep esen a i es we e p esen :
Mendes Co eia, Eusébio Tamagnini (p o esso a he Uni e si y o Coimb a),
and he Na ional Sec e a ies, Ví o Fon es (P esiden o he An h opology
Commi ee o he Lisbon Geog aphic Socie y), and J. R. dos San os Júnio
(p o esso a he Uni e si y o Po o). O hese ou , only Mendes Co eia
and Ví o Fon es ook pa in he e en . The consul ed documen 19 s a es ha
“Fon es is a physical an h opologis and ead a pape on ‘Su la mo phologie
du cou’”. Acco ding o he p e ious documen , he ai has no eco d o who
we e he ep esen a i es o Po ugal and he usa in he Pe manen Council o
he Copenhagen Mee ing in 1938. The analysis o hese documen s sugges s
ha Po ugal exhibi ed a ce ain neu ali y, while o he coun ies, such as he
Uni ed Kingdom o F ance, ough among hemsel es o p o agonism. This
a i ude may ne e heless be ela ed o he goal o he scien i ic communi y in
Po ugal, a leas pa ly, o be ecognised in e na ionally, wi hou le e aging
na ional i al ies.
Po ugal, and he indi iduals connec ed o his coun y, may also be
included in he opics deal wi h in documen s hey we e no di ec ly in ol ed
in. This happened, o example, in a le e 20 w i en by E. J. Lindg en (Liaison
O ice , om he B i ish Council) o Da id Shillan (B i ish Council), on Ap il
14 h, 1944, whe e he men ions ha he in ends o deal wi h “Po uguese a ai s”:
18 The Pe manen Resea ch Commi ees a e: “S anda disa ion o an h opological echnique”;
“In e na ional esea ch on A c ic peoples and cul u e”; “O ganisa ion and employmen o ilms in
an h opology and e hnog aphy”; “Compila ion o a compa a i e ocabula y o an h opological and
e hnological e ms”, la e called “The s udy and de ini ion o an h opological and e hnological e ms”.
The subsequen Commi ees included: “The condi ions o an h opological and e hnological eaching in
he coun ies ep esen ed a he Cong ess”, and “ he obs acles o he admission o hese s udies in public
educa ion and Conse a ion o Abo iginal peoples whose modes o li e a e scien i ic in e es ”.
19 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional des Sciences An h opologiques e E hnologiques. Conseil
Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/3/7).
20 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional… Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/3/1).

p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 423
I am aking he libe y o enclose, o you pe sonal use, a copy o a con iden ial accoun
by Si John My es o he p esen posi ion ega ding he in e na ional cong esses o
p ehis o y and an h opology which he did so much o es ablish be ween he wo wa s.
His e e ences o he mau ais cong ès21 may be explained by saying, b ie ly, ha (as I
ha e been old) a e he las wa he F ench insis ed on subs i u ing o a p e ious, ‘ uly
in e na ional’, se ies one domina ed by he F ench and hei Eas e n Eu opean allies, and
excluding ex-enemy scien is s. The B i ish delega es ough his in mee ing a e mee ing,
o he execu i e bu , on being inally de ea ed owa ds he end o he wen ies, decided
o sponso ano he se ies, o his old ype. The P ehis o ic ones me in 1932 and 1936
and he one o ‘An h opological and E hnological Sciences’ in 1934 (London) and 1938
(Copenhagen). The la e wo I a ended and hey we e a conspicuous success; hei
in luence indeed sp ead a beyond hei pa icula sec o o he social sciences.
You will see om Si John’s ema ks ha , e y wisely, he wishes us o a oid he mis ake
he F ench made be o e, and ha is why he a ou s ou accep ing he ea lie Po uguese
in i a ion (i enewed) a he han sugges ing ha we s a a esh once mo e, and once
mo e in London. In any case I shall, as you see, be sounding ou he Cong ess o icials in
usa, and, i I do e u n ia Lisbon (which is p obably), also he Po uguese an h opologis s
who we e in Copenhagen in 1938.
Acco ding o his le e , he o ganisa ion o cong esses dedica ed mainly o a
scien i ic domain, in his case an h opology (sepa a ely om a chaeology and
p ehis o y), could ac ually be a success. In a con lic i e a mosphe e be ween
he Uni ed Kingdom and F ance, i is he p esiden o he ai himsel , John
My es, who a ou s he accep ance o Po ugal’s o e o hos he ollowing
In e na ional Cong ess o An h opological and E hnological Sciences, and
no London; so ha o he coun ies migh be gi en an oppo uni y and o
display a uly in e na ional a i ude. This example was ye ano he esul o
he Po uguese scien i ic communi y’s e o s owa ds being included in he
in e na ional meande s conce ning he o ganisa ion o la ge e en s.
These le e s some imes un eil commen s and con idences ela ed o he
con ex in which hey we e w i en and include ma e s ela ed o poli ics and
wa . Among hem, I sough o de e mine i hese ma e s al e ed o dis up ed
he ela ionship be ween Po ugal and he Uni ed Kingdom. Du ing he
Second Wo ld Wa , some eminde s a ise ein o cing he idea ha science
should be abo e poli ical in e es s. This happens, o example, in a le e by
21 Unde lined in he o iginal.
424 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in
John L. Mye s ( ai Hon. Sec e a y), da ed Ap il 6 h, 1944, o E. J. Lindg en
(B i ish Council), on econs uc ing he in e na ional cong esses, whe e he
men ions ha he hopes “ o ge scien i ic p oblems and o ganisa ions ee
om poli ical conside a ions”.22 Also in a le e om S allman ( ai Assis an
Sec e a y, 1941-52), da ed July 3 d, 1944, o John L. Mye s, i is s a ed ha
“ca e mus be aken o e ‘poli ical’ aspec s”.23
On he o he hand, he esea ch p oduced du ing ha pe iod, and he
changes and limi a ions i b ough , we e among he subjec s deal wi h. The
opic o wa was also he main heme o he a icle, “An h opology on he
con inen o Eu ope in wa - ime” by William Bulle Fagg (Hon. Sec e a y o
ai). Published in Na u e in 1946 (London, ol. 158, July 6 h), i alks o he
mee ing o he Pe manen Council ha ook place in England ha same yea ,
and begins by saying:
As has al eady been epo ed in Na u e o May 18, p. 665, he Pe manen Council o he
In e na ional Cong ess o An h opological and E hnological Sciences isi ed England
du ing Ap il a he in i a ion o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e, and a mos success
mee ing was o ganised a Ox o d by Si John My es, one o he join sec e a ies o he
Cong ess, o make a angemen s o nex ull mee ing and o ad ance he wo k o he
s anding commi ees. The Royal An h opological Ins i u e ook ad an age o his ga he ing
o in i e he delega es o ead sho pape s a in o mal mee ings o he Ins i u e in London,
on he days immedia ely p eceding and ollowing he Ox o d mee ings, as a means o
making be e known in B i ain and among he delega es hemsel es he p og ess made
in an h opological science in hei se e al coun ies since he ou b eak o wa b ough
in e na ional con ac s o a s op. (Fagg 1946, 1)
The a icle by Fagg highligh s he mee ing o he cong ess’ Pe manen
Council and s esses he ac ha his oppo uni y allowed some o he
in e na ional delega es o ead hei pape s a in o mal mee ings. Among hem
was he Po uguese Eusébio Tamagnini, who p esen ed he pape en i led,
“P og ess in Po ugal in an h opological and e hnological s udies”.24 Fagg is
e y posi i e abou Tamagnini’s ex and he wo k o o he Po uguese in he
domains o physical an h opology and a chaeology:
22 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional… Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/3/2).
23 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional… Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/3/9).
24 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional… Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/4/8).
p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 425
In physical an h opology, as in domes ic e hnog aphy, G ea B i ain lags a p esen
a behind, and P o . Tamagnini’s alk on Ap il 18, ou lining ema kable p og ess
made in Po ugal, was esh salu a y p oo o his. A e a sho ske ch o he his o y
o an h opological s udies in Po ugal (wi h hei emphasis om he beginning on he
physical side), he summa ised cu en esea ch ac i i ies a Lisbon (unde Heleno, de
Vilhena and Ba bosa Suei o), Po o (Mendes Co êa and Pi es de Lima) and Coimb a
( he speake himsel and Se a). Finally, he desc ibed his own Ins i u e’s e y la ge and
impo an s a is ical unde aking, in which he genealogical me hod is being applied in
he s udy o blood g oups and o he cha ac e s among g ea numbe s o amilies in he
Depa men o Coimb a. (Fagg 1946, 7)
The e o e, he ci cums ance o wa does no seem o ha e in luenced, a
leas appa en ly, he ela ionship be ween Po ugal and he Uni ed Kingdom,
no coope a ion in scien i ic p oduc ion. The co espondence wi h au ho s
connec ed o Po ugal, o wi h e e ences o his coun y, also appea s in some
olde s o he ai’s manusc ip collec ion conce ning he ollowing au ho s:
William C ooke (1848-1923), e hnologis and olklo is ; A hu Kei h (1866-
-1965), ana omis and an h opologis ; and He be John Fleu e (1877-1969),
zoologis and geog aphe . The names o hese scien is s and he a eas hey
we e ocused on ein o ce he idea ha , despi e he endea ou on behal o
an h opology’s au onomy, he inpu ecei ed om specialis s in o he a eas
also con ibu ed o u he deepening some o i s subdomains.
conclusion
F om he s udy o he ela ionship be ween he ai and spae, wi h a ocus on
he p oduc ion, legi ima ion and knowledge ci cula ion p ocesses, we a e
able o s udy inclusion and exclusion dynamics. The ai has allowed se e al
indi iduals o in e na ionalise hei wo k and has consolida ed i s posi ion
in he in e na ional con ex . Du ing he pe iod unde s udy, Po ugal was a
pe iphe al coun y in e ms o scien i ic p oduc ion. Ne e heless, examples
such as spae e eal he e o o he Po uguese scien i ic communi y owa ds
in e na ionalisa ion. spae’s in e na ionalisa ion s a egy included con ac s
wi h he ai. I in i ed membe s o he ai o be i s own membe s and
collabo a o s. La e on, some o spae’s membe s and/o people connec ed
o he Uni e si y o Po o became membe s o he ai. The e was also
426 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in
mu ual collabo a ion in he o ganisa ion o e en s, such as in e na ional
cong esses.
Bo h he ai and spae ha e os e ed scien i ic s udies, no only in he
coun ies whe e hey we e c ea ed (Po ugal and England), bu also in he
coun ies unde hei colonial adminis a ion. The ac i i ies de eloped by
he ai and spae demons a e he ole o scien i ic socie ies in con ibu ing
o he de elopmen o an h opological s udies and o he consolida ion o
an h opology as a uni e si y subjec , in he pe iod om 1918 o 1960. Bo h
socie ies ha e isen as spaces o e lec ion on issues ega ded as pe inen and
ha e allowed an e e g ea e numbe o people o specialise in a new scien i ic
a ea. Fu he mo e, bo h he con e ences hese socie ies ha e o ganised, and
he edi ions hey ha e published ha e con ibu ed o he di usion o he
knowledge p oduced wi hin he scope o an h opology.
In his p ocess, howe e , o e ime we obse ed s a egies o inclusion
and exclusion (o indi iduals, ins i u ions, scien i ic domains and subjec s).
Wi hin an h opology, I concluded ha one o he mos equen a eas in
co espondence and publica ions was physical an h opology. Among his
a ea’s main opics we ound “ ace”, he s anda disa ion echnique, blood
g oups and eugenics. Howe e , despi e he in e es se e al Po uguese au ho s
showed in hese opics, hese au ho s’ p esence does no s and ou and seems
almos inexis en in ai’s publica ions.
The s udy o he ela ionship be ween he ai and spae allows us o
unde s and o he dynamics. O e he yea s, o example, he designa ion
o la ge in e na ional cong esses kep changing, some imes emphasising
an h opology, some imes a chaeology and p e-his o y, o else including hem
all. My esea ch has e ealed how some esea che s ha e e used o coope a e
wi h he iia, due o he la e ’s imposed ules (exclusion o esea che s om he
Fi s Wo ld Wa ’s de ea ed na ions and he disdain owa ds a chaeology), and
a ou ed hei ela ionship wi h he ciaap, mo e inclusi e a an in e na ional
le el. Howe e , he i al ies be ween he iia and he ciaap, which led o dispu es
some imes be ween au ho s and ins i u ions, some imes be ween he Uni ed
Kingdom and F ance, pa ed he way o Po ugal, as a pe iphe al coun y,
o be able o le e age hese ci cums ances and each some p ominence. This
was also a consequence o he Po uguese scien i ic communi y’s a emp s
a in e na ionalisa ion. Fu he mo e, and despi e na ional dispu es, he
o ganisa ion o la ge cong esses led o au onomy o an h opology, h ough a
di e en ia ion om subjec s such as a chaeology and p e-his o y.
p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 427
Finally, he ma e s ela ed o poli ics o he Second Wo ld Wa ha e
appa en ly no in luenced he ela ionship be ween Po ugal and he Uni ed
Kingdom. Ne e heless, i appea s ha se e al dynamics exis ed (in e nal and
ex e nal) ha p omo ed ce ain scien i ic domains and subdomains, as well
as hei sponso s, bu neglec ing o he s. This is due o ac o s ha in ol e
some imes associa ions, some imes i al ies (pe sonal, ins i u ional, na ional),
bu also mo i es in luenced by he in e na ional con ex , namely he wo wo ld
wa s. The si ua ion also mean some s udies, such as hose ela ed o “ ace”,
o an h opome ic s anda disa ion echniques and o eugenics, un il he end
o he Second Wo ld Wa (1945). A a la e s age, he e was also he majo
p omo ion o s udies ela ed o “cul u e” and biological s udies ha u ned
away om acial (and acis ) analyses. The s udy o hese subjec s allows us
he e o e o e lec on he way he his o ical, social, economic and geopoli ical
con ex in luences, no only he o ma ion o ne wo ks in he academic and
scien i ic en i onmen , bu also he cons uc ion o knowledge, i s di usion
and i s ecogni ion a a na ional and in e na ional le el.
acknowledgemen s
This s udy was suppo ed by c unde G an s h/bpd 91349/2012, and by he Ins i u o de
Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, unde G an uid/soc/50012/2013.
____________________________________
pa ícia e az de ma os
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
A . P o . Aníbal Be encou 9 — 1600-036 Lisboa, Po ugal
pa icia_ma[email p o ec ed]oa.p
o cid.o g/0000-0001-7322-3756
____________________________________
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