Ci a ion: Con e, E.; Ca ioni, V.;
O naghi, V.; Aglia i, A.; Gandellini, S.;
San os, M.F.; San os, A.C.; Simões, C.;
G azzani, I. Suppo ing P eschoole s’
Men al Heal h and Academic
Lea ning h ough he PROMEHS
P og am: A T aining S udy. Child en
2023,10, 1070. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/child en10061070
Academic Edi o : Raul Na a o
Recei ed: 14 Ap il 2023
Re ised: 9 June 2023
Accep ed: 12 June 2023
Published: 16 June 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
child en
A icle
Suppo ing P eschoole s’ Men al Heal h and Academic
Lea ning h ough he PROMEHS P og am: A T aining S udy
Elisabe a Con e 1,* , Vale ia Ca ioni 1,2 , Ve onica O naghi 1, Alessia Aglia i 1,3, Sabina Gandellini 1,
Ma ga ida F ade San os 4, Anabela Cae ano San os 4,5 , Celes e Simões 4and Ila ia G azzani 1
1“R. Massa” Depa men o Human Sciences o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, I aly;
[email p o ec ed] (V.C.); [email p o ec ed] (V.O.); [email p o ec ed] (A.A.);
[email p o ec ed] (S.G.); [email p o ec ed] (I.G.)
2Depa men o Humani ies, Li e a u e, Cul u al He i age, Educa ion Sciences, Uni e si y o Foggia,
71121 Foggia, I aly
3Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, I aly
4
Depa men o Educa ion, Social Sciences and Humani ies, Facul y o Human Kine ics, Uni e si y o Lisbon,
1495-751 Lisbon, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed] (M.F.S.); [email p o ec ed] (A.C.S.);
[email p o ec ed] (C.S.)
5
En i onmen al Heal h Ins i u e (ISAMB), Facul y o Medicine, Uni e si y o Lisbon, 1649-028 Lisbon, Po ugal
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
The e is compelling e idence ha ea ly school in e en ion p og ams enhance child en’s
de elopmen o li e skills, wi h a posi i e knock-on e ec on hei beha io s and academic ou comes.
To da e, mos uni e sal in e en ions ha e displayed gains in child en’s social-emo ional compe-
encies wi h a limi ed educ ion in p oblem beha io s. This may depend on p og ams’ cu icula
ocused o a g ea e ex en on p eschoole s’ social-emo ional compe encies a he han p oblem
beha io s. P omo ing Men al Heal h a Schools (PROMEHS) is a Eu opean, school-based, uni e sal
men al heal h p og am explici ly ocused on bo h p omo ing s uden s’ men al heal h and p e en ing
nega i e conduc by adop ing a whole-school app oach. In his s udy, we se ou o e alua e he
e ec i eness o he p og am o I alian and Po uguese p eschoole s. We ec ui ed 784 child en
(age ange = 4–5 yea s), assigning hem o ei he an expe imen al g oup (six mon hs’ pa icipa ion
in he PROMEHS p og am unde he guidance o hei eache s, who had ecei ed ad hoc ain-
ing) o a wai ing lis g oup (no in e en ion). We ound ha PROMEHS imp o ed p eschoole s’
social-emo ional lea ning (SEL) compe encies, p osocial beha io , and academic ou comes. The mo e
p ac ical ac i i ies we e ca ied ou a school, he mo e child en’s SEL compe encies inc eased, and
he mo e hei in e nalizing and ex e nalizing beha io s dec eased. Fu he mo e, ma ginalized and
disad an aged child en we e hose who bene i ed mos om he p og am, displaying bo h g ea e
imp o emen s in SEL and mo e ma ked dec eases in in e nalizing p oblems compa ed o he es o
he sample.
Keywo ds:
social-emo ional lea ning; p osocial beha io ; p oblem beha io s; academic ou comes;
school men al heal h; PROMEHS
1. In oduc ion
C ucially, he i s six yea s o li e lay he g ound o child en’s cogni i e, physical,
linguis ic, and social-emo ional de elopmen . Ea ly childhood expe iences in he home and
in ex a- amilial se ings can shape he ounda ions o subsequen de elopmen al s ages [
1
].
Gi en ha bo h inna e and en i onmen al ac o s play a ole in de elopmen , adul s can
os e abili ies and compe encies wi h he po en ial o in luence child en’s men al heal h
and habi s o e ime. While pa en s bea much o he esponsibili y o his p ocess and
can impac hei child’s adjus men [
2
,
3
], i mus be ecognized ha eache s and educa o s
can also in luence child en’s o e all de elopmen . Cu en ly, almos a hi d o Eu opean
Child en 2023,10, 1070. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/child en10061070 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/child en
Child en 2023,10, 1070 2 o 20
child en unde 3 yea s o age a e en olled in o mal childca e [
4
] while 93% o child en o e
he age o 3 a end ea ly childhood educa ion and ca e se ices [
5
]. Thus, o he majo i y o
child en, p eschool is he i s educa ional se ice o be accessed ou side he home, making
educa ional acili ies ideal enues o suppo ing child en’s acquisi ion o li e skills.
Among such skills, social-emo ional compe encies ha e been shown o p o ec agains
men al heal h issues [
6
–
9
], highligh ing he impo ance o ea ly social-emo ional lea ning
(SEL). SEL is de ined as he p ocess h ough which indi iduals acqui e he knowledge,
skills, and a i udes implica ed in i e in e - ela ed social-emo ional compe encies: sel -
awa eness, sel -managemen , social awa eness, ela ionship skills, and esponsible decision-
making [
10
,
11
]. These i e social-emo ional compe encies e ain hei co e s a us ac oss he
li e span, bu hei con en changes as a unc ion o age- ela ed de elopmen al asks [12].
Sel -awa eness includes he abili y o accu a ely ecognize one’s own in e nal s a es,
s eng hs, and weaknesses and how hese can in luence one’s beha io s. A e he age o
1 yea , child en begin—amongs o he sel -awa e beha io s— o name hemsel es (using
he p ope noun “I” o he e ms “mine”, “me”, “mysel ”), ecognize hemsel es (e.g., in he
mi o o in pho og aphs), and exp ess hei in e nal s a es [
13
,
14
]. Du ing he p eschool
yea s, hey display addi ional signs o sel -awa eness, including inc easing abili y o label
hei mo e complex eelings, o iden i y bo h in e nal and ex e nal causes o hei emo ions,
o desc ibe hei in e es s and wha hey a e good and no good a , and o e lec on he
easons why hey ac in a ce ain way, all hanks o he ongoing pa allel de elopmen o
hei linguis ic and social cogni ion skills [15–17].
Ano he compe ence ha la gely conce ns he indi idual is sel -managemen , which
encompasses he abili y o e icien ly manage one’s own emo ions, hough s, and beha io s,
as well as o se and ac o achie e goals. Mas e ing hese abili ies makes i possible o
con ol au oma ic and inapp op ia e esponses, which a e common du ing he i s yea s o
li e. Child en ea ly acqui e sel - egula ion s a egies (e.g., humb sucking, hiding, u ning
away in si ua ions whe e hey do no eel a ease), bu in mos cases hey need help om
adul s o compensa e o hei as-ye basic abili ies [
18
]. Du ing he p eschool yea s, hey
g adually acqui e inc easingly complex s a egies (such as explaining hei own desi es,
goals, o needs, engaging wi h o he s’ poin s o iew and eelings du ing con lic s, being
pe sis en in comple ing di icul asks, dis ac ion) o managing s ess ul si ua ions by
hemsel es and con olling hei eac ions when in e ac ing wi h pee s. Ini ially, child en
may s uggle o implemen hese s a egies success ully and hus con inue o equi e co-
egula ion om hei ca egi e s in o de o calm down, achie e p e-de ined goals, o adap
hei beha io s [19,20].
Ano he social-emo ional compe ence is esponsible decision-making, which includes
he abili y o ealis ically e alua e he consequences o one’s choices o sel and o he s.
I implies he applica ion o mo al and e hical p inciples when deciding how o ac in
e e yday li e si ua ions. Fo example, a p eschoole migh judge ha s ealing a oy om
ano he child would be un ai and could lead o a igh , and hus choose o seek ou ano he
oy o objec ; o , hey could ep imand a pee a he playg ound o climbing backwa ds up
he slide a he han aking he ladde , poin ing ou ha his is dange ous, o un ai o he
o he child en queuing o use he slide. These examples e lec p eschoole s’ unde s anding
o social no ms, alues, sha ed commi men s wi hin a communi y, and ecip ocal espec ,
which helps hem o success ully adjus o hei social en i onmen . In he ea ly yea s
o li e, child en in e nalize he ules o adul s abou wha is igh and w ong and ac
acco dingly, bu om 3 yea s onwa ds hey demons a e a complex unde s anding o hei
own and ac i ely en o ce social no ms. Fo example, hey co ec one ano he ’s beha io ,
bo h du ing games wi h explici ules and du ing p e end play [
21
,
22
]. Fu he mo e, hey
p o es when a hi d pa y’s p ope y igh s a e iola ed [
23
]. Thus, child en en o ce
social no ms whe he o no hey a e di ec ly in ol ed in an in e ac ion, implying an ea ly
endency o ac app op ia ely in social si ua ions wi h a iew o main aining he in eg i y
and wellbeing o hei social g oup [24].
Child en 2023,10, 1070 3 o 20
To mo ally judge ano he indi idual and e alua e he consequences o ha pe son’s
ac ions, he child needs o acqui e and in eg a e in o ma ion abou wha o he people hink,
desi e, wan o achie e, e c. [
25
]. Unde s anding he minds o o he s is a p e equisi e o
social awa eness, which is de ined as he abili y o adop he pe spec i es o o he s and
be empa he ic owa d o he s, including hose wi h di e en pe sonal and socio-cul u al
backg ounds. These capaci ies de elop e y ea ly [
26
], and by he p eschool yea s, he
child has acqui ed he abili y o explici ly e lec on he ac ions o o he s and o explain he
beha io o in e locu o s by in e ing hei eelings, hough s, belie s, pe cep ions, e c. [
27
].
By adop ing o he s’ pe spec i es and expe iencing o he s’ men al s a es, child en
u he enhance hei ela ionship skills, which encompass he endency o c ea e, main ain,
and epai posi i e ela ionships. Indeed, hey g adually acqui e he abili y o e ec i ely
communica e, lis en o o he s, sol e con lic s, coope a e wi h o he s, and o e and eques
help as app op ia e. Ha ing a wide a ie y o in e ac ions bo h a home and in ex a-
amilial con ex s helps child en o expe ience di e en kinds o ela ionships, bo h wi h
pee s and adul s, and o iden i y e ec i e s a egies. Fo example, he child will lea n o
nego ia e, iden i y a comp omise, o apologize in o de o sol e con lic s wi h siblings
o pee s. They will lea n o o e help o com o o someone who is in dis ess (e.g., by
d awing, hugging, o lis ening o an in e locu o ). Thanks o a i udes and beha io s such
as hese, child en a e pe cei ed as iendly, and a e mo e likely o be popula wi h hei
pee s and less likely o su e pee ejec ion [28].
Al hough he i e social-emo ional compe encies jus ou lined a e acqui ed spon-
aneously, hey a e also malleable and suscep ible o imp o emen by means o ea ly
in e en ion [
29
–
31
]. Child en gene ally spend a signi ican amoun o ime a school, while
p eschool educa ional se ings allow eache s mo e eedom o in eg a e SEL p ac ices
and ac i i ies in o hei daily ou ine. The e is e idence ha ea ly in e en ions a e mo e
e ec i e in he p omo ion o social-emo ional compe encies compa ed o hose ca ied
ou wi h olde s uden s [
32
]. Fu he mo e, as illus a ed in he nex sec ion, pa icipa ion
in SEL p og ams p oduces long-las ing bene i s, including he p e en ion o nega i e
psychological and beha io al ou comes [33].
1.1. SEL Compe encies and Men al Heal h
The e is e idence ha child en’s men al heal h—a mul idimensional cons uc ha
encompasses mul iple aspec s o psychological and social unc ioning [
34
,
35
]—is associa ed
wi h hei de elopmen o social-emo ional compe encies. Indeed, mo e ad anced social-
emo ional compe encies a e associa ed wi h enhanced posi i e ou comes (e.g., p osocial
beha io s) and also help o p e en p oblema ic beha io s such as in e nalizing (e.g., anx-
ie y, social wi hd awal) and ex e nalizing (e.g., agg ession, hype ac i i y) issues. Fo
example, nume ous s udies ha e iden i ied posi i e associa ions be ween child en’s social
awa eness and hei p opensi y o engage in p osocial conduc s such as sha ing, helping,
com o ing, media ing, and coope a ing [
36
–
39
]. Sel -managemen also has been associa ed
wi h posi i e beha io al ou comes [
40
,
41
]. Gende - ela ed di e ences ha e been epo ed,
wi h gi ls ob aining highe a ings o bo h SEL compe encies and p osocial beha io s
compa ed o boys [
38
,
40
]. Wi h ega d o p oblem beha io s in p eschoole s, child en’s
SEL skills ha e been epo ed o be nega i ely associa ed wi h bo h in e nalizing and
ex e nalizing p oblems [
42
–
44
]. In his ela ionship, gende may play a ole. Magui e
e al. iden i ied simila o e all pa e ns o boys and gi ls (aged 4–6 yea s) in e ms o he
associa ion be ween emo ional compe encies and p oblem beha io s, bu poo e emo ion
unde s anding was associa ed wi h mo e ex e nalizing beha io s in boys and mo e in-
e nalizing beha io s in gi ls. Fu he mo e, males engaged in ewe p osocial and mo e
ex e nalizing beha io s han did emales [45].
Fu he e idence o he associa ion be ween social-emo ional compe encies and
men al heal h has been ou lined in s udies on he impac o SEL p og ams and o he o ms
o in e en ion ocused on emo ion [
31
,
46
,
47
]. Me a-analyses and sys ema ic e iews ha e
use ully colla ed and ein o ced he conclusions o p ima y s udies, showing ha SEL
Child en 2023,10, 1070 4 o 20
p og ams signi ican ly inc eased posi i e social beha io s and educed bo h in e nalizing
and ex e nalizing p oblems [
8
,
48
–
50
], wi h g ea e e ec s in younge s uden s [
32
,
51
], hus
adding o he e idence ha social-emo ional compe encies p o ec agains he onse o
men al heal h issues.
1.2. Child en’s Men al Heal h and Ea ly Lea ning Ou comes
An ex ensi e body o esea ch sugges s ha p eschoole s’ men al heal h is linked
wi h se e al ea ly lea ning ou comes, bo h concu en ly and p edic i ely o e ime [
52
].
Child en who s a kinde ga en wi h g ea e compe ence in managing hei own and
o he s’ emo ions, and he abili y o es ablish and main ain heal hy ela ionships wi h pee s
and adul s, display success ul ea ly school adjus men [
53
–
56
]. Speci ically, p eschoole s’
social-emo ional compe encies a e s ongly associa ed wi h hei le el o school eadiness
(e.g., li e acy and nume acy skills), e en a e con olling o cogni i e abili y and amily
backg ound [
57
–
59
]. Con e sely, p eschoole s who lack de elopmen ally app op ia e
social-emo ional compe encies end o pa icipa e less in class oom ac i i ies, displaying
poo e mo i a ion and g ea e di icul y pe o ming ea ly academic asks [
60
,
61
]. No-
ably, boys end o sco e mo e poo ly on assessmen s o hese beha io s and a i udes a
school [
62
]. De ici s may pe sis ac oss he elemen a y and seconda y yea s, inc easing he
isk o subsequen school d opou [
63
–
65
]. In gene al, s udies such as hose ou lined ha e
sugges ed ha ea ly in e en ion in suppo o child en’s men al heal h is aluable because
i no only enhances s uden s’ wellbeing bu also boos s hei le els o achie emen in he
sho and long e m [66,67].
1.3. School-Based In e en ions in P eschool Se ings and he PROMEHS P og am
O e he las h ee decades, an inc easing numbe o e idence-based men al heal h
p og ams o s uden s—a ype o in e en ion ha was ini ially de eloped in he Uni ed
S a es—ha e been conduc ed wo ldwide [
34
]. Men al heal h p og ams can be designed o
p omo e di e en social-emo ional abili ies (e.g., communica ion, empa hy) and p e en
speci ic beha io s, di icul ies, o diso de s (e.g., bullying, anxie y, iolence), depending on
hei heo e ical unde pinnings and speci ic goals, and on whe he hey a e deli e ed as
uni e sal (i.e., Tie 1) o a ge ed (i.e., Tie 2) in e en ions— ha is o say, whe he hey a e
o all s uden s o only o hose displaying signs o men al heal h di icul ies [68–70].
Mos men al heal h in e en ions o p eschoole s ha e ocused on os e ing social-
emo ional compe encies, o e ing child en psychological, social, cul u al, and physical
esou ces o coping wi h s ess and challenges and o building psychological wellbe-
ing [71,72]. As such, hese p og ams ha e ypically been de eloped o enhance p o ec i e
ac o s o men al heal h a he han o educe o add ess exis ing challenging beha -
io s [
49
]. A la ge me a-analysis by Blewi e al. o 63 uni e sal in e en ions ca ied ou
in ea ly childhood educa ion and ca e cen e s showed ha pa icipa ion was associa ed
wi h majo imp o emen s in posi i e p oximal ou comes (e.g., social-emo ional compe en-
cies), whe eas smalle o no e ec s we e obse ed in e ms o dec eased dis al ou comes
(e.g., challenging beha io s) [
73
]. The lea ning p ocess necessa y o display posi i e be-
ha io s may equi e mo e ime because he child has o in eg a e he new skills and adjus
beha io s in o e e yday li e. Thus, i is possible ha dis al ou comes may be delayed and
could be mo e s ongly app ecia ed a e a ew mon hs, especially i pa en s a e in ol ed
in he implemen a ion and should change hei a i udes and beha io s as well [74].
In his ega d, mul i- ocused in e en ions ha combine ini ia i es o child en, each-
e s, and pa en s ha e showed o be e ec i e in p omo ing child en’s compe encies and
dec easing hei p oblem beha io s [
75
,
76
]. Adul s’ join wo k and alignmen on he bes
p ac ices can enhance child en’s de elopmen and he gene aliza ion o acqui ed skills o
hei e e yday li es. In his pe spec i e, p incipals also play a c ucial ole in he school se -
ing because hey can p o ide ounda ional suppo o he school communi y and ein o ce
he bes p ac ices. The e o e, he in ol emen o he whole school communi y should be
alued in school-based in e en ions [77].
Child en 2023,10, 1070 5 o 20
Addi ionally, as uni e sal in e en ions add ess all s uden s, a - isk child en can bene-
i om he p og ams ha a e deli e ed a school. Mos p e ious uni e sal in e en ions on
p eschoole s ha e also e alua ed he e ec i eness o p og ams on disad an aged child en,
iden i ied wi h con ex ual c i e ia such as low socio-economic s a us and ee/ educed-
p ice lunches [
32
,
49
,
50
,
75
,
76
,
78
], belonging o e hnic mino i ies [
49
,
50
,
76
], and li ing in
unsa e and iolen neighbo hoods [
50
]. Pa en al ac o s including educa ion le el [
75
],
men al heal h issues, and inapp op ia e pa en ing p ac ices [
76
] ha e also been conside ed.
On he o he hand, child en wi h diagnosed men al heal h p oblems, special educa ion
needs, and disabili ies ha e been sca cely included in he a - isk ca ego y [
48
,
75
,
76
], despi e
i being necessa y o pay a en ion o hem o minimize nega i e consequences, especially
in he i s yea s o li e [1].
In ligh o hese p emises, u he esea ch is needed o de elop and deli e uni e sal
p og ams adop ing a whole-school app oach ha includes ac i i ies o bo h p omo ing
p eschoole s’ compe encies and educing hei beha io al p oblems. PROMEHS was in-
ended o ill his gap. The p og am was de eloped wi hin he E asmus+ Key Ac ion
3 p ojec en i led “P omo ing Men al Heal h a Schools” (PROMEHS), co- unded by he
Eu opean Commission. The aim o he p ojec was o de elop, implemen , and e alua e a
school-based, uni e sal men al heal h cu iculum o Eu opean s uden s om 3 o 18 yea s
o age. The p ojec in ol ed esea che s, policymake s, and s akeholde s om se en coun-
ies, namely I aly, Mal a, La ia, C oa ia, G eece, Romania, and Po ugal. The e ec i eness
o he PROMEHS p og am has al eady been assessed in ela ion o he en i e in e na ional
sample o eache s [
79
] and s uden s om kinde ga en h ough high school [
80
], G eek [
81
]
and Po uguese [
82
] s uden s om kinde ga en h ough high school, and Romanian high-
schoole s [
83
]. The e ec i eness o implemen ing PROMEHS wi h p eschoole s speci ically
has only been documen ed wi h La ian child en [46].
The PROMEHS p og am o e s mul iple posi i e ea u es, which e lec he highes ,
s a e-o - he-a s anda ds o e idence-based in e en ions [
84
]. Fo example, as ea lie
s a ed, i was designed o bo h os e compe ence and educe men al heal h issues. Indeed,
he heo e ical amewo k wi hin which he p og am was de eloped co e s h ee hemes:
he p omo ion o social-emo ional compe encies, he p omo ion o esilience, and he p e-
en ion o social, emo ional, and beha io al p oblems [
34
]. This amewo k also en isages a
whole-school app oach, whe eby key s akeholde s in child en’s men al heal h (i.e., eache s,
school leade s, and pa en s) a e in ol ed in he in e en ion. Mo e speci ically, he p og am
consis s o a aining cou se and supe ision sessions o eache s o ensu e ha hey assim-
ila e he heo e ical concep s in o ming he p og am and eliably implemen he ela i e
p ac ical ac i i ies in he class oom. This means ha he eache s a e empowe ed o deli e
he p og am i s hand, wi h no di ec in ol emen on he pa o he esea che s. The
p og am also a ge s school leade s and pa en s, h ough dedica ed encoun e s designed
o p o ide hem wi h knowledge and p ac ical s a egies o p omo ing child en’s men al
heal h a school and a home. In ol ing all hese pa ies enables a join e o whe eby all
he adul s wi h a signi ican ole in he child en’s educa ion and ca e can adop cu en
bes p ac ices, hus acili a ing he child en’s acquisi ion o compe encies and adop ion o
posi i e beha io s ac oss di e en se ings [
49
,
85
,
86
]. Ano he s eng h o PROMEHS is
ha he child en hemsel es a e ac i ely in ol ed, which u he inc eases he p og am’s
chances o being e ec i e [
32
]. Speci ically, he p og am en ails an expe ien ial app oach
o lea ning, such ha he child en a e in o med by hei eache s abou he aims o he
class oom ac i i ies and a e engaged in he lea ning p ocess by means o sel - e lec ion
exe cises, games, g oup discussions, and o he p ac ical ac i i ies, as illus a ed in he ad
hoc handbooks. The key ea u es o PROMEHS a e summa ized in Appendix A.
1.4. The P esen S udy
Gi en he need o high-quali y, e idence-based in e en ion p og ams o ea ly yea s
educa ion se ings [
32
,
51
,
87
], he aim o his s udy was o e alua e he e ec i eness o
PROMEHS when implemen ed wi h p eschoole s in e ms o (1) whe he he p eschoole s

Child en 2023,10, 1070 6 o 20
ha pa icipa ed in he p og am would display gains in hei SEL compe encies and p oso-
cial conduc , and educ ions in hei in e nalizing and ex e nalizing beha io s; (2) because
he li e a u e sugges s ha SEL p og ams can enhance school success, whe he PROMEHS
would lead o gains in he p eschoole s’ academic ou comes; (3) whe he dosage (i.e., he
numbe o p og am ac i i ies ac ually conduc ed a school) impac ed he e ec i eness o
PROMEHS; and (4) whe he he p og am yielded g ea e bene i s o a - isk (i.e., ma ginal-
ized and disad an aged) child en, who ypically d aw g ea e gains om pa icipa ing in
SEL in e en ions.
We hypo hesized ha he p eschoole s who pa icipa ed in PROMEHS would bene i
om i in e ms o inc eased SEL, posi i e conduc (i.e., p osocial beha io ), and school suc-
cess. We expec ed ha he child en’s men al heal h issues (i.e., in e nalizing and ex e nalizing
p oblems) would diminish ollowing pa icipa ion in he p og am. We p edic ed ha hese
posi i e e ec s would a y as a unc ion o he numbe o p og am ac i i ies deli e ed in
he class oom, such ha child en who had he oppo uni y o engage in a highe numbe o
p ac ical ac i i ies would d aw g ea e bene i om aking pa in he p og am. Finally, we hy-
po hesized ha a - isk child en would display g ea e imp o emen s ollowing pa icipa ion
in he p og am han would hei less-disad an aged pee s.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Pa icipan s
The ini ial sample consis ed o 829 pa icipan s, bu 116 child en (14%) d opped ou
because hey mo ed o ano he school o eache s did no comple e he pos - es , so hey
we e excluded om he da ase . The e o e, pa icipan s in he s udy we e 784 p eschool-
e s (413 gi ls) aged be ween 4 and 5 yea s. They we e ec ui ed a 21 public o p i a e
kinde ga ens in I aly (12 school clus e s, 439 child en) and Po ugal (9 school clus e s,
345 child en), a e a o mal ag eemen had been s ipula ed wi h he school p incipals.
School clus e s a e he mos common s uc u es in bo h I alian and Po uguese educa ion
sys ems. They a e mul i-si e schools, wi h a headqua e in he mos populous own and
di e en school si es in he su ounding smalle owns. They hos child en om kinde -
ga en o middle seconda y school. Schools o a clus e ha e he same p incipal and sha e
he same o ganiza ional and adminis a i e amewo k, d i en by he guidelines o he
Minis y o Educa ion. Gi en his simila s uc u e o I alian and Po uguese schools, we
decided o ocus on p eschoole s in hese wo coun ies in he cu en s udy, wi hin a wide
schedule o da a analyses ha in ol e he whole PROMEHS ne wo k.
Pa icipan s who belonged o a ma ginalized o disad an aged g oup (e.g., low socio-
economic s a us, e hnic mino i y, disabili y, e c.) ep esen ed 14.1% (n= 110) o he sample,
wi h 10.2% (n= 70) o he sample su e ing om a deg ee o ma ginaliza ion o disad an age
ha was a ed by hei eache s as qui e o e y se e e (e.g., child en wi h a diagnosed
diso de , an indi idualized educa ional plan, and a special-needs eache ). In addi ion
o he p eschoole s, he s udy also in ol ed 107 eache s (99% women) om ac oss he
21 kinde ga ens. Mos o he eache s (48.9%) we e aged 50 yea s o o e , 26% we e aged
40–49 yea s, 19.8% we e aged 30–39 yea s, and only 5.2% anged be ween 18 and 29 yea s
o age. In e ms o eache –s uden con ac , he majo i y o he child en (71.6%) spen 9 h o
mo e wi h he pa icipa ing eache s; 24% o child en spen be ween 5 and 8 h wi h hei
eache and only 4.4% spen less han 4 h pe week. Schools—no he pa icipan s—we e
andomly assigned o he expe imen al g oup (11 school clus e s; 6 I alian and 5 Po uguese
schools) o wai ing lis con ol g oup (10 school clus e s; 6 I alian and 4 Po uguese schools),
which numbe ed 519 and 265 child en, espec i ely. Pa icipan s ecei ed no inancial
ewa ds o joining he s udy and we e ee o wi hd aw a any ime.
2.2. Resea ch Design and P ocedu e
The s udy consis ed o h ee phases: p e- es , in e en ion, and pos - es . The p e-
and pos - es ing was conduc ed a he beginning and end o he 2020/2021 school yea ,
espec i ely. The in e en ion consis ed o (A) eache aining; (B) implemen a ion o he
Child en 2023,10, 1070 7 o 20
class oom cu iculum; (C) implemen a ion o he home cu iculum; (D) eache supe ision;
(E) pa en aining; (F) mee ings wi h head eache s. Each o hese componen s is desc ibed
in dep h below.
(A) The eache s in he expe imen al g oup ecei ed 16 h o online aining o e
a one/ wo-mon h pe iod (2–4 h pe week, acco ding o eache s’ school commi men s).
They we e p esen ed wi h heo e ical knowledge abou he men al heal h o eache s and
s uden s (i.e., de ini ion and main ac s, he impac o he COVID-19 pandemic, s ess and
bu nou , imp o ing eache s’ social-emo ional compe encies and esilience), p o ided wi h
a se o PROMEHS manuals, and ins uc ed abou he p ac ical aspec s o implemen ing
he PROMEHS cu iculum (i.e., examples o PROMEHS p ac ical ac i i ies o be ca ied
ou wi h child en a school and home). The aining sessions we e in e ac i e and ga e
he eache s he oppo uni y o e lec on he aining con en s bo h indi idually and wi h
colleagues. Du ing he las session, eache s a ed he use ulness o he aining and hei
eadiness o implemen he p og am [
88
]. The aine s we e psychologis s, psychomo o
he apis s, and educa ion specialis s wi h expe ise in eache aining and men al heal h
p omo ion in school se ings. They also comple ed some moni o ing measu es be o e,
du ing, and a he end o he eache aining [88].
(B) Nex , he eache s implemen ed he PROMEHS cu iculum wi h hei s uden s
in he class oom o e wel e weeks, aiming o ca y ou one handbook ac i i y pe week.
They implemen ed he ac i i ies when all o mos child en we e p esen in he class oom,
so he a endance a e was always high (90–95%). Among he 29 ac i i ies o he handbook,
eache s we e ee o choose he ones ha bes a ge ed hei s uden s’ needs o we e in
ha mony wi h he cu en academic con en . The ac i i ies ea u ed s o y elling, games,
songs, ole-playing, e c., o suppo child en’s SEL (e.g., unde s anding he ela ionship
be ween emo ions, hough s, and beha io s; imp o ing e ec i e s a egies o manage
emo ions; de eloping pe spec i e- aking and empa hy; managing disag eemen s and
sol ing con lic s wi h o he s; unde s anding and espec ing no ms and ules) and he
acquisi ion o esilience skills (e.g., o deal wi h challenges, such as nega i e pee p essu e,
and auma ic expe iences, such as loss and be ea emen ), and o p e en social, emo ional,
and beha io al p oblems (e.g., anxie y and school phobia, hype ac i i y, a - isk beha io s
ha can cause body inju ies). Each ac i i y las ed app oxima ely 1–2 h (see an example o
PROMEHS ac i i y o he class oom se ing in File S1 [89]).
(C) To u he s eng hen he child en’s acquisi ion o he a ge compe encies, o e he
wel e-week pe iod eache s also asked he pa en s o engage hei child en in he ac i i ies
ou lined in he home handbook (see an example o PROMEHS ac i i y o be ca ied ou a
home in File S2 [
90
]). The home ac i i ies we e connec ed o he ones implemen ed in he
class oom and add essed he same skills. All home ac i i ies had a simila s uc u e, ha is
a b ie in oduc ion abou he ac i i y ha was ca ied ou a school ollowed by he eques
o engage in pa en –child con e sa ions combined wi h a d awing, game, ca oon mo ie,
wo kshee , e c., o ans e he new skills also in o ex a-school se ings. Each ac i i y
app oxima ely equi ed 30 min o be comple ed.
(D) To ensu e ha he PROMEHS p og am was implemen ed as in ended, he aine s
se up h ee/ ou supe ision sessions (app oxima ely one pe mon h) wi h g oups o
eache s, o a o al o 9 h. The pu pose o hese encoun e s was o lea n wha ac i i ies he
eache s had ca ied ou wi h child en, wha ac i i ies child en had ca ied ou wi h hei
pa en s and hen had been discussed in he class oom, wha challenges eache s had me ,
and wha changes hey obse ed, and o p o ide any suppo he eache s equi ed. Bo h
quali a i e and quan i a i e measu es as checklis s, sel - e lec ion o ms, and ques ionnai es
we e adop ed du ing hese sessions o moni o eache s’ and aine s’ wo k [88].
(E) To enhance he p og am’s e ec i eness, we adop ed a sys emic app oach. Thus,
in addi ion o di ec ly in ol ing he child en’s eache s, he aine s also dedica ed six
hou s o indi idual mee ings wi h he head eache o each o he schools. These mee ings
occu ed on-si e a school o emo ely h ough phone calls app oxima ely once pe mon h.
T aine s p o ided head eache s wi h heo e ical knowledge abou school men al heal h
Child en 2023,10, 1070 8 o 20
(i.e., de ini ion and main ac s, he impac o he Co id-19 pandemic, exis ing educa ional
policies), b ie ed hem abou he impo ance o school men al heal h and means o suppo -
ing i (e.g., imp o ing eache s’ men al heal h and school clima e, e lec ing on ac ions o
enable a change p ocess).
(F) A each school, aine s also scheduled h ee online sessions wi h pa en s (one pe
mon h, wi h a o al du a ion o six hou s) wi h a iew o legi imizing men al heal h and
engaging amilies in he implemen a ion o PROMEHS ac i i ies. These webina s we e
in e ac i e and ga e he pa en s he oppo uni y o e lec on hei skills and compe encies.
The i s session aimed o illus a e he school men al heal h amewo k and o unde s and
he impac o he Co id-19 pandemic. Du ing he second webina , pa en s we e asked
o e lec on he bes p ac ices o suppo men al heal h a home (e.g., imp o ing hei
social-emo ional compe encies, and being awa e o hei emo ional socializa ion p ac ices).
Finally, he las session poin ed o showing how o implemen he PROMEHS cu iculum
a home h ough examples o p ac ical ac i i ies. Du ing his webina , eache s we e also
asked o a e he use ulness o mee ings and handbooks and o iden i y changes hey
obse ed in hei child en [
88
]. The a endance a e o pa en s a he h ee sessions was 41%
(213 pa en s).
O e all, he in e en ion las ed six mon hs om Decembe 2020 o May 2021. To
ensu e he ideli y and he quali y o he p og am, he same gene al p ocedu e and aining
con en was deployed in he wo coun ies. Following he moni o ing p o ocol o he
PROMEHS p og am, bo h eache s and aine s we e asked o comple e checklis s, scales,
and o he measu es (open- and closed-ended ques ions) o ack hei adhe ence o planned
ac i i ies [88].
2.3. Measu es
A e p o iding hei in o med consen , he eache s comple ed h ee online ques ion-
nai es abou child en. The de ails o hese ins umen s a e as ollows:
Social Skills Imp o emen Sys em, Social Emo ional Lea ning Edi ion B ie Scales—S uden
Fo m (SSIS-SELb-S) [
91
]. This ques ionnai e assesses child en’s SEL compe encies and
comp ises 20 i ems a ed on a 4-poin Like scale ( om 1, “no ue” o 4, “ e y ue”). I
yields a composi e sco e anging om 20 o 80, and i e sub-sco es co esponding o he
di e en domains o SEL, namely Sel -Awa eness, Sel -Managemen , Social Awa eness,
Rela ionship Skills, and Responsible Decision-Making (wi h he sco e o each anging
om 4 o 16). In he case o he o iginal ins umen , C onbach’s alpha eliabili y coe icien s
we e 0.91 o he composi e sco e, and be ween 0.67 and 0.72 o he i e subscales [
92
,
93
].
In he cu en s udy, a he p e- es s age, we ob ained C onbach’s alphas o 0.94 o he
composi e sco e and be ween 0.74 and 0.83 o he i e subscales. A pos - es , C onbach’s
alphas we e 0.94 o he composi e sco e and be ween 0.73 and 0.83 o he i e subscales.
S eng hs and Di icul ies Ques ionnai e (SDQ) [
94
]. This ins umen measu es child en’s
men al heal h and consis s o 25 i ems o be a ed on a 3-poin Like scale ( om 0, “no
ue” o 2, “ce ainly ue”). I yields h ee sco es: o P osocial beha io (5 i ems; sco e
anging om 0 o 10), In e nalizing p oblems (10 i ems; sco e anging om 0 o 20), and
Ex e nalizing p oblems (10 i ems; sco e anging om 0 o 20). The C onbach’s alphas
ob ained o he o iginal scales we e 0.66 o P osocial beha io , 0.66 o In e nalizing
p oblems, and 0.76 o Ex e nalizing p oblems [
95
]. A he p e- es s age o he cu en
s udy, C onbach’s alphas we e 0.90 o P osocial beha io , 0.93 o In e nalizing p oblems,
and 0.92 o Ex e nalizing p oblems. A pos - es , C onbach’s alphas we e 0.92 o P osocial
beha io , 0.94 o In e nalizing p oblems, and 0.93 o Ex e nalizing p oblems.
Academic Ou comes Ques ionnai e. We de eloped his scale ad hoc o measu e h ee
dimensions o child en’s lea ning ou comes ia h ee i ems asking he eache o a e each
s uden s’ academic lea ning in e ms o Mo i a ion a school, Engagemen wi h he lea ning
p ocess, and Academic pe o mance, on a 5-poin Like scale ( om 1, “ e y weak” o 5,
“ e y good”) [
80
]. In addi ion o he h ee sub-sco es, he scale also yields a composi e sco e
(α= 0.95 bo h a p e- and pos - es ).
Child en 2023,10, 1070 9 o 20
2.4. Da a Analysis
All s a is ical analyses we e pe o med using SPSS Ve sion 28 (IBM Co p., A monk, NY,
USA). Child en we e ma ched by code o combine he p e- and pos - es sco es. P io o
analyzing he e icacy o PROMEHS, we conduc ed s anda d da a-cleaning p ocedu es. The
numbe o missing alues was unde 3%, hus he lis wise dele ion app oach was adop ed [
96
].
Fu he mo e, we assessed he dis ibu ion o he da a o each o he s udy measu es. None
o he ku osis o skewness alues exceeded he ecommended limi s [
−
1, +1]. Nex , we
compu ed he main desc ip i e s a is ics and ze o-o de co ela ions. In o de o e i y whe he
he wo g oups we e equi alen p io o he in e en ion, we an a se ies o analyses o a iance
(ANOVAs) o compa e he child en’s pe o mances a p e- es as a unc ion o g oup condi ion.
To e i y he impac o he in e en ion on child en’s SEL compe encies, p osocial beha io ,
p oblem beha io s, and academic ou comes we an a se ies o epea ed-measu es mul i a ia e
analysis o a iance (MANCOVAs) wi h he ollowing independen a iables: ime (p e- es
o pos - es ) as a wi hin-subjec ac o and g oup condi ion (expe imen al o wai ing lis
g oup) as a be ween-subjec ac o . The dependen a iables measu ed a wo- ime poin s
we e SEL compe encies ( o al sco e and i e subscale sco es), p osocial beha io , in e nalizing
and ex e nalizing p oblems, and academic ou comes ( o al sco e and h ee subscale sco es).
Gende was included as a co a ia e.
We nex conduc ed co ela ional analyses o in es iga e whe he he imp o emen
displayed by he expe imen al g oup ollowing he in e en ion was ela ed o dosage
o he p og am—in e ms o he numbe o ac i i ies e ec i ely implemen ed wi h he
pa icipa ing child en. We calcula ed p e- o pos - es changes in he a iables unde s udy
by sub ac ing child en’s p e- es sco es om pos - es sco es.
Finally, a se ies o ANOVAs was conduc ed o es he e ec o he in e en ion as a
unc ion o pa icipan s’ isk s a us (ma ginalized and disad an aged o no ).
3. Resul s
Desc ip i e s a is ics a e epo ed in Table 1. The expe imen al and wai ing lis g oups
di e ed signi ican ly a p e- es in e ms o sel -awa eness, F(1,778) = 9.22, p= 0.002,
social awa eness, F(1,778) = 10.38, p= 0.001, and in e nalizing p oblems, F(1,778) = 7.43,
p= 0.007
. Table 2 epo s he co ela ions among he a iables a p e- es , mos o which
we e s a is ically signi ican and s ong.
Conce ning he e ec o he in e en ion on changes in SEL compe encies, he e
was a signi ican Time
×
G oup in e ac ion, Wilks’
λ
= 0.96, F(6,724) = 5.02, p< 0.001,
ηp2= 0.04
, bu no signi ican e ec s o gende eme ged. The uni a ia e es s e ealed
ha he expe imen al g oup ou pe o med he wai ing lis g oup om p e- o pos - es in
e ms o hei global pe o mance on he SSIS, F(1,729) = 15.01, p< 0.001,
ηp2
= 0.02, and
he ollowing ou SEL dimensions: sel -awa eness, F(1,729) = 17.27, p< 0.001,
ηp2= 0.02
,
sel -managemen , F(1,729) = 12.51, p< 0.001,
ηp2
= 0.02, social awa eness, F(1,729) = 8.85,
p= 0.003
,
ηp2
= 0.01, and esponsible decision-making, F(1,729) = 10.46, p= 0.001,
ηp2= 0.01
.
Rega ding he e ec o he PROMEHS p og am on child en’s SDQ sco es, we ound a
signi ican Time x G oup in e ac ion, Wilks’
λ
= 0.98, F(3,722) = 3.36, p= 0.02,
ηp2
= 0.01.
The uni a ia e es s showed ha his in e ac ion was signi ican o p osocial beha io only,
F(1,724) = 9.04, p= 0.003,
ηp2
= 0.01, wi h he child en in he expe imen al g oup displaying
g ea e p e- o pos - es imp o emen han did he pa icipan s in he wai ing lis g oup.
No signi ican e ec s o gende eme ged.
Rega ding academic ou comes, again he e was a Time x G oup in e ac ion, Wilks’
λ
= 0.96, F(4,742) = 6.85, p< 0.001,
ηp2
= 0.04, wi h no signi ican gende e ec s. The uni a i-
a e es s indica ed ha he Time x G oup in e ac ion was signi ican o he global academic
ou comes, F(1,745) = 7.06, p= 0.008,
ηp2
= 0.01, and o he dimensions o engagemen in
lea ning, F(1,745) = 9.76, p= 0.002,
ηp2
= 0.01, and academic pe o mance, F(1,745) = 13.93,
p< 0.001,
ηp2
= 0.02. Again, he child en in he expe imen al g oup displayed g ea e p e-
o pos - es imp o emen han did hei pee s in he wai ing lis g oup.
Child en 2023,10, 1070 16 o 20
Appendix A. Main Fea u es o he PROMEHS P og am
Whole-school app oach. PROMEHS acknowledges he impo ance o collabo a i e wo k
be ween s uden s, eache s, amilies, school leade s, communi y s akeholde s, and policymake s.
Uni e sal. The implemen a ion in ol es he en i e school communi y and does no a ge only
clinical o a - isk popula ions.
Mul iple ini ia i es. The p og am includes aining cou ses and supe ision o eache s;
mee ings wi h school leade s, pa en s, and policymake s; guidelines and manualized ac i i ies o
be ca ied ou a school and a home; dissemina ion e en s o s akeholde s.
Manualized and mul i-yea handbooks and glossa ies
. PROMEHS consis s o se en handbooks
ha o e mul i-yea p og amming o s uden s om 3 up o 18 yea s, hei eache s, and pa en s.
Two handbooks include guided ac i i ies ha s uden s and eache s can ca y ou a school, as
pa o he mains eam cu iculum (one o kinde ga en and p ima y school, and he o he o
lowe and uppe seconda y school); wo handbooks include guided ac i i ies ha s uden s can
ca y ou a home, wi h hei pa en s’ help and con ibu e. All he ac i i ies ha e been de eloped
acco ding o he S.A.F.E. app oach [
10
]. The o he h ee olumes—add essed o eache s, pa en s,
and school leade s/policymake s—o e guidelines and ecommenda ions o p omo ing men al
heal h. Fu he mo e, wo glossa ies (one o kinde ga en and p ima y school eache s, and one
o lowe and uppe seconda y eache s) a e p o ided o suppo eache s’ men al heal h li e acy.
All he ma e ials a e a ailable in se en languages (C oa ian, English, G eek, I alian, La ian,
Po uguese, and Romanian).
P o essional eache s’ aining. The implemen a ion includes he deli e y o high-quali y
aining composed o ini ial aining and ongoing supe ision o ensu e obus and eliable
implemen a ion. Teache s a e equi ed o deli e he PROMEHS ac i i ies on a weekly basis
du ing he egula school day.
Themes. The cu iculum comp ises h ee hemes: he p omo ion o SEL; he p omo ion o
esilience; he p e en ion o social, emo ional, and beha io al p oblems.
E idence-based app oach. The p og am was e alua ed by compa ing he expe imen al and
wai ing lis con ol g oups a wo- ime poin s and analyzing any signi ican e ec s on eache s’
and s uden s’ ou comes. The e alua ion was conduc ed using a sample size ha me he ESSA
(E e y S uden Succeeds Ac ) c i e ion o o e ing la ge enough powe o cap u e he p og am’s
e ec s [84].
Independen e alua ion. The independen e alua o s, who we e no in ol ed in he p og am’s
de elopmen and implemen a ion, e iewed he handbooks o educe po en ial bias and ensu e
he eliabili y o he e alua ion p ocedu es and indings.
Quali y o implemen a ion. The p og am’s ideli y, dosage, quali y, esponsi eness, and
adap a ion a e assessed [88].
Mul i-in o man assessmen s. Mul iple in o man s (s uden s, eache s, and pa en s) we e used
o assess he p og am’s impac on s uden s’ and eache s’ men al heal h.
De elopmen al pe spec i e. The PROMEHS cu iculum acknowledges ha s uden s’ and
eache s’ men al heal h encompasses dynamic and mul i ace ed knowledge, skills, p ac ices, and
a i udes ha may change o e ime.
Ac i e amily engagemen . S uden and pa en handbooks a e designed o ein o ce he
acquisi ion o skills and beha io s lea ned a school by applying hem a home.
Sus ainabili y. The PROMEHS p og am was de eloped h ough collabo a i e wo k wi h local,
egional, na ional, and in e na ional policymake s o maximize he impac and sus ainabili y o
he esul s o e ime.
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