socie ies
A icle
“I Don’ Ha e he Ne e o Tell These People Tha I
Canno Help Them!”: Vulne abili y, E hnog aphy,
and Good In en ions
Joana Ca ela
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, 1600-189 Lisboa, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
Recei ed: 14 No embe 2019; Accep ed: 7 Decembe 2019; Published: 9 Decembe 2019


Abs ac :
The nonp o i o ganiza ion whe e his e hnog aphy ook place, d i en by he maxim
”lending a hand”, was o ced o educe i s e o s o wha i conside ed essen ial, a a ime when
aus e i y was beginning o ake shape in Po ugal. The analysis o he logics employed o dis ibu e
ood o he needies p o ed o be c i ical o he unde s anding o he consequences o appa en
bene icial ac ions in his con ex . The concep o ” ulne able” is, he e o e, discussed conside ing how
i was p oduced by a legal ins umen and how i was ep oduced by a local ins i u ion, wha we e
he consequences o he subjec s in ol ed in his esea ch and also o he ulne able e hnog aphe .
This in es iga ion was based on se e al mon hs o in ense ieldwo k whe e di e en e hnog aphic
me hodologies we e employed in o de o g asp he complexi ies o ulne abili y and good in en ions,
such as pa icipan s’ obse a ions and semi-di ec i e in e iews. Al hough his pape ocuses on
he analysis o he dis ibu ion o ood suppo du ing a la e isi o he ieldwo k si e, i is no he
pu pose o his pape o discuss issues o ood sho age, bu o con ibu e o he deba e o ca e in
he con ex o dep i a ion and p eca iousness, ancho ed in an e hnog aphy whe e hese concep s
in e wine wi h eal si ua ions.
Keywo ds:
medical an h opology; social housing; ulne abili y; social su e ing; good
in en ions; aus e i y
1. In oduc ion
Six mon hs a e inishing my doc o al esea ch, I wen back o he Heal h and De elopmen
P omo o s (HDP)
1
. This nonp o i o ganiza ion, ounded in 2000, was celeb a ing i s ele en h
anni e sa y. Following a pilo p ojec ini ia ed a he now de unc Quin a do Mocho in Lou es,
one o he la ges in o mally buil neighbou hoods ha had g own clandes inely be ween he 1970s
and he 1990s mos ly due o he a i al o immig an s om he o me Po uguese colonies in A ica,
cul u al media o s we e hi ed among he esiden s o his neighbou hood o ac upon and imp o e
he heal h o he local popula ion. When he o icial implemen a ion pe iod o his p ojec ended,
hese same p omo o s saw he need o con inue he wo k. The desi e o p o ide ongoing, a he han
imely and excep ional se ices ha add essed wha hey conside ed o be he mos p essing issues
mo i a ed he o icial c ea ion o an ins i u ion ha la e es ablished i sel in he new neighbou hood
whe e esiden s we e also eloca ed.
Fo ele en mon hs, I unde ook an in ensi e e hnog aphy wi h his nonp o i o ganiza ion ha
I e u ned o some ime a e he ieldwo k pe iod was comple ed. Following Ma ins and Mendes,
1
The ins i u ion e e ed o in his a icle is p o ec ed by anonymi y, as a e all ac o s, who a e he e o e iden i ied by
pseudonyms. Fo mal consen o all pa icipan s was ob ained du ing ieldwo k and be o e each o he in e iews. The
me hodology employed was app o ed by he An h opology Depa men o ISCTE-IUL.
Socie ies 2019,9, 84; doi:10.3390/soc9040084 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/socie ies
Socie ies 2019,9, 84 2 o 14
when discussing he condi ions unde which e hnog aphe s conduc ieldwo k, “we e u n in o de o
unde s and ime and again, always wi h he enewed hope o knowing some hing new, o being augh
some hing new”2[1] (p. 35), I decided o e u n o a day o he neighbou hood o Te aços da Pon e.
This la e isi is na a ed in his a icle along wi h his o ical conside a ions abou how ulne abili y was
p oduced in his e i o y and he e hnog aphic quanda ies ha eme ge when esea ching popula ions
conside ed ulne able.
2. The P oduc ion and Rep oduc ion o Vulne abili y in he Ma gins o Lisbon
A he beginning o he 1990s, o e 150,000 esiden s li ed in shacks in he me opoli an a eas
o Po o and Lisbon. Po ugal had joined he Eu opean Union in 1986 and in e na ional e en s we e
being planned o he capi al ci y, such as Lisbon Eu opean Capi al o Cul u e in 1994 and he 1998
Wo ld Exposi ion. A he same ime, s uc u al u ban enewal p ojec s we e p ojec ed o edesign he
me opoli an landscape. Following ex e nal and in e nal p essu es, he go e nmen , consequen ly,
decided o launch he Special Rehousing P og am (PER, o P og ama Especial de Realojamen o, in
Po uguese) o e adica e all shacks, ehouse he slum-dwelle s in municipal houses, and upg ade he
coun y’s image.
Published on 7 May 1993 wi h a Dec ee-Law [
2
], and implemen ed du ing he subsequen wo
decades, he PER was launched by he XII Cons i u ional Go e nmen o Po ugal. When i was enac ed,
he p og am was al eady an ou da ed housing p og am due o i s inabili y o p o ide a ho ough
s a egy o u ban and egional de elopmen [
3
,
4
] and he sani a y discou se adop ed ega ding he
ehoused popula ion [5].
In o de o ope a ionalize he p og am, he go e nmen p o ided some o he necessa y unds
and o de ed each municipali y o comple e a census and ca ego ize he slum esiden s. The su ey,
employed du ing he summe o 1993, wo ked as a popula ion echnology [
6
], in ended o classi y and
make he undis inguishable mass o occupan s isible o bu eauc a ic pu poses. I also de ined and
mapped o mal and in o mal a eas o he ci y o in e en ion pu poses.
These igid bu eauc a ic p ocedu es and he op-down mechanisms o implemen a ion, as well as
he lack o social suppo du ing ehousing, ans o med he PER, a me e inancial ins umen , in o a
social p og am wi h se ious, albei a iable, e i o ial, social and poli ical implica ions. Implemen a ion
depended on he e o s employed by each municipali y and di e en esul s we e achie ed [
7
], which
in some cases led o a eplica ion o a cul u e o po e y [
5
,
8
] based on a b oad de ini ion o ulne able
popula ions li ing in shan ies ha jus i ied poli ical and social in e en ion [
9
]. The dec ee o e looked
household needs and ocused on a speci ic ypology ha demanded elimina ion, i.e., he ”ba acas”
o shacks, despi e he exis ence o a mul i ude o in o mal a chi ec u al exp essions and social
a angemen s in he di e en neighbou hoods.
The p og am ocused on he cons uc ion o new in as uc u es a he han u ban egene a ion
and mainly aimed o cons uc housing p ojec s in pe iphe al u ban a eas ma ked by poo in as uc u e.
When he municipali ies did no dispe se he o iginal slums, hese communi ies we e physically and
socially isola ed in he ghe os. One o hese neighbou hoods was Quin a do Mocho in Lou es, loca ed
in he pe iphe y o Lisbon.
The Quin a do Mocho’s es uc u ing p ojec in ol ed he demoli ion o he in o mal houses and
he cons uc ion o U banizaç
ã
o Te aços da Pon e, a en -con olled neighbou hood whe e he o me
4000 esiden s had been ans e ed by he municipal council in 2001. A e almos h ee decades,
he abandoned esiden ial p ojec in Quin a do Mocho, occupied and c ea i ely e u bished by he
newcome s, was demolished. These esiden s, who had inhabi ed he ou abandoned owe s and
o yea s in es ed in hei ”homes”, we e ehoused by he municipali y o Lou es in Te aços da
Pon e. Because he ma e ial condi ions su ounding hem we e assumed o be conduci e o c ime
2All subsequen ansla ions om Po uguese, unless o he wise s a ed, a e my own.
Socie ies 2019,9, 84 3 o 14
and unde de elopmen , he op-down analysis o hei li es yle was conduc ed by applying housing
policies ega dless o local speci ici ies o p io consul a ion wi h he popula ion. A he same ime,
ad hoc ini ia i es ha we e designed o deal wi h u gen p oblems we e adop ed and implemen ed,
such as o ganizing a g oup o cul u al media o s chosen among he esiden s o ackle u gen heal h
p oblems o he popula ion. The e olu ion o his g oup in o a nonp o i o ganiza ion conce ned wi h
empowe ing a ulne able popula ion is conside ed in he nex sec ion o his pape .
3. “Wha Is Tha Wo d They Like Us o Use? Oh Yes, Empowe men !”3
The o icial objec i e o e adica ing slums in he me opoli an a eas o Lisbon and Po o has
been de ined by i s legisla ion as "a s ill-open scou ge in ou social ab ic" [
2
], he e o e simpli ied
social exclusion h ough access o decen housing based on he s igma iza ion o li e and sociocul u al
condi ions o he esiden s li ing in he in o mal neighbou hoods [
5
]. These si es we e cha ac e ized
by hei “ad anced ma ginali y” [
9
]. The neighbou hoods whe e clandes ine cons uc ion p oli e a ed
desc ibed as pe ishing e i o ies in need o in e en ion and socio-poli ical ein eg a ion policies.
Ve nacula and in o mal a chi ec u e was equa ed wi h a lack o mo al and social adjus men . The
uno icial and concealed goal o PER became he adjus men o he slum esiden s o a no malized and
ecognized li es yle [
5
] and he inhabi an s o Quin a do Mocho we e ehoused in Te aços da Pon e
unde hese assump ions.
As some an h opologis s ha e no ed, he ma gins o he s a e [
10
–
12
] unc ion as na u al
pe iphe ies o con aine s o indi iduals conside ed no su icien ly socialized wi hin he law. The
echnologies adop ed by p og ams a ge ing [
13
] popula ions deemed ” ulne able” li ing in hese
socially and spa ially ma ginalized e i o ies, ended up p oducing consequences simila o he ones
hese p og ams we e ideally comba ing. The exis ence o powe is, hus, pa adoxically based on he
need o cons an ly p oduce his ma ginal condi ion whe e many indi iduals ind hemsel es [
14
],
making hem simul aneously ic ims and pe pe a o s [
15
–
17
]. These dynamics wind up pe pe ua ing
he binomial compassion and ep ession, which is engul ed in good in en ions and is ma e ialized by
p og ams de eloped by s a e and non-s a e en i ies es ablished locally when dealing wi h ” ulne able
communi ies”.
The inc easing pa hologiza ion o beha io s based on p eca ious housing condi ions and he
belie ha changing hem would also discipline he li es o hose a ge ed by hese same p og ams,
has led o a p oli e a ion o local ini ia i es and ins i u ions which di ec and indi ec ly exe con ol
o e ci izens’ bodies and beha io s [
18
,
19
]. These p ojec s equen ly ocus on heal h as he ideal
go e ning echnology, which has been “used as a sho hand o he capaci y o he mode n sel o
be ans o med h ough he deploymen o a ious a ional p ac ices o sel ” [
16
] (p. 45). This ype
o ac ion [
20
], which decon ex ualizes he his o ical, poli ical, and social p oduc ion o su e ing and
ulne abili y [
21
], is o en well in ended, bu p o okes unplanned consequences [
22
]. As Sliwinski
s a ed when discussing he con adic ions o in e na ional dona ions a e an ea hquake in El Sal ado ,
“explaining ulne abili y wa an s conside ing he de elopmen his o y o a coun y. A he e y leas ,
i needs o ake in o accoun he accumula ed e ec s o economics, poli ical, and social ac o s ha
in luence people’s li elihoods and hei en i onmen s” [23] (p. 20).
A he same ime as hese ini ia i es e up ed, in places such as Quin a do Mocho, he subliminal
goal o he PER Law Dec ee o ac ing upon he poli ical subjec i i y o esiden s ollowing neolibe al
demands [
24
], mo i a ed each esiden o inco po a e and embody “policies, discou ses, and p ac ices
ha would ‘ ee’ an indi idual o go e n (onesel )” [
25
] (p. 52). Un es ained om hei p e ious
housing condi ions, hese indi iduals we e mean o inhabi he new municipal houses and o upg ade
3
Taken om my ield no es, his quo e e e s o an episode I obse ed and egis e ed a HDP headqua e s. Dona Angelina,
he non-p o i ’s p esiden , whils illing ou a o m o apply o unding o a psychosocial suppo p ojec he ins i u ion
in ended o implemen in he neighbou hood, was ying o ind he igh wo ds in o de o ensu e i s inancing.
Socie ies 2019,9, 84 4 o 14
hei poli ical and social subjec i i y in o de o eel empowe ed by hei new li ing condi ions [
26
].
Fo hose unable o ul il his goal, he nonp o i o ganiza ions, unded by p i a e and public unde s,
ac ed like he neolibe al a ms o he s a e [
27
] and ook he esponsibili y o upli ing he popula ion
hey se ed ia p ojec s and psychosocial p og ams.
In such cases, he use o a speci ic language appea s as an essen ial condi ion in he ela ionship
be ween o ganiza ions ha depend on ex e nal unding and can be a de e mining ac o in ob aining
he capi al needed o p ojec s. Du ing he cou se o my ieldwo k, I had he oppo uni y o see
he emba assmen o wai ing o a new anche om he p i a e o s a e unde s o HDP, which
would allow hem o pay sala ies o op up he diesel ank o he nonp o i o ganiza ion’s an used
o anspo pa ien s o he hospi al o o mee ings wi h o icial au ho i ies. Th oughou my ele en
mon hs o ieldwo k, and due o my in ol emen as a olun ee e hnog aphe [
28
], I was cons an ly
asked o assis he nonp o i manage s who we e applying o unding, bu I was also in ol ed in
di e en ac i i ies and asks o he o ganiza ion which hey could no a o d o hi e mo e help. Thus,
he adop ion o Anglo-Saxon e ms and neologisms could dis inguish success ul inancing om he
o al loss o unds o he ollowing yea , which would also imply i ing o no hi ing quali ied wo ke s,
and hus deli e poo e se ice.
Fo C uikshank [
26
], howe e , he democ a ic alues o ci izenship and sel - egula ion ha e been
p esen ed as he ideal solu ion o po e y, c ime, and o he social p oblems, ac ing as a go e nmen
s a egy aiming a ans o ming indi iduals in o libe al ci izens. The good in en ions deployed in
p og ams esponsible o helping people o help hemsel es and which, in u n, un old in o ci izenship
echnologies (speeches, p og ams, e c.), ensu e ha subjec s a e poli ically ac i e and a ionally
sel -go e ning. The au ho s a es, inspi ed by Foucaul [
29
] and Rose [
24
], ha ci izens a e no bo n
poli ically inclined and mo i a ed o wo k on hemsel es; hey a e ”made” acco ding o he powe
ela ions ha simul aneously enable and cons ain hei subjec i i y. Howe e , hese depend on he
subjec s’ olun a y compliance, which does no mean ha hey a e no coe ci e and do no in e e e
in a ious social dimensions. Subjec ci izens a e ee, bu hei eedom is a condi ion o powe o
ope a e o e hem.
C uikshank also analyzes how he concep o empowe men eached ele ance in he second hal
o he wen ie h cen u y, bo h o indi iduals and ins i u ions. This uni e sal appeal ha b ough
oge he he in e es s o eminis s, ci il igh s ac i is s, en i onmen alis s, among many o he s, has
become a ci izenship echnology, ha is, “a me hod o u ning indi iduals in o ci izens and maximizing
hei poli ical pa icipa ion” (p. 67). The upsu ge and dissemina ion o he buzz wo d ”empowe men ’
was ma ke inspi ed and p omised no only sel -go e ning bu he au onomy o indi iduals. In o de
o ac on he in e es s and desi es o o he s o d i e hei ac ions o an app op ia e end, powe wo ks
h ough, and no agains , he subjec i i ies o indi iduals and demands he subjec ’s abili y o adjus
hemsel es o new social eali ies [
25
,
30
]. Maximizing he capaci ies o he powe less makes he poo
sel - elian , ac i e, p oduc i e, and pa icipa o y, i. e., ci izens, which makes he use o concep s such
as “empowe men and sel -es eem almos manda o y in goal s a emen s when nongo e nmen al
o ganiza ions apply o unding” [26] (p. 94).
Fo he au ho , his mo emen is based on a wa on he poo , who a e isola ed and a ge ed by
s a e in e en ion. Thei capaci ies a e ci cumsc ibed, calcula ed, and eng a ed in policies ha aim
o emo e hem om a p ede ined si ua ion and o jus i y speci ic in e en ion upon hem. Social
e o me s eme ge and hei ac o s mul iply on he g ound. This modeling o he poo , which is based
on hei own in ol emen and in es men , is based on he p oduc ion o a le eling and s anda dizing
class, duly known, adequa ely o mula ed in s a is ics, and suppo ed by psychosocial disciplines [
24
].
The cha ac e is ics o he a ious g oups ha make up he new ca ego y o he poo sha e a cul u e o
po e y, lack o powe , ci ic pa icipa ion, and mo i a ion o sol e hei own p oblems. This ideology
was es ablished wi h he desi e o empowe hose who a e dep i ed o hese quali ies, based upon he
assump ion o he common good.
Socie ies 2019,9, 84 5 o 14
In he ield, ins i u ions, such as HDP, implemen and de elop hese ideas on he popula ion hey
a e ying o se e. The eal in en ions o go e ning and egula ing bodies has made psychologis s,
social wo ke s, and e en he leade s o o ganiza ions on he g ound eel ha hey know wha is bes
o he communi ies hey se e, e en mo e han hemsel es. Fu he mo e, he dependence o ex e nal
inancie s, make hese ins i u ions close o he men ali y o he dono s, o which hey a e usually
unawa e o , han ha o he ulne able communi ies, ac ing as s a e eplacemen s o liaisons on a
local le el [
31
,
32
], unexpec edly popula in neolibe al o aus e i y con ex s. This compassion ha
mo es hem o lend a hand [
33
], o label hei clien s as ” ulne able”, and o use he ja gon ha makes
hem wo hy compe i o s in he unding ace, co esponds o a p ac ice o doing good ha is ha dly
c i icized [15].
HDP was ueled by he need o educe he su e ing o needy, ulne able, and ma ginalized
indi iduals, as hese subjec s had been cha ac e ized by a Law Dec ee, in 1993, which mo i a ed he
c ea ion o one o i s pionee ing p ojec s, “Lending a Hand” in 2006. This p ojec was o ien ed owa ds
pe sonal and social upg ading, as well as o he p omo ion o ec ea ional ac i i ies o comba he
isola ion and social exclusion o some o Te aços da Pon e inhabi an s who we e p e iously li ing in
Quin a do Mocho, bu also indi iduals who had come o Po ugal om he o me A ican colonies
wi h sca ce means o unde go medical ea men and li ed in he neighbou hood. The ocus was
g adually shi ed o illegal immig an s, o o he esiden s, and o simila neighbou hoods ha we e
conside ed o be in need o suppo as well. “Lending a Hand” has ecei ed and was dependen on he
inancial suppo om di e en public and p i a e en i ies and i s con inua ion demanded a ho ough
compliance wi h bu eauc a ic p ocedu es.
Howe e , wha was he esul when he empowe men o hese communi ies and indi iduals was
ye o be comple ed when unds an ou ? The nex chap e s explo e how a nonp o i o ganiza ion in an
in o mal and ehousing neighbou hood ackled he ulne abili y o he popula ion i se ed a e a
na ional inancial c isis sha e ed he coun y’s al eady declining wel a e sys em. Bu i s , we need o
conside he ole o he e hnog aphe when in es iga ing” ulne able communi ies”.
4. Ma e ials and Me hods: Becoming Vulne able in he Field
Con a y o wha was said o an h opology o yea s, he objec i e o e hnog aphy is no o con on
wha is said wi h wha is done, bu a he o in eg a e discu si e o mula ions [
34
]. An h opology
d i es us o ind simila i ies a he han di e ences. I is no a sea ch o he ”o he ”, mo e sensi i e
o mo e ulne able, bu a he a ques o he commonali y be ween wo dis an wo lds, whe he in
di e en hemisphe es o a he end o a main oad uni ing di e en expe iences o people li ing in a
Eu opean capi al, as I came o ind ou du ing my PhD ieldwo k.
Gi en he impossibili y o being able o g asp exac ly “wha hose who hea us unde s and
abou wha we say, because hei e e en ial wo lds will always be di e en om ou s” [
35
] (pp.
113–114), he ecogni ion o simila i y makes i possible o apply a p inciple o cohe ence based on
sha ed ac s, o mu uali y. In he incessan sea ch o he pe cep ion o wha ”being human” means,
an h opologis s seek o unde s and he di e ences by ollowing pa hs common o bo h he esea che
and he in e locu o , howe e dis an hei e e ence wo lds may be.
An h opological knowledge can only be p oduced h ough a condi ion o mu uali y. I is his
condi ion ha allows us o si ua e ou sel es in ela ion o he con ex o obse a ion. Mu uali y is
always cons i u i e o he place whe e he an h opologis posi ions himsel . In he sense ha mu uali y
implies “being wi h”, “being in he company o ”, his condi ion is he e o e co-cons i u i e o he o he ,
nei he an e io no ex e nal [36] (p. 592).
Acco ding o Map il and Ma os Viegas [
34
], due o he e y condi ions o ecip oci y ha a e
es ablished in he ield and ha equi e a cons an nego ia ion and adjus men o he me hods, he
cons uc ion o he esea ch objec is no linea . The need o explain he hypo heses and exac
me hodologies o explo e i , which is a common p ac ice in o he scien i ic disciplines, is no easily

Socie ies 2019,9, 84 6 o 14
eplica ed in an e hnog aphic se ing and somehow makes he physical p esence and pe inence o he
esea che mo e ulne able, ail, and in need o cons an nego ia ion.
Howe e , i an h opologis s assume ha he p ocess o knowledge cons uc ion is based on
a cons an ans o ma ion ha akes place in he ne wo ks o social ela ions ha make up he
e hnog aphic e ains, his in e subjec i i y ha de elops on he basis o sha ed e ela ions allows
o he cons an o mula ion o he ca ego ies hemsel es. By in e subjec i i y, howe e , Map il
and Ma os Viegas did no unde s and a way o knowing wha o he s e ain apped inside hei
minds o pa icipa ing in hei ac i i ies wi hou becoming hem, a gene al assump ion in adi ional
monog aphies [
37
], bu o concei e he condi ions o knowledge p oduc ion linked o he social
ela ions ha p oduce hem. The in e subjec i e expe ience inhe en in e hnog aphic esea ch makes i
no a means o an end, bu a way o p oducing knowledge i sel and o “a i e a a ange o humble
concep s h ough he labou o e hnog aphic desc ip ion” [
38
] (p. 339). This dimension o e hnog aphy
allows o he adjus men and he ede ini ion o pos u e and me hods in he ield and in he ace o
unexpec ed si ua ions.“ In o he wo ds, i is he e hnog aphe ’s impe ec ion and inadequacy ha
e eal he di e ences, as well as hei cons an e o o co ec ion and app oxima ion” [
39
]. This ype
o pe meabili y and con amina ion, ha exposes bo h in e locu o and in es iga o o ulne abili y [
40
],
a e bo h in eg al and e ile o e hnog aphy, and he e o e need o be aken in o conside a ion in he
knowledge p oduc ion p ocess [39].
As Be g [
41
] ealized while conduc ing a mul i-si ua ed esea ch in Spain and Cuba on poli ical
memo ies among expa ia ed Cubans, con a y o wha classical e hnog aphies poin o as he no m, he
ieldwo k imme sion was no g adual un il i eached en iable le els o p oximi y o he in e locu o s.
Be g a elled a much mo e winding pa h, app oaching and dis ancing he sel om he objec and
in e locu o s on se e al occasions, cons an ly nego ia ing he ole wi hin he ela ions es ablished
wi h Cubans in a ious diaspo ic con ex s. He e o cons i u ed a successi e in es men in he
cons uc ion o he esea ch g ound so ha i would no escape he , a bu den mos e hnog aphe s ca y
wi h hem while conduc ing esea ch and, pa icula ly, when in es iga ing sensi i e o ulne able
subjec s and opics.
Du ing he cou se o my esea ch I ha e epea edly el he same obs acles. The di icul ies in
delimi ing he e ain, along wi h nume ous impedimen s, we e pa ly o e come by a physical p oximi y
o he ins i u ion and a con inuous and a labo ious pa icipan obse a ion exe cise. Some imes he
nonp o i o ganiza ion ha shel e ed me was he oo o he obs acles in my ieldwo k, because I was
ine i ably con used as one o he ainees when olun ee ing o he ins i u ion, a manda o y condi ion
o gua an ee access o pa ien s and he daily li e o he ins i u ion. De aching mysel om his label
was some imes complica ed and coun e p oduc i e o my own esea ch. The e we e in e locu o s ha
I app oached mo e closely, and o he s wi h whom I had o nego ia e p oximi y a di e en imes. I
equen ly el ha de ining my posi ion was a s enuous and con inuous ask, and each con e sa ion,
each obse a ion, mo i a ed new ways o sha ing, new unde s andings, and new esea ch pe spec i es.
Albei demanding, being he e and e lec ing upon he ieldno es hese nego ia ions p oduced [
42
],
esul ed in a be e unde s anding o he pa adoxical wo k o bo h he ins i u ion and he ainees,
wi h whom I was equen ly mis aken o .
Simila o Be g, I also began my esea ch ollowing a snowball echnique, which mimicked he
social ela ions in his con ex [
43
]. I i s asked he NGO p esiden abou he ype o suppo gi en
and he esiden s who we e unde hei ca e who we e classi ied as men ally ill. I p oceeded wi h
in e iews and in o mal con e sa ions wi h hese indi iduals, he NGO, and he municipal wo ke s
ope a ing in he ield. The al eady sullen heme o men al heal h, o en associa ed wi h issues o hese
immig an s wi hou legal documen s, dependen on subsidies, and social suppo , complica ed he
al eady laby in hine issues su ounding any e hnog aphic endea ou , and o ced me o a con inuous
ask o ield making, jus i ying Map il’s [
44
] asse ion, ha “ he ield is ne e chosen, bu p oduced”
(p. 56).
Socie ies 2019,9, 84 7 o 14
As a esul o his mu ual aid ag eemen be ween he nonp o i o ganiza ion and mysel , as bo h a
olun ee and an e hnog aphe , I conduc ed se e al esea ch exe cises, such as obse a ions o he
in e ac ions be ween he psychologis and he social wo ke in e ns and he communi y hey we e
ying o help. I accompanied esiden s o doc o s’ appoin men s and o in e iews wi h social wo ke s
moni o ing hei cases. I was p esen in se e al mee ings wi h s a e and non-s a e en i ies, such as
he Po uguese Immig a ion and Bo de s Se ice, he municipal immig a ion depa men , and he
In e na ional O ganiza ion o Mig a ion wi h whom he NGO had ac i e p o ocols. I also helped wi h
small asks, such as isi ing a esiden su e ing om dep ession o helping o ill in an applica ion
o a job, jus o lis a ew. These ac i i ies we e all pa o he endless lis o asks he in e ns we e
supposed o pe o m daily. I helped hem as much as I could and obse ed how hey conduc ed hei
ela ionships wi h he esiden s.
As Da ies s a ed [
45
], his kind o e lexi i y is pa icula ly ele an in social sciences, bu
mos ly in e hnog aphy whe e in e subjec i i y, mu uali y, and empa hy become in eg al o he
comp ehension o he con ex in which knowledge is p oduced. Al hough emo ionally demanding [
28
],
he e hnog aphe ’s a ailabili y o ind a sha ed and common g ound du ing ieldwo k adop ed
du ing isce al, senso ial, and sensi i e e hnog aphic imme sion pe mi s o cap u e he plas ici y o
subjec i i ies and he incong uences o li ed expe ience, in o de o be e unde s and and cons uc
expe ience-laden concep s such as ulne abili y [
38
] in i s mul idimensional in e p e a ions, in ol ing
in e locu o s and e hnog aphe s in he ield.
We a e he e o e no alking abou “becoming like he o he ” o p ojec ing o a ibu ing ou
emo ional s a e o o he s, bu lea ning o unde s anding he unknown h ough analogy o esonance
wi h ou expe iences, in cons an ension be ween ou sel es and he o he in a dialogical p ocess
h ough which he an h opologis and his in e locu o e eal, illumina e and ans o m hei pe sonal
iden i ies in an a emp o c ea e a common e e en ial uni e se [39] (p. 48).
I also ealized ha pa icipa ion in he associa ion’s dynamics simul aneously os e ed app oach
and wi hd awal expe iences ha also condi ioned my selec ion o esea ch me hods. Some imes, i
pa icipan obse a ion was welcomed, as when he e was no one a ailable o d i e a esiden o an
appoin men a he hospi al, I ook his as an oppo uni y o ask he pa ien some ques ions ele an o
my esea ch. I i was necessa y o someone o accompany one o he nonp o i manage s o a mee ing,
i p o ided ano he oppo uni y o a end and pa icipa e. As well, in o he cases, I chose o obse e
and anno a e he daily in e ac ions inside he nonp o i o ganiza ion be ween use s and in e ns. On
o he occasions I was in i ed o a end mee ings wi h o icial au ho i ies, whe e ele an discussions
we e being held and he p esence o an HDP ep esen a i e was manda o y.
The con inuous p esence in he ield p o ided me wi h a b oade and mo e cons an display o he
con e sa ions, e bal and non e bal communica ions, incong ui ies and con adic ions, con inui ies
and up u es, o eco d daily li e and he o dina y in my ieldwo k no ebook [
42
], bu also o s a egically
selec he nex s ep o analysis and me hodology o employ. Pa icipan obse a ion allowed me
o be he e, o li e he eali y o HDP o se e al mon hs, and o consolida e my knowledge. The
semi-di ec i e sc ip [
46
] wi h he key ques ions o add ess, which allowed my in e locu o s o eel
ee o gi e ele ance o opics ha would be impo an o hem and ha would compel me o eassess
he guidelines o my esea ch, was e iewed se e al imes, bu also se aside whene e he discou se
o my in e locu o s was mo e ele an han my incipien conce ns.
The e we e se e al and cons an nego ia ions ega ding my ole a he nonp o i o ganiza ion wi h
he use s who esou ced i s aid when caugh in se e al poli ical, domes ic, and heal h en anglemen s,
and he in e ns who made ha e i o y hei daily wo kplace. Added o hese we e he demands placed
upon mysel by i ue o my willingness o olun ee which demanded an almos o al a ailabili y on
my pa o suppo he o ganiza ion cons an ly s uggling wi h inancial and echnical p oblems, a
dual and ambiguous ole whe e an h opologis s esea ching NGOs cons an ly ind hemsel es [
27
,
47
].
Socie ies 2019,9, 84 8 o 14
5. Resul s and Discussion: Homecoming
In Decembe 2011, when I e u ned o Te aços da Pon e, Po ugal was unde a new bailou ,
simila o wha had happened in 1977 and 1983. Fi e yea s in powe , he socialis go e nmen was
acing in e na ional p essu es d i en by ala ming socioeconomic indica o s, a so e eign deb c isis, an
excessi e de ici , and a ampan unemploymen a e. This led o a o mal eques o inancial assis ance.
The hi d bailou inally came o Po ugal h ough he hands o h ee en i ies, he Eu opean Commission,
he Eu opean Cen al Bank, and he In e na ional Mone a y Fund, which was implemen ed by he XIX
Cons i u ional Go e nmen elec ed on he 21 June 2011, composed o a new coali ion be ween cen e
igh pa ies. The c i ical inancial si ua ion and he measu es aken o o e come i pa ed he way o
subs an ial changes o he wel a e s a e [
48
], which we e accompanied by a econcep ualiza ion o he
suppo p o ided o hose who dese ed o bene i om social suppo [49].
On he day I e isi ed he nonp o i o ganiza ion, i seemed like i had en e ed a p e-apocalyp ic
s a e, as i he news om he newspape s ha wa ned us e e y day o u he aus e i y measu es had
suddenly ma e ialized in on o me. Al hough he ins i u ion was ne e a place o g ea abundance,
whe e wo ainees s uggled daily o sol e as hey could, and wi hou g ea means, he a ious
p oblems ha en e ed h ough he doo , he escala ing sca ci y o ecen mon hs had no p epa ed me
o he scena io I encoun e ed. Upon a i al, he e was only Ma iana, he psychologis , in sigh , who
was busy managing and dis ibu ing goods om he Food Bank. The day ahead was an icipa ed o be
pa icula ly hec ic wi h he o ganiza ion o bags o be deli e ed and he a i al o he use s, who we e
wai ing o hei u n, a e con i ming ha hey we e egis e ed and ha hey would be en i led o
ood aid.
The associa ion’s en ance was now di ided in o wo zones sepa a ed by sc eens. The space,
o me ly cen e ed on psychosocial suppo , had been eo ganized in o wha seemed o me o be
cu en ly HDP’s main ac i i y: dis ibu ion o ood o he needy. On he le side, duly p o ec ed om
ou side s’ eyes, we e shel es o a ious ood i ems om he Food Bank wi h which he HDP now had
an ac i e p o ocol. Ce eal boxes, pas a, ice, sausages, una, and oli e oil could be ound sca e ed
a ound he place o al eady displayed on he newly ins alled shel es. The in e io o he idge, whe e
ou lunches we e p e iously s o ed, was illed wi h yogu po s and o he pe ishable i ems. The eeze
bulged wi h sliced b ead, sausages, bu e , and cheese. In addi ion o hese goods, c a es illed wi h
bananas, oma oes, pea s, u nips, b ead, and spinach could be ound e e ywhe e. The e we e also
anilla desse s, cookies, sal ine c acke s, and milk packe s wai ing o be p ope ly packaged in bags
assigned o he homes o all who had duly jus i ied hei need o ood suppo .
Ma iana kep some asse s o ce ain amilies whose needs we e al eady known because hey
had young child en, o heal h easons o e en conside ing hei al eady p oclaimed p e e ences. In
he case o a mo he who had o lea e he child en ea ly in he nu se y in o de o ge o wo k on
ime, Ma iana was ca e ul o p epa e wo la ge bags ein o ced wi h esh p oduc s o he child en’s
soup, ui , yogu , and hei p e e ed b eak as ce eals. To ensu e ha she ecei ed he long-awai ed
goods, Ma iana a i ed a he nonp o i o ganiza ion abou an hou ea ly, solely o his mo he , who
only a he end o he long wo king day could li up he second bag. In addi ion o a i ing ea ly,
Ma iana also le la e due o he demanding schedule o his woman, who once a ended he job sea ch
wo kshop held a he nonp o i o ganiza ion and was now wo king ull ime. She ep esen ed he
epi ome o he ca ing mo he , he ul illing clien , he ci izen whose example was e e ed o o he s [
26
].
The e o e, she dese ed special ea men , e en a he expense o Ma iana’s sleep.
They also old me ha since Senho Rami o, he associa ion’s p esiden , had su e ed a ca
acciden , des oying he an p e iously used o collec Food Bank goods and ake pa ien s o doc o
appoin men s, se e al changes had aken place. Fi s , bo h he psychologis and he social wo ke
in e ns we e i ed. Al hough hei in e nship had e mina ed in June, he ins i u ion was able o keep
hem wo king ull ime, bu wi h he acciden hey we e o ced o le hem go due o lack o unds. Now
hey suppo ed he dis ibu ion o ood only on a olun a y basis and mo ed by compassion o he
poo , who hey once helped on a di e en basis, namely, wi h psychological and social suppo [
50
–
52
].
Socie ies 2019,9, 84 9 o 14
When he pa ne ship was es ablished wi h he Food Bank, he egis a ions collec ed
indisc imina ely by Dona Angelina p ac ically wi h all he esiden s o he neighbou hood we e
cancelled and he p ocess unde wen a mo e igo ous sc u iny in acco dance wi h he ules imposed
by he gi ing ins i u ion, de e ing se e al applica ions which did no ul il he speci ied c i e ia. I
asked Ma iana wha hey we e looking o du ing he home isi s o de ed by he Food Bank and
she old me ha hey saw he condi ions in which people li ed, wha oods hey had, i hey we e
name-b anded o gene ic, al hough his was a dubious s anda d since he applican could s ill ha e
ood i ems om p e ious isi s o he Food Bank. Al hough he esea ch me hods we e no pe ec ,
hey we e ne e heless applied by he o me in e ns o gua an ee he suppo ’s i ingness.
Ma iana, while o ganizing he deli e ies, ook he oppo uni y o explain o me how she managed
he ope a ion as equi ed by he Food Bank. They ound ha some people owed wo eu os o
anspo a ion, an amoun cha ged by HDP o each amily o und he nonp o i ’s wo ke s isi o he
Food Bank wa ehouse a e he an acciden . The psychologis a i med ha aking ha s ep had been
enough o dis inguish hose who “ eally needed” om hose who abused his se ice, because o he
idiculous and symbolic alue asked in o de o ecei e a ” ee” bag o ood. In Ma iana’s wo ds, he
si ua ion was sol ed using a simple calcula ion: “They decided ha hey would dona e mon hly o
anspo a ion. They said ha hei con ibu ion was ba ely enough o buy a bo le o oli e oil a he
supe ma ke and ha i hey backed he anspo a ion, hey would ha e access o wo bags o goods,
so i was a mo e ad an ageous si ua ion.”
Al hough de ini e ules had been es ablished abou wha each pe son was en i led o ecei e, no
only o comply wi h he equi emen s o he Food Bank’s p o ocol, he in e ns, acco ding o wha hey
al eady knew om each amily, ollowed a mo e ”subjec i e” o ”in ui i e” app oach in choosing
wha was deposi ed in each bag. I no iced on his isi ha Ma iana (I la e checked wi h Ca la, he
social wo ke , when she a i ed) had al eady gained a g ea e complici y wi h he esiden s o he
neighbou hood since my las isi . She knew hem by name, she had al eady isi ed hei homes, she
was acquain ed wi h hei needs and p e e ences. She had lis ened o hem lis ing hei bu dens and
so ows and she had become one o he gua dians o he neighbou hood Food Bank e ige a o and
pan y. I also no iced ha she had some ”pampe ing’ ese ed o ce ain people, as was he case o a
woman who e u ned la e in he a e noon asking, in a low oice, i Ma iana could gi e he some ex a
i ems in case he e we e some emaining, o which Ma iana eplied o, in he same one, ha “Yes,
maybe i could be a anged”. The in e ns had, hus, become ecep o s o he na a i es o su e ing
p esen ed by he use s and esponded wi h compassion, ac i ely pa icipa ing in he mo al economies
a s ake [15].
These compassiona e e o s employed by he o me in e ns, which in ol ed s aying un il e y
la e on Food Bank days and aking on he hea y wo k o loading and unloading, wi hou any help,
he an en ed only o his pu pose, was coinciden wi h he logic o ”lending a hand” [
33
] p e alen
when hey wo ked o icially o he nonp o i o ganiza ion. The compassion, he mo al impe a i e
ha was abo e any o he na a i e was now he only one ha subsis ed when e e y hing else a HDP
seemed o c umble in he ace o inancial collapse. Howe e , his abandonmen was all he mo e
necessa y du ing aus e i y imes. Touched by he communi y’s needs and su e ing, hey had become
in ec ed by he communicable ulne abili y [
30
] p esen in hei complain s, mo ing hem o ac , o do
some hing, o lend a hand. They did so in he name o a common humani y, which hey jus i ied as a
uni e sal impe a i e [
53
] and impelled hem o wo k e en wi hou pay, in he name o he wel a e o
o he s and o alle ia e hei su e ing [
50
,
52
]. This na a i e, which es ablished a hie a chy o p io i ies
in which he hunge o he use s o he associa ion o which hey used o wo k ou weighed hei
pe sonal needs, became dominan .
P o ided he communi y de iciencies we e p ope ly ma ked and he ulne abili y o his
neighbou hood was once again de ined by o mal ins umen s such as he Food Bank inqui ies
and manda o y home isi s, he goods we e deli e ed and on he scheduled day he esiden s lined up
a he nonp o i ’s doo o collec hei wo bags ull o ” ee ood”. They also did so as long as people