10
HOW TO DO THINGS WITH OATHS:
MILITANCY AND LOYALTY IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
F ancesco Buscemi
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14712/2571452X.2024.68.2
Abs ac : F ench Re olu iona y oa hs cons i u ed one o he mos common poli ical
p ac ices du ing he e olu iona y decade 1789-1799. They ha e d awn he a en ion o
some o he mos in luen ial in e p e e s o he age o e olu ions, who ha e ended o
analyze hei use in speci ic ci cums ances wi hou conside ing he pe sonal s akes hese
solemn p omises implied. By looking a he social his o y o oa h aking and he
emo ional engagemen embodied in i s e e yday p ac ice, his a icle highligh s how
ecou se o oa hs ga e meaning o e olu iona y expe iences and enabled he ise o
a new concep ion o poli ical loyal y.
Keywo ds: loyal y, oa hs, emo ions, e olu ion, F ance, poli ical cul u e
The his o y o he Re olu ion is he his o y o i s oa hs, hose ac ually aken and
hose only imagined. This a icle ollows some o he h eads ha connec he
ic i e oa hs wi h he eal ones ha s uc u ed he poli ical li e o F ance du ing
he e olu iona y decade 1789-1799. Many we e he oa hs aken a ha ime; oo
many o us o analyze hem all in dep h he e and desc ibe why all he di e en
agencies ha p omo ed hem did so. In mos cases, hese speech ac s se ed o
ma k an occasion.1 They we e one o he many ways F ench e olu iona ies
consciously and p oudly ied o make his o y, ha is o be in con ol o he
un olding o he e en s in a ime o sudden changes. Tha being said, hey we e
a mo e han a ce emonial expedien . Taking an oa h had consequences and i
was he awa eness o hose consequences ha e en ually made hem such a powe ul
1 On speech ac s and he pe o ma i i y o language, see J.L. Aus in, How o Do Things wi h
Wo ds (Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 1962).
How o Do Things wi h Oa hs
11
de ice o bond ci izens.2 T us ing oa hs mean o F ench e olu iona ies us ing
he idea ha wo ds ma e ed. In es iga ing he ole played by oa h aking in hose
yea s hence means in es iga ing he powe ha e olu iona ies a ibu ed o
language – a powe ha hey ied o e oke and mas e e e y ime hey
p onounced o p oposed an oa h.
The s udy o oa h- aking p ac ices has become a classic heme o F ench
e olu iona y his o iog aphy. Mona Ozou ocused on i s ce emonial unc ion and
emphasized i s bu eauc a ic na u e, suspec ing i had ew implica ions o
indi idual consciences.3 In con as , Timo hy Tacke ’s s udy o he oa h equi ed
by he ci il cons i u ion o he cle gy demons a ed how social ac o s ook hose
o mulas se iously: aking o no aking an oa h de ined he place one had in
socie y and he ela ionship wi h one’s communi y.4 B onisław Baczko and Lynn
Hun con ibu ed o ha deba e by ocusing on he linguis ic cha ac e o
e olu iona y oa hs, while o he his o ians such as Pie e Se na, Anne Simonin
and Cha les Wal on d ew a en ion o he ma e ial and ideological consequences
ha ecou se o oa hs had, whe he by excluding enemies om he legi ima e
poli ical communi y o by exposing hem o public shaming.5 Building on hese
di e se con ibu ions, his a icle will demons a e ha analyzing e olu iona y
oa hs enables us o shed ligh on he ise o a new concep ion o poli ical loyal y,
s ic ly connec ed wi h pe sonal and emo ional mili ancy.6 I is ha new idea, I will
a gue, ha lies behind he g andiloquen wo ds o oa h o mulas ha his o ians
ha e been ying o yea s o unpack.
2 F ancesco Buscemi, “The Impo ance o Being Re olu iona y: Oa h- aking and he ‘Feeling
Rules’ o Violence (1789-1794),” F ench His o y 33, no. 2 (2019): 218-35.
3 Mona Ozou , La ê e é olu ionnai e 1789-1799 (Pa is: Gallima d, 1976).
4 Timo hy Tacke , Religion, Re olu ion and Regional Cul u e in Eigh een h-Cen u y F ance:
The Ecclesias ical Oa h o 1791 (P ince on, NJ: P ince on Uni e si y P ess 1985).
5 B onisław Baczko, “Se men s e pa ju es,” in Poli iques de la Ré olu ion ançaise (Pa is:
Gallima d, 2008), 72-91; Lynn Hun , Poli ics, Cul u e and Class in he F ench
Re olu ion (Be keley and Los Angeles: Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess, 1984); Pie e
Se na, La République des gi oue es (1789-1815 ... e au-delà): Une anomalie poli ique: la F ance
de l’ex ême cen e (Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 2005); Anne Simonin, Le déshonneu dans la
République: Une his oi e de l’indigni é 1791-1958 (Pa is: G asse 2008), 213-21; Cha les
Wal on, Policing Public Opinion in he F ench Re olu ion: The Cul u e o Calumny and he
P oblem o F ee Speech (Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2009), 146.
6 Fo mo e on his app oach, see also F ancesco Buscemi, “Feeling Poli ical in Public
Adminis a ion: F ench Bu eauc acy be ween Mili ancy and Sens de l’É a , 1789-2019,”
in Feeling Poli ical: Emo ions and Ins i u ions since 1789 (Cham: Palg a e Macmillan, 2022),
25-57.
F ancesco Buscemi
12
I
An ob ious poin o depa u e o a s udy o oa h- aking and i s a is ic
ep esen a ion is Jacques-Louis Da id’s Se men du Jeu de Paume (1791) (Fig. 1), he
mos iconic ep esen a ion o he e hos o e olu iona y oa hs and one which
acqui ed addi ional signi icance because o i s un inished cha ac e . Da id had
s a ed o de elop a new iconog aphy o oa hs e en be o e he Re olu ion wi h
his Ho aces (1784-85).7
Fig. 1. Jacques-Louis Da id, Se men du Jeu de Paume, le 20 juin 1789. A e 1791. Musée
Ca na ale , Pa is. His oi e de Pa is, in en ai e P67.
Fo he composi ion depic ing he Tennis Cou Oa h, he pain e wo ked wi h
his iend and com ade Edmond Louis Alexis Dubois-C ancé o ob ain he suppo
o he Socie y o he F iends o he Cons i u ion ( he Jacobin Club) and he c i ical
7 Jean S a obinski, “Le se men : Da id,” in 1789: Les emblèmes de la Raison (Pa is:
Gallima d, 2006), 81-93.
How o Do Things wi h Oa hs
13
unding needed o his ambi ious p ojec .8 He e en w o e he speech ha Dubois-
C ancé ga e a he Club o p esen he p ojec on 28 Oc obe 1790.9
In his accoun o his long s ay in Pa is, he Ge man Ge ha d An on on Halem
included he session o he Jacobins a which Dubois-C ancé p esen ed his plan o
aise a subsc ip ion o suppo he subsc ip ion o Da id’s pain ing. The eac ion
o some o hose p esen is no ewo hy:
The Abbé Dillon s epped o wa d i s and claimed his igh o be in he
pic u e. He was one o he ew ecclesias ics who had ga he ed a he Na ional
Assembly be o e he day o he oa h. He had had o gua d he o he wise
insigni ican eco ds o he cle gy on June 20, and i was o his eason alone
ha he was no p esen . He appealed o he es imony o hose p esen ,
membe s o he Na ional Assembly, and his eques was ecognized as
legi ima e. Noailles spoke a e him and app o ed he idea o glo i ying he
ac o hese b a e ci izens. “Bu alas!” he said, “ he ci-de an nobili y sees i sel
excluded, and ye how many o us we e a ending his session om he hea !
I only he pain e could ep esen hem, in he dis ance, wi h hei souls
bu ning and ull o he desi e o be among hose who ook he oa h!” A hi d
ose and wished also o be ep esen ed on he can as. A ou h did no wan
o see he e hose misé ables who we e p esen a such a scene and who,
howe e , had abandoned he good cause. Da id, a his poin , hanked
e e ybody om he ibunes, bu he said ha “his o ical u h and uni y we e
necessa y o he pain ing”. I was unanimously applauded.10
As his desc ip ion o he mee ing shows, pe o ming he oa h a he Jeu de Paume
ans o med he p o agonis s o he Re olu ion in o cha ac e s o a play, models
8 Desc ip ion du se men e de la ê e ci iques céléb és au bois de Boulogne pa la Socié é du Se men
du jeu de paume de Ve sailles, des 20 juin 1789 e 1790 (Pa is: G ané y, 1790), 5. See also
Albe Ma hiez, Les o igines des cul es é olu ionnai es, 1789-1792 (Pa is: Bellais, 1904), 49;
Da id Lloyd Dowd, Pagean -mas e o he Republic: Jacques-Louis Da id and he F ench
Re olu ion (Lincoln, NE: Uni e si y o Neb aska P ess, 1948), 36
9 Edmond Louis Alexis Dubois-C ancé, P ospec us d’une sousc ip ion ci ique, p oposée aux
Amis de la Cons i u ion, pou l’exécu ion d’un Tableau de 30 pieds su 20, ep ésen an le
se men ai à Ve sailles dans un jeu de Paume, pa les Dépu és des Communes, le 20 juin 1789
(Pa is: Imp ime ie na ionale, 1790). See he manusc ip o he speech, handw i en by
Da id, in Philippe Bo des, Le Se men du Jeu de Paume de Jacques-Louis Da id (Pa is:
Edi ions de la Réunion des Musée Na ionaux, 1983), documen 10A.
10 Ge ha d An on an Halem, Pa is en 1790: oyage de Halem, ed. and ans. A hu Chuque
(Pa is: Lib ai e Plon, 1896), 251-52. Unless o he wise indica ed, all ansla ions a e my own.
F ancesco Buscemi
14
o be imi a ed and ein e p e ed. The p ocess o imi a ion had begun e en be o e
Da id’s pain ing was composed. A yea a e he oa h, on 20 June 1790, he Hall
o he Jeu de Paume became he des ina ion o an ac ual pilg image, accoun s o
which explici ly compa ed i o a jou ney o Mecca o a Muslim. I was o ganized
by he Socié é du Jeu de Paume, an associa ion whose mission was o immo alize
“ce se men qui sau a la F ance” ( his oa h ha sa ed F ance).11 The emo ional
con agion a oused by he depu ies’ ges u e had no ye died ou , and indeed could
be ueled p ecisely by e oking and epea ing i . On ha i s anni e sa y, ga he ed
in he small own on he ou ski s o Pa is we e membe s o he Socié é,
ep esen a i es o he municipali y o Ve sailles, a Flande s egimen , mili iamen
o he Na ional Gua d, Na ional Assembly pe sonali ies and some Bas ille
olun ee s, who b ough wi h hem memo abilia om i s uins, ea ed as elics
o be obsequiously p ese ed in he new emple o he homeland. The pilg image
culmina ed jus inside he hall o he Jeu de Paume and wi h a collec i e
pe o mance o he same oa h aken a yea ea lie by he depu ies alone, he wo ds
o which we e eng a ed on a plaque hung on he wall ha e y day.
The pe o mance o ha pledge, howe e , was by no means a cold eenac men
o he e en . Ins ead, i was an ac o i ual, almos eligious, signi icance:
O lo e o a he land! O i ue! you alone can inspi e such sen imen s!
When hey had aken he oa h, a eligious emo ion [saisissemen ] seized
hei souls; hey shou ed o he sky in joy, hanking i o he eedom hey
hoped o enjoy.12
Once he ce emony was o e , his a he he e ogeneous assembly mo ed o he
Bois de Boulogne, whe e he emo ional empe a u e did no d op du ing a pa io ic
banque se up o he occasion. The pa icipan s i s lis ened o he minu es o
he Jeu de Paume as hey we e ead aloud, bu e en mo e signi ican was he
p oclama ion o he i s wo a icles o he Decla a ion o he Righ s o Man and
o he Ci izen, because i ook he o m o a e olu iona y p aye o be eci ed
be o e ea ing, ins ead o a eligious Benedici e. The p esiden o he Socié é, Gilbe
Romme, ook cha ge o he eading, and he assembly immedia ely esponded o
him loudly wi h an “Ainsi soi -il.” F om hose ea ly yea s on, in sho , he depu ies’
oa h acqui ed a poli ical- eligious dimension ha exp essed wha he e olu iona ies
we e expe iencing. Fo his eason, oo, he i e could be epea ed and eli ed a
each new celeb a ion, by hose who had al eady swo n he oa h o by hose who
11 Desc ip ion du se men e de la ê e ci iques, 2.
12 Desc ip ion du se men e de la ê e ci iques, 2-3.

How o Do Things wi h Oa hs
15
wished o be possessed by he same emo ion as he he oes o he homeland by
imi a ing hei ges u es.
I is no su p ising, hen, ha Da id’s pain ing ini ially me wi h a a ou able
ecep ion. The F ench public, and he Pa isian public in pa icula , al eady had
su icien expe ience o co ec ly in e p e he scene po ayed. P ess epo s and
pamphle s in i ed F ench people o expe ience he bu ning passion o he oa h by
ha ing he can as in on o hem. As he au ho o one o he pamphle s
commen ing on he Salon whe e Da id p esen ed he d a o his pain ing pu i :
F enchmen, un, ly, lea e e e y hing, ush o a end he oa h o he Jeu de
Paume; and i you a e no bu ned, consumed by he pa io ic i e a his
bu ning hea h, you can es assu ed ha you a e no wo hy o eedom.
[...] Ah! i ou emig és saw his scene, which elec i ies e en p ies s, hey
would soon become child en o he a he land [en an s de la pa ie]; and why
no send hem M . Da id, wi h his alisman, which would ha e he opposi e
e ec o Medusa’s head: I am ce ain, once again, ha i hey saw i , hey
would kneel be o e i , asking o me cy o he p esen and o he pas .13
The powe o he oa h did no jus gi e cou age o he ep esen a i es o he Thi d
Es a e. Thanks o pain ings, epheme al li e a u e and hea ical pieces e e ybody
could po en ially ind ha same cou age. Ha ing Da id’s wo k in on o one’s
eyes was like wi nessing ha e en i s hand: being elec i ied by he same passion
ha had mo i a ed he depu ies du ing hei oa h o o ice. I was no jus a isce al
way o app oaching a wo k o a , howe e . Wha o Dide o was me ely a mode
o aes he ic ecep ion now se he ela ionship be ween ci izens and poli ics.
In e isionis s udies o he Re olu ion, i has become almos commonplace o
highligh he in usi eness in people’s li es o he new poli ics.14 The ac , hough,
ha he ela ionship be ween he indi idual and public sphe e had become
inc easingly close was no due solely o he enla gemen o he la e since 1789. I
was, on he con a y, he sp ead o a Roman ic sensibili y ha was he decisi e
in luence, inducing one o look a poli ics h ough he same lens h ough which
one go los inside a Samuel Richa dson no el. As li e a y schola s ha e augh
his o ians, du ing he eigh een h cen u y he egis e s o a ec i i y enhanced
13 Jean Joseph Pi hou de Loin ille, Le plaisi p olongé. Le e ou du salon chez soi e celui de
l’Abeille dans sa uch (Pa is: chez l’Au eu e chez Fab e, 1791), 28-29.
14 Apa om he classic e e ences, see mo e ecen ly Dan Edels ein, The Te o o Na u al
Righ . Republicanism, he Cul o Na u e, and he F ench Re olu ion (Chicago, IL: Chicago
Uni e si y P ess, 2009).
F ancesco Buscemi
16
aes he ic enjoymen in all a eas o li e a u e, hea e and a . Wi h he Re olu ion,
his same a ec i e language colou ed he exe cise o poli ical powe , wi h
dis up i e e ec s on ac o s’ mo i a ions and sense o iden i y. I poli ics gained
new spaces, i was la gely because i began o speak in a mo e pe sonal language
ha could in ima ely engage people. The new aes he ics o poli ics owed mo e o
he eme gence o a “ e olu iona y consciousness” han o he supposed inhe en
au ho i a ianism o Enligh enmen cul u e o he leading exponen s o he
Pa io ic Pa y.15 Fo he e olu iona y poli ical cul u e, in sho , we should apply
he same conside a ions exp essed by a schola o compa a i e li e a u e, Cecilia
Feilla, abou he hea e o hose same yea s: i would be cha ac e ized no so much
by he in il a ion o he poli ical on all a eas o public and p i a e li e, bu by he
“ex e naliza ion o p i a e a ec i e o ms and con en ions in public discou se
and pe o mance.”16
One e ec o his was o c ea e a e olu iona y iden i y, which depu ies ound
hemsel es wea ing and solemnly sanc ioning by aking he oa h. The expe ience
o he June 20 oa h ma ked a poin o no e u n in he ways o unde s anding
loyal y and pa icipa ion in public li e: by aking he oa h, he ac o s commi ed
hemsel es o inco po a ing he poli ical u n on a pe sonal le el, o li e as
e olu iona ies.
The p o ound sel - ans o ma ion ha he depu ies imagined hey we e
enac ing, howe e , was no a solipsis ic p ocess, a wo k on one’s pe sonal
inclina ions ha he indi idual had o ca y ou alone. Iden i ies a e ela ional:
hey a e de ined by con ac wi h o he s and he sha ing o expe iences; hey c ea e
a communi y. Wha is mo e, he concep ualiza ion o one’s own image helped
ede ine ha o o he s, o en in an agonis ic e ms. Those who ook he oa h began
o hink o hemsel es as e olu iona ies and o exclude o he s om ha
communi y. The a is oc a s, he eac iona ies, he sec a ians, he hypoc i es:
anyone who did no pa icipa e in he e olu iona y ans o ma ion could be
dismissed wi h one o hese labels, and i was om con on a ion wi h hem ha
he depu ies ound g ea e mo i a ion o hei commi men . Sa i ical images
ep esen ing he e ec s o he powe o oa hs on he enemies o he Re olu ion
o e ed a isual ep esen a ion o his mechanism. A is oc a s and eac iona y
p ies s no pa icipa ing in he e olu iona y e o we e ep esen ed as annihila ed
15 On his new unde s anding o poli ics, see Geo ge L. Mosse, The Na ionaliza ion o he
Masses: Poli ical Symbolism and Mass Mo emen s in Ge many (I haca, NY: Co nell Uni e si y
P ess, 1975).
16 Cecilia Feilla, The Sen imen al Thea e o he F ench Re olu ion (Fa nham and Bu ling on,
VT: Ashga e 2013), 15.
How o Do Things wi h Oa hs
17
by he en husiasm o he oa h- ake s, as in he p in om 1790 whe e he e ec o
he solemn oa h ce emony on he al a o he Fes i al o he Fede a ion (14 July
1790) was o con ound and de ea all he coun e e olu iona ies (Fig. 2). O he
popula ep esen a ions emphasized how oa hs had he powe o e eal hose
who p o i ed om he ambigui y o poli ical allegiances in he old égime. The
new sense o loyal y p omo ed by he e olu iona ies equi ed ull anspa ency:
no disc epancy be ween he con ic ions o he hea and he wo ds coming ou o
he mou h was deemed legi ima e. Those who ied o ake oa hs bu lacked
con ic ion made hei discom o e iden , as is sugges ed by a p in om 1790-91
a ge ing di e en kinds o nobles, judges, and ecclesias ical au ho i ies (Fig. 3).
I is om his pe spec i e ha he oa h cons i u ed a decisi e elemen o
e olu iona y iden i y, unde s ood in i s wo ace s, one in e nal, he o he ex e nal.
On he one hand, oa hs we e expec ed o a ouse in indi iduals a sense o sel in line
wi h he changed poli ical amewo k: he Re olu ion was also o be a egene a ion
o onesel . On he o he hand, hey se up he bounda ies o he communi y; ha
is, hey de ined he g oup o ju eu s in ela ion o he es o he wo ld.
Fig. 2. Les A is oc a es desespe és d’appe ce oi la Fê e du 14 juille au Champ de Ma s
(de ail). Pa is, 1790. F ench Re olu ion Digi al A chi e, Biblio hèque Na ionale
de F ance / S an o d Uni e si y.
F ancesco Buscemi
18
Fig. 3. Se men s de MM. s les A is oc a es (de ail). 1790-91. F ench Re olu ion Digi al
A chi e, Biblio hèque Na ionale de F ance / S an o d Uni e si y.
II
A his poin , i should be clea ha e ec i e oa hs en ailed a ce ain le el o
s aging: people p omised o ac like he pe son desc ibed in he o mula. This
c oss-o e be ween he s aging o loyal y in public and ac ual hea ical s ages
in o med mos o he e olu iona y decade. I was pa icula ly e iden in he
a e ma h o he Fes i al o he Fede a ion, when he ci y o Pa is saw a booming
o plays o e ing in e p e a i e amewo ks o he oa hs aken by he di e en
mili ias o he Na ional Gua d who ga he ed a he Champ de Ma s on 14 July
1790. Michel Bia d has collec ed da a demons a ing he scale o he
phenomenon.17 I is pe haps no su p ising ha six pe o mances based on he
heme o he Fede a ion ook place on 14 July, bu he numbe o shows e-
elabo a ing he same expe ience emained high ( h ee o ou pe o mances pe
day) un il he i s week o Augus wi h a signi ican ail un il he end o he mon h.
No all hese plays we e planned in ad ance. Many saw he ligh o day p ecisely
on he emo ional wa e o he oa hs aken on 14 July. The images o he Champ de
Ma s so inspi ed Olympe de Gouges ha she s a ed w i ing h ee sc ip s abou
he Fes i al o he Fede a ion ha same day.
17 Michel Bia d, “La édé a ion des omb es. Fê e pa io ique e héâ es pa isiens dans l’é é
1790,” in La ê e de la édé a ion, ed. Pascal Dupuy (Mon Sain -Aignan: Publica ions des
Uni e si és de Rouen e du Ha e, 2012), 43-59.
How o Do Things wi h Oa hs
25
1789, oa hs p og essi ely se ed o gi e oice o ideal en husiasms, channelled
collec i e passions in o indi idual consciences. Oa hs we e be o e he p i ileged
means o exp ession o communica ing he emo ions a oused by he emendous
e olu iona y e en s and sha e hem in a communi y.
In one o his bes -known books, he philosophe S anley Ca ell sough o
cla i y wha i means o embody app op ia e linguis ic exp essions:
When you say “I lo e my lo e” he child lea ns he meaning o he wo d
‘lo e’ and wha lo e is. Tha (wha you do) will be lo e in he child’s wo ld;
and i i is mixed wi h esen men and in imida ion, hen lo e is a mix u e
o esen men and in imida ion, and when lo e is sough ha will be sough .25
A child who lea ns language does no me ely become amilia wi h wo ds, bu
also abso bs he c i e ia ha o de hem and a e no ma i e. One lea ns h ough
agmen s o speech, bu one also lea ns o p oduce new u e ances ha a e
comp ehensible o hose who sha e he same language. This is also ue o he
language o he new poli ics. Those who had di ec expe ience o i in hose yea s –
by a ending ci ic es i als, lis ening o a pa io ic speech o swea ing allegiance
o he epublic – acqui ed much mo e han i s immedia e con en s. Inside he o mula
o an oa h hey would ind and embody he deep sense o change, he p og amme
o egene a ion, he ambi ion o e olu iona ies, he o de o socie y, he di ision
o oles in he amily, how o e e o anscendence. Fo all men and women
in ol ed in he Re olu ion, oa hs we e a epe oi e o possibili ies. They
ep esen ed he oppo uni y o lea n and embody he emo ional lexicon o mode n
poli ics ha ga e meaning o hei expe iences as ci izens.
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A chi es Pa lemen ai es de 1787 a 1860. Recueil comple des déba s des Chamb es
F ançaises, Deuxième Sé ie (1800 à 1860). Vol. 34 (Du 1e Oc ob e au 10
No emb e 1791). Pa is: Lib ai e Adminis a i e de Paul Dupon , 1890.
A chi es Pa lamen ai es. Vol. 37 (Du 2 au 28 Jan ie 1792). Pa is: Lib ai e
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