SOCIOLOGÍA Y TECNOCIENCIA, 15.1 (2025): 176-201
ISSN: 1989-8487
Desa ollo local a a és de u as cul u ales: el caso de
San José de Chiqui os (Boli ia)
Local De elopmen h ough Cul u al Rou es: The Case
o San José de Chiqui os (Boli ia)
JESÚS-ALBERTO VALERO-MATAS
Uni e sidad de Valladolid
A da de Mad id, 50. 34004 Palencia (Spain)
ja ale o@u a.es
ORCID h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-7330-1635
JORGE YIKA RIVERA
Teache o Spanish
New isions cha e high school o ad anced ma h and science III
3000 A enue X. B ooklyn, New Yo k 11235.USA
jyika i e [email protected]
Recibido/Recei ed:10/05/2024 . Acep ado/Accep ed: 24/06/2024
Cómo ci a /How o ci e: Vale o-Ma as, Jesús-Albe o & Yika Ri e a, Jo ge (2025). Local
De elopmen h ough Cul u al Rou e: The Case o San José de Chiqui os. Sociología y
Tecnociencia, 15 (1), 176-201. DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.24197/s .1.2025.176-201.
A ículo de acceso abie o dis ibuido bajo una Licencia C ea i e Commons A ibución
4.0 In e nacional (CC-BY 4.0). / Open access a icle unde a C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC-BY 4.0).
Resumen: Las u as pa imoniales se han con e ido en un impo an e eclamo desde los o ígenes del
u ismo, siendo al amen e conside adas más ecien emen e como una he amien a p i ilegiada pa a
la plani icación del desa ollo local in eg al. En es a ocasión, se p o undiza á en las u as pa imoniales,
desde una pe spec i a socioeconómica y los ac o es que las con igu an como agen es de desa ollo;
así como, en el ma co concep ual del desa ollo e i o ial sos enible, delimi ando concep os cla e de
los nue os pa adigmas público, ci cula y egene a i o y o os .
Finalmen e, se con as a á el alcance de es e modelo de desa ollo in eg al en el caso de la amosa Ru a
de las Misiones Jesuí icas de la Chiqui ania, muy ap eciada en Amé ica La ina. Ve i icando los da os de
poblado es y u is as conside an que las in aes uc u as son de mediana calidad y los da os de u is as
y poblado es conside an que la u a ha log ado la mejo a del pa imonio cul u al y na u al, aunque no
ha con ibuido a complemen a o po encia las ac i idades adicionales (mine ía y ag icul u a).
Po an o, se puede conside a , siguiendo las p emisas del modelo de desa ollo in eg al indicado que,
las u as pa imoniales pueden ac i a la e alo ización y cuidado del pa imonio cul u al y na u al, la
mejo a de las condiciones socioeconómicas de las poblaciones u ales. Su desa ollo como p oduc o
u ís ico de calidad depende á de la in e sión en in aes uc u as y comunicaciones.
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Palab as cla e: Pa imonio, u ismo, desa ollo local, Misiones jesui icas, Chiqui ania
Abs ac : He i age ou es ha e become an impo an claim since he o igins o ou ism, being highly
conside ed mo e ecen ly as a p i ileged ool o planning in eg al local de elopmen . On his occasion,
He i age ou es will be s udied in dep h, om a socioeconomic pe spec i e and he ac o s ha make
hem up as agen s o de elopmen ; as well as, in he concep ual amewo k o sus ainable e i o ial
de elopmen , delimi ing key concep s o he new public, ci cula and egene a i e pa adigms and
o he s . Finally, he scope o his in eg al de elopmen model will be con as ed in he case o he
amous Jesui Missions Rou e o Chiqui ania, highly app ecia ed in La in Ame ica. Ve i ying he da a o
denizen and ou is s conside ha he in as uc u es a e o medium quali y and he da a o ou is s
and ownsmen conside he ou e has achie ed he imp o emen o he cul u al and na u al he i age,
al hough i has no con ibu ed o complemen ing o p omo ing adi ional ac i i ies (mining and
ag icul u e).
The e o e, i can be conside ed, ollowing he p emises o he in eg al de elopmen model indica ed
ha , he i age ou es can ac i a e he e alua ion and ca e o cul u al and na u al he i age, he
imp o emen o he socioeconomic condi ions o u al popula ions. I s de elopmen as a quali y
ou ism p oduc will depend on in es men in in as uc u es and communica ions.
Keywo ds: He i age, Tou ism, Local De elopmen , Jesui ’s Missions, Chiqui ania.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tou ism has been conside ed a local de elopmen ac o due o I s mul iplie
e ec on o he economic ac i i ies and, in u n, due o i s con ibu ion o na ional
economies due o i s impac on GDP, he balance o paymen s and employmen .
Tou ism also encou ages he eco e y and es o a ion o monumen al and in angible
cul u al he i age, bu ou is o e load can make ou ism a h ea , bo h o he i age and
o he quali y o li e o he esiden popula ion.
The cul u al ou es (CR), ha e been he o igin o cu en ou ism wi h he
G and Tou o he Eu opean con inen om he se en een h cen u y, des ined o he
o ma ion o he young B i ish a is oc acy. In pa icula , ou es based on he i age
ha e been a claim o he a el indus y, especially hose des ined o ou ism wi h a
highe pu chasing powe and a highe cul u al le el.
Cul u al ou es a e pa o he cul u al he i age (e al, 2019) , abo e all
because o he ole hey play o ce ain people and hei communi ies; in pa icula ,
he ou es based on popula he i age ha ha e been a bi dcall o he ou is indus y.
The de elopmen o mass ou ism has achie ed ha he ips ha e a o dable p ices
o he di e en social s a a and hese ha e ene gized he ou is ou es, gene a ing
an inc ease in pa icipa ion, ex ending he cul u al a ac ion beyond he monumen al
and a is ic he i age, owa ds o he imma e ial aspec s : olklo e, li e a u e, his o ical
spaces, ai s, e en s, legends, sanc ua ies, and so on.
As a esul o he in e es a oused by his ou ism, many coun ies saw in
hei his o ical he i age an ins umen o make he coun y known, inc ease he
numbe o isi o s and he e o e ob ain highe income. Undoub edly due o economic
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collabo a ion and in e cul u al communica ion, many coun ies chose o expand hei
cul u al o e , eco e ing and ehabili a ing he i age asse s and c ea ing hema ic
ou es. These cons i u e one o he ou is modali ies wi h he g ea es p ojec ion,
s eng h and di usion on an in e na ional scale. These ha e been p omo ed by
o ganiza ions such as he Eu opean Union, UNESCO, OAS, and so on. O igina ing
a g ea p oli e a ion o hem. hey pu in alue hei cha ac e is ics and p esumably
unique alues o a ac isi o s.
Each des ina ion has speci ic ou is a ac ions, and depending on he
e i o ial weal h, he his o ical-cul u al he i age, he na u al he i age (canyons,
go ges, ancien o es s, e c.) and o he s, new ou is ou es based on a neo-he i age
will be c ea ed, such as gas onomic, wine, li e a y ou es, e c. When he e is
a ailabili y o gene a e his ou ism, i helps he commi men o he communi y
(u ban o u al) o c ea e employmen and inc ease income.
Wi h g ea e in ensi y and unde he auspices o in e na ional o ganiza ions
o local de elopmen , Ame ica and Eu ope ha e s ood ou in es o ing old ou es, o
c ea ing new ones. In Eu ope, suppo ed by he Eu opean Union and Unesco, he
ollowing s and ou : Camino de San iago, La Ro a dei Fenici, Tu a de los Vikingos,
Cluniac Si es, Rou e de los Caminos de San Ola , Eu opean Rou e o Jewish
he i age, Via Cha lemagne, he ou e o Moza , among o he s. And in Ame ica
o he s like, he T ans-Canadian ou e, he Rou e 66 o he old leade s owa ds he
Ame ican Wes , he Mohawk T ail o Indian acks in Massachuse s, he Inca T ail
o Machu Picchu, he los ci y in Colombia, he Az ec legacy in Mexico, Mayan uins
Gua emala, o he ou es o he Jesui missions o A gen ina, Pa aguay, B azil o
Boli ia among o he s.
In o he wo ds, in addi ion o cul u al in e es , hese a e ou es ha cons i u e
a global phenomenon ha ma e ializes locally wi hin he amewo k o e i o ial
s a egies o boos economic ac i i y and posi ion i sel in he in e na ional ou ism
ma ke . Howe e , in i s di e si y, he i age can be decon ex ualized, disa icula ion o
he e i o ies whe e hey a e embedded and he cons uc ion o e i o ial images ha
do no ully co espond o he social and cul u al eali ies o he hos socie ies.
Howe e , o achie e he objec i es, he in ol emen and e o o he
popula ion, he con ex and he speci ic cha ac e is ics o he en i onmen a e needed.
In his eali y hey will en e based on elemen s such as a ci cula o linea
pa icipa o y economy model, a g ow h s a egy ocused on an exogenous o
endogenous, local o communi y de elopmen model, and choosing a ou is ou e o
a cul u al he i age ou e.
The a icle is di ided in o i e sec ions: The i s app oach he heo e ical
amewo k on cul u al ou es. he second, analyzes he impac o he ou es on local
de elopmen . Thi d, ma e ial and me hods. A e ha , he esul s o he esea ch
ieldwo k a e p esen ed. Finally, he Discussion and conclusions o he in es iga ion
o he s udied Rou e. Wi h he aim ha i can help o apply his ou ism modali y in
coun ies o eme ging economies.
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2. CONCEPTUAL DELIMITATION OF MAIN FACTORS IN THE LOCAL
DEVELOPMENT
I is necessa y o di e en ia e be ween a ious aspec s when analyzing he
economic de elopmen and he social, cul u al and economic sus ainabili y o a
egion, since di e en ac o s in e ene, as well as he choice o esou ces o ake in o
accoun and use in planning o he de elopmen o he egion ou e and he illages,
owns o ci ies h ough which i uns.
In he i s place, he di e en ia ion o he ou is ou e and cul u al he i age.
In he Eu opean con ex he e a e g ea concep ual con o e sies. Bu he e we ake
he one made by Campesino (2006) -a ha ime, Vice-p esiden o ICOMOS-Spain.
Acco ding o his pe spec i e, cul u al he i age canno be con used wi h ou is -
cul u al ou es, because he o me espond o his o ical c i e ia o au hen ici y,
con inui y and con as ing exchanges be ween cul u es. Meanwhile, he ou is ou es
a e ou is in en ions o con enience, p omo ed by public o p i a e agen s, ha
wea e ne wo ks o mo e o less homogeneous and linked he i age esou ces o o e
an imagined and i ual comme cial p oduc ; some imes hemed and sel -cons uc ed
wi h no scien i ic basis, as he Council o Eu ope i sel p omo es wi h he slogan:
c ea e you own cul u al he i age ou e.
F om an in e na ional dimension, bo h e ms con e ge in he same
sociological hough and ac , ou is ou e ( ou is -cul u al ou es) and cul u al ou e
(cul u al he i age). One o he p oblems in de ining he subjec wi h p ecision is in
he con usion gene a ed be ween ou is ou es, especially hose o cul u al in e es
and cul u al ou es.
The e o e, i is necessa y o cla i y. ha he e is a p o ound di e ence
be ween he wo concep s. A cul u al ou e s ic o sensu, i is no in en ed o
designed: i is disco e ed.
Acco ding o he ex o Campesino (2006), he cul u al he i age ou es e e
o a physical ou e o his o ical impo ance. Unlike hese, ou is ou es can be
designed acco ding o he in e es s o clien s, geog aphical dis ances and access
acili ies, places o in e es and many o he ac o s ha , logically, lack a scien i ic
basis.
The second ques ion o analyze is he di e en ia ion be ween linea economy
and ci cula economy. Impo an issue in he con ex o he i age. I is impo an o
know wha ype o economy, ci cula o linea , you wan o apply on he cul u al
he i age ou e, because in some cases i will be necessa y o c ea e i and in o he s o
make i mo e dynamic. When i is spoken in hese e ms, i e e s o wo phases: one,
he ci cula o linea economy in he s ic sense. P ocess he p oduc , consume and
la e dispose o i (linea economy), o ecycle he p ocessed aw ma e ials ha
ins ead o disca ding hem, euse hem (ci cula economy). The objec i e o he CE
is o manage and ecycle ma e ials e icien ly and only use enewable ene gy, wi hou
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ha ing nega i e impac s on human li e o ecosys ems (Rod iguez e al., 2020). In
o he wo ds, close he p ocess. The EC bene i s he sus ainabili y o he en i onmen ,
since i is mo e p o i able and less ha mless o he en i onmen , leading o sus ainable
economic g ow h, inc eased compe i i eness and he c ea ion o new jobs.
The second phase is he ci cula i y o linea i y o he cul u al he i age ou e
(CHR) o i s concep ualiza ion as economic p omo ion in local li e. Tha is, i i is
unde s ood only as a cul u al ou is o e (linea i y), o as an in eg a ing p ojec
whe e, oge he wi h he angible and in angible he i age ac i i ies, which a e an
impo an pa o he ou e, o he economic ac i i ies o he local communi y
pa icipa e (ci cula i y). The la e encou ages he CHR o p omo e economic, social
and cul u al ac i i y and, in addi ion, p o ec he i age. I canno be igno ed ha , o
make i possible o link he linea / ci cula economy wi h CHR/TR, join e o s o
en ep eneu s, esea che s, companies, use s, local, egional and na ional go e nmen
and ci il socie y a e needed. Especially, h ee hings need o come oge he :
inno a ion, c ea i i y and in ol emen . These ing edien s can p omo e a change in
he local and egional space, i people lea n o hink in an inno a i e way.
Ano he elemen o keep in mind lies in knowing whe he local communi ies
p e e o eso o local de elopmen o communi y de elopmen . Simila ques ions,
bu eally di e en . Local de elopmen seeks o ans o m he local economy and
socie y, h ough a p ocess aimed a o e coming exis ing di icul ies and challenges.
Tha is, o imp o e he li ing condi ions o he local popula ion h ough conce ed
ac ions be ween he di e en local, social, public and p i a e agen s, owa ds an
e icien and sus ainable use o exis ing endogenous esou ces ( Pie skalla, e al,
2017, Sego ia Hidalgo, e al, 2019, Dawson, e al., 2021, Nilsen, e al., 2022 & Han,
e al., 2024). Communi y de elopmen implies o he ypes o ac ions and
in e en ions among he illage s. The Uni ed Na ions de ines communi y
de elopmen as a p ocess in which communi y membe s come oge he o ake
collec i e ac ion and gene a e solu ions o common p oblems. Bha acha yya (2004)
es ablishes communi y de elopmen as he p omo ion o solida i y and agency.
G een (2016) s a es ha communi y de elopmen p ocesses and in e ac ions in ol e
e o s o combine and build esou ces o imp o e quali y and well-being.
The e o e, communi y de elopmen in ol es changing he ela ionships
be ween people and adminis a ions, so ha e e yone can pa icipa e in sol ing he
p oblems ha a ec hei li es. Pooling a la ge amoun o knowledge and expe iences
in a c ea i e way, his can p omo e collec i e ac ion and achie e he objec i es
desi ed by he communi ies.
Finally, unde which p og am he CHR will be modeled, sus ainable,
es o a i e o egene a i e. The bes known is sus ainable cul u al ou ism. A concep
ha , as say Fe nández and Sánchez (2009), has a wide numbe o de ini ions, and is
due o i s mul idimensional na u e. Gi en his eali y, we ake he de ini ion o WTO
(1993), which de ines i as a model ha mee s he needs o ou is s and he egions
ha ecei e hem, and p o ec s and inc eases oppo uni ies o he u u e.
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Sus ainable ou ism p oduc s a e in ha mony wi h he en i onmen , he communi y
and local cul u es, so ha he ecipien s o isi o s become he bene icia ies and no
he ic ims o ou ism de elopmen . Tou ism sus ainabili y desc ibing a ou ism
which mee s he needs o ou is s and he hos des ina ion, managing all esou ces in
such a way ha economic, social, and aes he ic needs can be ul illed (A ambu u, e
al., 2016 & Akba , e al, 2022). Bu no only mee he needs, bu es ablish a balance
be ween he h ee dimensions o ensu e i s long- e m sus ainabili y.
A end ha has been on he ise in he las decade is egene a i e ou ism. I
ies o go beyond sus ainable and es o a i e ou ism, i implies ocusing on gi ing
back and con ibu ing o he p oac i e egene a ion o communi ies, cul u es,
he i age, places, landscapes, e c. As Duxbu y, Bakas, Vinag e de Cas o & Sil a
(2021) say, he ocus is no on he sus ainabili y o ou ism pe se bu on he ways in
which ou ism can be a ool o local well-being, e i aliza ion, and sus ainabili y. I
aligns wi h in eg a ed local de elopmen app oaches while ocusing on mic o-scale
egene a ion ini ia i es a he han la ge-scale egene a ion plans. Some esea ch
concei es egene a i e ou ism as a solu ion o he c isis, especially caused by he
sea ch o sus ainable and ecological ou ism (Paddison & Hall, 2024). On he o he
hand, he sus ainable and egene a i e economies need a concep ual change,
ega ding he concep ualiza ion o he use o esou ces o economic g ow h (Ki che ,
e al., 2023). I is also necessa y o ask whe he he economy, in all i s dimensions, is
sus ainable o his can be sus ainable (Ho odecka, 2024)
The challenge in ou ism lies in i s modeling a ound a concep o such an
ac i i y, which has gene a ed economic g ow h and is mo ing upwa ds and i is
di icul o change. As Ca e and D edge (2020) poin ou , he h ea in ou ism,
howe e , is ha se en decades o g ow h ha e hwa ed any appe i e o imagine new
and al e na i e economic models in ou ism (Zaenu i, 2023).
A hi d end is es o a i e ou ism. I s aim is o e e se he en i onmen al
damage gene a ed, which is jus one example o a new app oach o ou ism ha
bene i s a he han ha ms he en i onmen . Ul ima ely, i seeks o es o e he capaci y
o social and ecological sys ems. I is a way o a eling, whe e he ou is in addi ion
o seeing and enjoying he en i onmen , pa icipa es in i s es o a ion. The indi idual
s ops being a passi e objec o be an ac i e subjec in he sus ainabili y o he e i o y.
The es o a i e concep , depending on he a ea o discipline, acqui es one meaning
o ano he (Mo sele o, 2020). One o he ins uc o s o he concep in he ou ism
in oduc ion esides in Hawken (1993), who used he concep o es o a i e
economics o desc ibe an economy ha combines comme cial ac i i ies wi h
( es o a i e) en i onmen al p ac ices. La e , Ho s a and Huisingh (2014) a ibu ed
o he egene a i e concep he i ues o es o ing, enewing, e i alizing and
ensu ing he ebi h o ene gy sou ces and ma e ials, aking in o accoun he u u e
needs, desi es and desi es o socie y and na u e.
Regene a ion ep esen s a o m o imp o emen om es o a ion. I
es o a ion means o do some hing well again, egene a ion, o some au ho s, means
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o do i be e , beyond a (supposed) condi ion o o igin. P oponen s o egene a ion
app oaches in he 1990s ended o ocus on a concep ualiza ion, which may ha e
e lec ed an op imis ic iew o p e ailing social change du ing ha pe iod (see
Fe guson, 2002; Pa k, Conca, and Finge , 2008 & Mang and Reed 2012)
demons a ed ha he e is "a endency o blu o con use egene a i e app oaches
wi h he ange o o he design sys ems ha eme ged in he pu sui o ecological
sus ainabili y in he 1990s." In sho , he mul iplici y o de ini ions o he concep o
egene a ion echoed he cacophony o ames ha su ounded he idea.
3. THE ROUTE OF JESUIT MISSIONS OF CHIQUITANIA AS A LOCAL
DEVELOPMENT PRODUCT
In 1990, The missions o Chiqui ania (San a C uz, Boli ia) we e decla ed
Wo ld He i age Si e by UNESCO. I is a e i o y ha is loca ed on a much mo e
ex ensi e ou e, which was ca ied ou by he Jesui s in he se en een h cen u y on
behal o he Spanish C own o e angelize he e i o y o Sou h Ame ica. Such was
he impo ance ha his space be ween A gen ina, Boli ia, B azil, Pa aguay and
U uguay was called he Jesui Empi e (Lugones, 2020). This b oad ou e began wi h
he i s mission (o educ ion) in San Ignacio Guazú (Pa aguay) in 1609. This was
ollowed by o he s, c ea ing be ween 1691 and 1760 en educ ions in eas e n Boli ia,
in “Chiqui anas” lands. The success o he i s missions was wi h he aim o
e angelizing and Ch is ianizing he indigenous people (Fe nández and Guzman,
2013), launched he missiona y ad en u e h ough Boli ian lands.
Unde he cha ac e is ic socio-poli ical- eligious sys em o he Jesui s, new
missions we e c ea ed: San Xa ie , Concepción, San Miguel, San Ra ael, San a Ana,
San José, San Ignacio, Sag ado Co azón, San iago, San Juan un il he comple ion o
he Jesui mission in Boli ia. .
The cul u al he i age ou e o he G ea Chiqui ania (JMR) is made up o
h ee p o inces o he Depa men o San a C uz ha make up he e i o y o
Chiqui ania (Ñu lo de Chá ez, Velasco and Chiqui os), and se en locali ies:
Concepción, San Xa ie , San Ignacio de Velasco, San a Ana, San Miguel, San Ra ael
and San José de Chiqui os. These we e s uc u ed unde he same pa e n. I goes
wi hou saying ha , in his long jou ney h ough he lands o Sou h Ame ica, he
Jesui s sough o a way o concen a e nomadic indigenous g oups in communi ies
called educciones. The missiona ies we e en us ed wi h he ask o ins uc ing he
indigenous people abou ci il, eligious and musical li e. In a e y sho ime, he
na i es, skilled in manual a s, became excellen a isans (ca pen e s, sculp o s,
po e s, wea e s, pain e s, e c.), as in each o he Missions i is obse ed. Highligh a
cha ac e is ic o he Boli ian Jesui missions ha did no occu in o he missiona y
ou es in Sou h Ame ica, music. The Jesui s o Chiqui ania used music as a means o
e angeliza ion, which made he indigenous people become excep ional musical
a is s, no only singe s and pe o me s, bu also compose s. The Chiqui ano s yle
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began o de elop i s own aces in he wo ks, p obably composed by he
au och honous inhabi an s who we e being ained by he Jesui mas e s, becoming a
he i age alue […] and ha he indigenous people will p ese e as a sac ed he i age
o mo e han 250 yea s (Fe ia, 2018).
The in luence exe ed on he indigenous popula ion and he e i o y ell in o
obli ion when he eign o Ca los III expelled he Jesui s om Spain and he e o e
dispossessed hem o hei managemen in he o e seas e i o ies. This isola ion
made i possible o keep hei cul u e and idiosync asies ali e, as well as hei cul u al
he i age. This in e es was co obo a ed by he decla a ion o he Wo ld He i age
Si e. This mean suppo o he de elopmen o he a ea, leading he egion and he
coun y o keep his ou e in mind as an iden i y elemen o Boli ia and La in
Ame ican socie y (Molina, 2019).
Likewise, he suppo ecei ed by he Spanish Agency o In e na ional
De elopmen Coope a ion (AECID) in 2010 (coope a ion p og am 1998) o p omo e
a pilo p ojec in San a Ana de Velasco, ga e ise o he c ea ion in 2001 o he
Technical O ice o he Misiones Plan. The TOMP was suppo ed o The Municipal
Go e nmen s o he Jesui Missions, he Diocese o Velasco, he Vica ia e o Ñu lo
de Chá ez, he Au onomous Depa men al Go e nmen o San a C uz, he Minis y
o Cul u e and Tou ism, and AECID. This was he beginning o a ou is
de elopmen plan, in which he Jesui emples and ci il spaces we e es o ed. A
cul u al and comme cial s uc u e was gene a ed a ound he Cul u al He i age Rou e
o he egion.
La Chiqui ania was no a ou is e i o y such as La Paz, Lake Ti icaca, Sala
de Uyuni ( he mos isi ed place in Boli ia), he Licancabu Volcano o he Cas illo
de la Glo ie a among o he s. I was e i o ie wi h a subsis ence p oduc ion sys em
and o li le cul u al in e es . Wi h he decla a ion o a Wo ld He i age Si e, he
pano ama changed, and a ious public, p i a e, na ional and in e na ional ac o s
began a econs uc ion o he he i age. A e a ew yea s, he a eas we e s eng hened,
especially owa ds ou ism. The ehabili a ion gene a ed he c ea ion o he Rou e o
Jesui Missions o he G ea Chiqui ani. This new p oduc i e ac i i y has c ea ed
se ices o ou is s, and has inc eased he numbe o ou is s, so much o enjoy he
he angible and in angible he i age, as well as o he leisu e ac i i ies.
As Rubens Ba be y (p esiden o CEPAD) poin s ou , in he las 15 yea s he e i o y
o he Jesui Missions o Chiqui os, loca ed in Boli ia, has ad anced conside ably
om he poin o iew o i s ou ism de elopmen […] becoming he second busies
des ina ion in he coun y (a e he Sala de Uyuni).
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Figu e 1. Ci cui o Jesui Missions in Boli ia. Sou ce: FAM Boli ia
The JMR is ci cula , al hough isi o s do no always make he comple e
ci cui , o easons o ime, p ice and condi ions o he e i o y. I begins in he capi al
o he p o ince, in San a C uz de la Sie a and om he e, you can choose o s a he
ou e h ough San José o San Xa ie . I is a wide and mul i-day ou e. Di e en ou
ope a o s o e mul iple i ine a ies, depending on he numbe o missions o isi ,
ime a ailable, money, e c. Some agencies include in hei ou is packages San iago
de Chiqui o (Robo é, p o ince o chiqui os) and San An onio de Lome io (p o ince
o Ñu lo de Chá ez), owns ha a e no decla ed a Wo ld He i age Si e, bu o g ea
cul u al and na u al beau y.
4. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Many social in es iga ions o decades ha e used a iangula me hodology,
ha is, combining di e en sou ces o da a, in es iga ions, heo ies o me hods. So
ha he me hods and echniques o an explo a o y na u e a e e i ied wi h hose
(gene ally quan i a i e) o a desc ip i e na u e. Tha is, applying bo h deduc i e and
hypo he ical induc i e in e ence. This ype o me hodological app oach o
iangula ion o he esul s is signi ican , as well as he p ecision and anspa ency o
he analysis(Qua an a e al., 2016). In ou case, his mixed me hodological design has
been chosen, in eg a ing quali a i e and quan i a i e in o ma ion (Tashakko i y
C eswell 2007; Li e al., 2016), wi h in e iews, ocus g oups, ques ionnai es, e iew
and analysis o empi ical and s a is ical seconda y sou ces; applied o case s udies. In
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mainly includes people who wo k in ac i i ies ela ed o ou ism, employees o
accommoda ion, es au an s, c a s, e c. This is e y in e es ing, because i shows ha
people who did no ha e a job o who wo ked in he p ima y sec o ha e imp o ed
hei li ing condi ions by wo king on ac i i ies on he ou e. This has an impo an
consequence in local de elopmen , he mul iplying alue o ou ism, h ough
employmen , consump ion, in es men , e c.
Fo 3.30%, hei li ing condi ions ha e no imp o ed a all. As he e has been
une en in es men , he imp o emen is also une en. These di e ences gene a e
p oblems be ween he owns, bu also hese di e ences a e a blockage o he ou is
de elopmen o he ou e. One in e iewee announced ha he la ges owns ha e
g own a he expense o he smalles . While la ge owns ha e imp o ed a lo , mo e
employmen , communi y se ices, e c., be e in as uc u e; small owns ha e no .
In he main owns, ha ing be e oads and mo e popula ion, hey ha e p o ided hem
wi h be e anspo , accommoda ion and es au an s. This a o s ou ism and local
p oduc i e ac i i y, while he illages ha e no ecei ed any inancing o imp o e
se ices. Wi h ew ou is and p oduc i e esou ces i is di icul o imp o e. In he
mission o San José de Chiqui os, he opinion o he people is di e en . Fo hem,
hei well-being has imp o ed conside ably, he nu sing home and he hospi al ha e
been imp o ed. In addi ion, accommoda ion and es au an s ha e inc eased, and in
sho , a lo o employmen has been c ea ed.
Figu e 8. The Jesui Mission Rou e has imp o ed you li ing condi ions
To deepen he s udy, i was asked i he Jesui Rou e ca ed abou cul u al and
na u al he i age (included in he SDGs). The ou e, in he opinion o hose consul ed
(41.30%), main ains he he i age, in addi ion, hey belie e ha go e nmen s and
people ca e mo e abou he landscape, esou ces and indigenous he i age in gene al.
Ba oque music, chu ches, dances, e c. s and ou .
The legacy o he ou e is p obably qui e unknown, al hough i mus be said ha
he di e en adminis a ions ha e come oge he o sp ead he Jesui Ba oque music
o Chiqui ania. Cu en ly in he missions he In e na ional Fes i al o Ame ican
Ba oque and Renaissance Music is celeb a ed, in addi ion o conce s and mino
2.30%
32.60%
40.90%
12.70%
3.30%
8.20%
0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00%
MUCH
RATHER
SO-SO
A LITTLE
NOT AT ALL
N/A
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es i als in each mission. I canno be igno ed, despi e he o egoing, ha 21.80%
conside he i age conse a ion egula ed.
Figu e 9. The Jesui Mission Rou e con ibu es o he conse a ion o cul u al and na u al
he i age
Responden s we e asked whe he go e nmen s had helped p ojec and inc ease
local p oduc ion o na ional, egional and in e na ional ma ke s. In doing so, we
sough o de e mine whe he he e was a link be ween Ru a and local de elopmen .
In he opinion o hose consul ed, he au ho i ies ha e no made su icien e o s o
p omo e and inc ease local p oduc ion, and ha e main ained a policy o con inui y in
exis ing p oduc ion, o which hey ha e added ou ism. The e has been no in es men
in aining and esou ces, no has he e been inno a ion, so he e has been no g ow h
o exis ing local esou ces.
Figu e 10. The e has been an inc ease in coope a i ism in he missions
Ano he esea ched and impo an issue in local and sus ainable de elopmen is
coope a ion be ween he di e en agen s and membe s o he communi y.
Coope a ion is complica ed, especially when wo king in communi ies ha a e
unwilling o change and coope a e. This is usually due o a lack o educa ion, aining,
awa eness, dynamiza ion, e c. As shown in Figu e XX, 40% o hose consul ed show
li le inc ease in coope a ion among he esiden s o he missions.
0.4
0
21.8
41.3
19.4
13.4
010 20 30 40 50
STRONGLY DISAGREE
DISAGREE
NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE
AGREE
STRONGLY AGREE
DON´T KNOW/NO OPINION
S ongly
disag ee
14%
Disag ee
26%
Nei he
ag ee
no
disag ee
24%
Ag ee
8%
S ongly
ag ee
6%
Don´
know/N
o
opinion
22%
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People consul ed om di e en missions s a ed ha many o he p oduc i e
ac i i ies, such as he logging indus y, mining, C eole cheese p oduc ion and some
lodging businesses, a e con olled by la ge companies. O he s men ioned ha , in San
José de Chiqui os, some o he indi idual en ep eneu s a e o eigne s who ha e
se led in he e i o y.
The e is no endency o gene a e economic coope a i ism, each one has i s
p oduc i e plo , ca le, goa s, sheep, pigs o i s land o co ee, beans, e c. The e ha e
been associa i e eac ions, mainly om ca le anche s agains he de elopmen o
ou ism as an economic ac i i y because hey pe cei ed i as a h ea o hei
economic-p oduc i e in e es s.
The lack o ini ia i e and aining owa ds coope a ion p e en s economic
de elopmen o he e i o ial communi ies. All ac i i ies a e closely linked and can
gene a e a small p oduc i e ne wo k ha encompasses all o hem, and he e o e,
a o s he economic g ow h o he egion. A he same ime, i educes he ejec ion
o some p oduc i e sec o s.
Figu e 11. The Adminis ions ha e aken measu es o de elop sus ainable ou ism on he
Rou e.
Residen s o he ou e 56.4% ag ee ha he adminis a ions ha e ied o adop
measu es o adap ou ism o sus ainabili y. Neighbo s o some missions, such as San
Miguel, alued he in ol emen o go e nmen s e y nega i ely. He s a ed ha one
o he keys o sus ainable ou ism is ha ing adequa e in as uc u es, and in his own,
he oads a e bad and he "cell phone" co e age is no good. In some a eas o he
mission, he e is no co e age. Opinion a ies depending on he mission; some ha e
been g ea ly bene i ed by ou ism while o he s ha e no eached a “Missiona y
Ma shall Plan”.
6.3
11.6
19.7
26.3
30.1
9.1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
STRONGLY DISAGREE
DISAGREE
NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE
AGREE
STRONGLY AGREE
DON´T KNOW/NO OPINION
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Figu e 12. The ou e has boos ed he economy o he owns
A signi ican numbe o esiden s said ha he p oduc ion (32.6%) o goods and
p oduc s o he land had changed li le, and ha i was s ill p ac ically o sel -
consump ion. In he in-dep h in e iews, a sligh inc ease in he p oduc ion o aw
ma e ials was men ioned in some municipali ies, especially o es y and mining.
C a s ha e been one o he g ea es bene icia ies o he Jesui Rou e. This lack o
dynamism and in o ma ion on ou is ac i i y in mos o he missions has no a oused
in e es in ou ism. In addi ion, i was hea d in he in e iews ha a signi ican numbe
o neighbo s dedica ed o li es ock and ag icul u e did no pe cei e ha hei li ing
condi ions and p oduc ion we e going o imp o e; a he , hey in e p e ed i as
de imen al o hei in e es s.
Finally, we asked whe he he ou e had boos ed he egion's economy,
especially in he owns along he ou e. As can be seen in Figu e 15, in gene al e ms,
a la ge g oup o esponden s (43%) do no see a boos o he economy, while 21%
do. When all he opinions on he economy o he locali ies along he ou e a e ela ed,
h ee issues eme ge. Fi s , he di e en ia ion o in es men in he missions, which
has no been ai . Secondly, in he missions whe e ou ism ac i i y has g own, he
esiden s see ou ism as an economic dynamize , new lodging and es au an
businesses ha e been c ea ed, handic a s ha e been p omo ed and, o a lesse ex en ,
local p oduc ion.
In he locali ies whe e he e has no been his ou is expansion, his economic
change has no been pe cei ed. Thi d, he inc ease in he local economy has been
e y sligh , especially in ac i i ies such as o es y, mining and co ee p oduc ion due
o in e na ional demand, and he sheep and goa sec o due o egional demand.
6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
6.1. Discussion
As Loulamski (2006) poin s ou , he i age is no longe di o ced om he social
and he human, so ha he i age asse s a e inc easingly used as esou ces o a wide
17.3
25.7
32.6
8.8 12.5
3.1
0
10
20
30
40
S ongly
disag ee
Disag ee Nei he
ag ee no
disag ee
Ag ee S ongly
ag ee
Don´
know/No
opinion
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a ie y o mode n pu poses. They con ibu e o economic p ospe i y, social cohesion
and cul u al di e si y.
Bu i is necessa y o in eg a e he di e en elemen s ha con e ge in local
de elopmen , such as ci izens, adminis a ions, p i a e in es o s, he i age, he
en i onmen and he local adi ional economy.
The idea o in eg a ing a ious he i age elemen s in he o m o a ou e is
becoming a e y in e es ing s a egy o he i age managemen . I s de elopmen
con ibu es o imp o ing he unde s anding o he e i o y and ein o cing he links
be ween he i age asse s, s eng hening cul u al iden i y (Na alón 2014) and he local
economy. He i age ou es as a ou ism elemen and de elopmen agen canno be
de ached om he SDGs he e o e, i mus be known i he ou e a o s local
de elopmen in acco dance wi h he SDGs. Acco ding o he Wo ld Tou ism
O ganiza ion, eme ging economies will ecei e abou 60% o wo ld ou is s in 2030
(UNWTO 2020).
This implies ha ou ism is a g ea oppo uni y o p og ess. The economic and
sus ainable de elopmen o ou ism plays and will play an impo an ole in achie ing
some sus ainable de elopmen goals (Ramadhani & P ihan o o, 2023). The esea ch
shows ha he he i age ou e has helped in he local de elopmen o he egion,
al hough i has been une en. Some missions ha e been de eloped and o he s ha e
no . The conse a ion o cul u al and na u al he i age, in addi ion o being one o he
SDGs, is abo e all, as Ka elie a, Muha , & Penke (2020) say, an elemen o cul u al
iden i y and economic de elopmen .
As some o he esiden s hink, hei quali y o li e has imp o ed and hey ha e
jobs. The de elopmen o he ou e has a o ed a de ense o he cul u al and na u al
he i age, by bo h pa ies, isi o s and esiden s. This has no only s eng hened he
iden i y o he na i es, bu has also p omo ed socioeconomic ac i i ies de i ed om
he i age (Faganel & T na ce ic 2012; Libu d & Becken 2017; Galma ini 2018;
Pa ga Dans & Alonso González 2019).
The ou is ac i i y has gene a ed some economic esou ces, i has opened a new
business possibili y. Women and young people ha e ound new o ms o
employmen . Al hough, i has been insu icien and he e has no been cohesion wi h
he exis ing local de elopmen . Wi h espec o some o he SDGs, 12, 15, 11,
p og ess has been made in compliance wi hou eaching he a ge s se by he UN.
SDGs 16 and 17, which a ec he di e en adminis a ions, a e a om he
minimum compliance wi h he UN equi emen s.
They demand g ea e in ol emen and awa eness o he ou e, in o de o
unde ake ac ions o imp o e in as uc u e, ci izen pa icipa ion, economic
de elopmen , coope a ion, e c., which a e c ucial o local economic p og ess.
6.2. Conclusions: Imp o emen Con ibu ions
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The ou e o he Jesui missions can and mus become an impo an ac o in he
economic g ow h o hei communi ies. As has been poin ed ou h oughou he wo k,
he e a e many p oblems ha mus be esol ed. Fi s and o emos is he design o a
local de elopmen plan o encou age and p omo e ou ism in he Jesui Rou e
Missional and o boos he local p oduc i e economy in a uni o m and cohe en
manne .
Each municipali y, depending on i s asse s, unde akes one o he o he
ou ism/economic ac ions. Despi e ha ing cul u al and na u al a ac ions, hey do no
ha e he capaci y o make a b oade o e , as hey do no ha e he necessa y
ins umen s. Fo example, San José de Chiqui os c ea ed i s own slogan: “San José
de Chiqui os, imposible de ol ida ” (CEPAL 2018), and he municipali y is he one
who has p omo ed ou ism. Ano he example is he In e na ional Fes i al o
Renaissance and Ba oque Music o Ame ica, in e na ionally consolida ed, and he
impe us comes om associa ions suppo ed by he municipali ies. The la e ,
howe e , has had no impac on he local p oduc i e sec o . These a e one- ime
ac i i ies wi h a e y sho economic ou e.
Secondly, o make equi able in es men s in in as uc u es and
communica ions. No only o ou ism, bu also o he p omo ion and sale o local
ag icul u al, mea , mining and o es y p oduc s. This is because he mos impo an
municipali ies a e he bene icia ies o hese in es men s, o he de imen o o he
missions.
A hi d elemen is o mo i a e coope a ion among he inhabi an s o he
municipali ies along he ou e. They will be he ue agen s o he de elopmen and
p omo ion o economic ac i i y. Th ough coope a i ism, local de elopmen is
dynamized, and as Sili, Sanguine i, & Meille , (2014: 160) say, i ul ills unc ions
ha go beyond he s ic ly economic, since hei o ms o managemen con ibu e o
g ea e in eg a ion and social cohesion. The capaci y o ag icul u al coope a i es o
cushion (mi iga e) he impac s caused by luc ua ions in in e na ional p ices o
ag icul u al p oduc s and, abo e all, he e ec s o he en i onmen on p oduc ion
(d ough s, o example) could also be poin ed ou .
In some missions he e is associa ionism, which is no he same as
coope a i ism, in some places, ca lemen and a me s main ain a cohesion in he
de ense o hei in e es s, in on o he es o he comme cial ac i i ies. As some o
hose consul ed say, hese g oups main ain a union in he ace o ou is ac i i y.
Th ough coope a i ism i is possible o de-escala e hese ic ions be ween hem, and
o demons a e ha he in e ac ion o he di e en g oups is in a o o local
de elopmen .
A ou h aspec is ha he ou is economic ac i i y will demand quali ied
p o essionals, so ha he municipali ies mus an icipa e he ou is economic g ow h,
aining and ins uc ing he inhabi an s o ca y ou wo k in ou is ac i i ies.
O he wise, hey will no be able o join jobs o e ed by companies in he sec o and
will be elega ed o subsidia y asks o he Jesui Rou e.
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A i h poin would be o e ake he council, he main adi ional ins i u ion
ecognized by he Chiqui ano people as a unc ional adminis a i e appa a us ha
was c ea ed du ing he Jesui pe iod. The unc ions o he council would be o
main ain he cul u al iden i y, de elop he local economy and he in e ac ion be ween
he owns along he ou e. I would con ibu e o keep he idiosync asy o he owns
ali e, p ese ing hei cul u e a ound he local economy and he comp ehensi e
de elopmen o he Jesui ou es o G an Chiqui ania.
Subs an ial changes a e needed in he Jesui Rou e by he ac o s in ol ed. I a
comp ehensi e plan is designed bea ing in mind he a o emen ioned iangula ion
and de elopmen hexagon, a g ea e socioeconomic impac can be achie ed, wi hou
al e ing he cul u al and na u al en i onmen . O he wise, he local economy will
emain linea , i will no g ow, i will end o decline, and i will only inc ease
ac i i ies ela ed o ou ism such as a isanal ac i i ies.
As a inal obse a ion, he Jesui Mission Rou e can be a ou is a ac ion and
a ac o o local g ow h, bu cu en ly La Chiqui ania is pe cei ed as a ou is /
cul u al a ac ion bu no as an agen o economic and p oduc i e de elopmen . I is
necessa y o p o ide he adequa e s uc u e and gi e iden i y o he ou e all he way
and in oduce i as one mo e a m o he local economy. O he wise, i will no achie e
he objec i es as a ou e no will i be a channel o local de elopmen .
All his enume a ion o ou is ac ions o add ess sus ainable ou ism may be e y
a ac i e o heo is s and no e y p ac ical o a sus ainable ou ism eali y. And
possibly no e y e ec i e o local de elopmen . Pe haps as some schola s
announce, he bes is in he educ ion o ou ism (Dwye , 2023) . This may imply a
be e de elopmen o he local economy based on na i e p oduc s and no as a second
economy. Tha is, ha ou ism s ops being he i s economy, le us emembe he
wo ds o Cepad in i s Me á o a Magazine, 2024 ha Boli ia can li e o ou ism, so
ha i becomes a second economy wi h local p oduc ion being he i s economy.
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