Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 107
Dis ic hea ing and cogene a ion in he EU-28: Cu en
si ua ion, po en ial and p oposed ene gy s a egy o i s
gene alisa ion
En ique Rosales-Asensio1 {en ique. osa[email p o ec ed]}
Da id Bo ge-Diez1,2 {da id.bo [email p o ec ed]}
1Depa men o Elec ic, Elec onic and Con ol Enginee ing, UNED
Juan del Rosal, 12 – Ciudad Uni e si a ia. 28040 Mad id - SPAIN
Phone +34-913-987-788 Fax +34-913-986-028
2Dp o. de Ing. Eléc ica y de Sis emas y Au omá ica, Uni e sidad de León
Campus de Vegazana s/n. Escuela de Ingenie ías. 24071 León
T : (+34) 987 29 19 93; Fax: (+34) 987 29 17 90
Recei ed: 2016-05-12; Accep ed: 2016-08-11
Abs ac
Yea ly, EU-28 con en ional he mal gene a ing plan s ejec a g ea e amoun
o ene gy han wha ul ima ely is u ilised by esiden ial and comme cial loads
o hea ing and ho wa e . I his was e hea we e o be used h ough dis ic
hea ing ne wo ks, gi en a p e ious ene gy alo isa ion, he e would be a
no iceable dec ease in impo ed ossil uels o hea ing. As a consequence,
bene i s in he o m o an ene gy e iciency inc ease, an ene gy secu i y
imp o emen , and a minimisa ion o emi ed g eenhouse gases would occu .
Gi en ha i is no expec ed o hea demand o dec ease signi ican ly in he
medium e m, dis ic hea ing ne wo ks show he g ea es po en ial o he
de elopmen o cogene a ion. Howe e , o make his happen, some ba ie s
ha a e a om being echnological bu a e mos ly ins i u ional and inancial
need o be emo ed. The pu pose o his e iew is o p o ide in o ma ion on
he po en ial o using was e hea om con en ional he mal powe plan s
(subsequen ly con e ed in o cogene a ion plan s) in dis ic hea ing ne wo ks
loca ed in he EU-28. Fo his, a p elimina y assessmen is conduc ed in o de
o show an es ima e o he cos o adop ing an ene gy s a egy in which dis ic
hea ing ne wo ks a e a majo playe o he ene gy mix. F om his assessmen ,
i is possible o see ha e en hough he ene gy s a egy p oposed
in his pape , which is based on a d ama ic inc ease in he join use o dis ic
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 108
hea ing ne wo ks and cogene a ion, is capi al-in ensi e and would equi e an
annual in es men o oughly 300 billion eu os, i s adop ion would esul in a
educ ion o yea ly uel expenses in he o de o 100 billion eu os and a
sho ening o abou 15% o he o al inal ene gy consump ion,
which makes i o pa amoun in e es as an enable o he legal basis o he
“Secu e, Clean and E icien Ene gy” u u e enac ed by he EU-28 Ho izon
2020.
Keywo ds: dis ic hea ing ne wo ks, cogene a ion, ene gy po en ial, EU-28
Nomencla u e and uni s
AHDD annual hea demand pe dwelling
DCNs dis ic cooling ne wo ks
DHNs dis ic hea ing ne wo ks
HHW hea ing and ho wa e
HPR hea o powe a io
LAs local au ho i ies
LF load ac o
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 109
1. In oduc ion
F om he simpli ied ene gy balances pe o med annually by EUROSTAT (2013 is he las
yea o which da a is a ailable), con en ional he mal powe plan s loca ed in he EU-28
was e mo e ene gy in he o m o esidual hea han wha inally esiden ial and comme cial
buildings use o hea ing [1,2]. As is clea om (Fig. 1), i his esidual hea could be used
p e ious ene gy alo isa ion om cogene a ion in dis ic hea ing ne wo ks, a no iceable
dec ease in he amoun o impo ed ossil uels and g eenhouse gases emi ed in o he
a mosphe e would occu (in he Theo e ical Backg ound sec ion, addi ional in o ma ion on
he ela ion be ween elec ici y and hea in a cogene a ion plan is included), which would
esul in economic, en i onmen al, and ene gy secu i y bene i s.
Figu e 1. Ene gy balance o he EU membe s a es o he yea 2013 [2]
F om (Fig. 1), i is impossible o de e mine how much hea can be used. Many powe plan s
ha e o be necessa ily loca ed a om he he mal loads o ci ies (e.g., coal powe plan s
a e usually loca ed close o a po o s ock). Howe e , in a u u e scena io, i could be mo e
bene icial, om an economic pe spec i e, o place hose plan s in he icini y o he ci ies.
As hey a e en i onmen ally iendly hey can be loca ed close o hem. The old plan s
should be disman led when hei use ul li e ends. This supposes an addi ional expense o
anspo ing coal o ligni e in o de o be able o use was e hea om powe plan s [3].
0
20
40
60
80
100
To al p ima y ene gy supply To al hea consump ion ( e ia y
sec o )
To al hea consump ion
( esiden ial sec o )
EJ
Ene gy balance o he EU-28 membe s a es o he yea 2013
Losses in he ene gy ans o ma ion sec o Losses in end use
Combus ible enewables and was e Sola /wind/geo he mal/o he
Hyd o Nuclea
Na u al gas Pe oleum p oduc s
Coal and coal p oduc s T anspo a ion
Elec ici y Hea
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 110
In (Fig. 2), i can be seen as ano he way o ep esen ing he ene gy balance (which again
shows he impo ance o was e hea om powe plan s) [4].
Figu e 2. Powe consump ion o households loca ed in he Eu opean Union depending
on he ene gy end-use. Sou ce: Adap ed om [5]
As seen in (Fig. 3), abou 80% o he ene gy used in homes has as ul ima e goal o p o ide
hea ing and ho wa e ; his means ha , acco ding o (Fig. 2), he e would be po en ially
abou 15 000 PJ/yea (4100 TWh) o be sa is ied h ough he was e hea om powe plan s
(no e ha his amoun is less han he esidual hea emi ed by powe plan s loca ed in he
EU-28, 19 608 PJ/yea ; Fig. 2). Finally, (Fig. 4) shows he ene gy sha e o each dis ic
hea ing esou ce —i is possible o see ha , o he EU, mos o he hea comes om was e
hea om powe plan s.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Hea ing Wa e hea ing Cooking Elec ici y (ligh ing and
whi e goods)
Sha e
Yea
Ene gy consump ion in dwellings by end uses
1990 2012
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 111
(a)
(b)
Figu e 3. Ene gy sha e (a) and gene a ion o each dis ic hea ing sou ce (b) in he EU-
28 [10]
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Sha e
Hea sou ces used in EU dis ic hea ing ne wo ks
Fossil uels, di ec use
Renewables, di ec use (biomass and was e hea )
Recycled hea , enewable cogene a ion (biomass and was e hea )
Recycled hea , ossil cogene a ion and indus ies
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
PJ/yea
Ene gy sou ces in EU dis ic hea ing ne wo ks
Fossil uels (di ec use)
Renewables (bio uels, geo he mal, sola , e c.) + was e (di ec use)
Was e hea eco e ed / ecycled om biomass and was e (indi ec use)
Was e hea eco e ed/ ecycled

Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 112
Despi e hese da a, i should be no ed ha , due o he lack o ene gy ma ching h oughou
he yea , as well as o he p oblem o he ejec hea empe a u e (cogene a ion can conduc
an ene gy alo isa ion o his low- empe a u e hea in an economical way), no all o hese
he mal loads can be sa is ied by he was e hea om he mal powe plan s.
This makes necessa y o es ima e hei eal po en ial including assump ions as close as
possible o he eali y and o conduc an economic and en i onmen al assessmen
( educ ion o g eenhouse gas emissions) ha includes a gene alised sp ead o dis ic
hea ing ne wo ks using as an ene gy sou ce was e hea om con en ional he mal powe
plan s in he EU-28, which will be conduc ed in his e iew.
The objec i e o his pape is o p opose an ene gy s a egy which enables, h ough he
gene alisa ion o he join use o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and cogene a ion in he EU-28,
he ul illmen o he legal basis o he H2020 “Secu e, Clean, and E icien Ene gy”
goals in a easible, eliable, economically ad an ageous, and sus ainable way. The
me hod p oposed he e uses a sys ema ic and easy app oach (nei he s ong ma hema ical
skills no non-widely used so wa e is equi ed) and manages o p opose an ene gy s a egy
o such a big egion as EU-28 based mos ly on a ailable public da a (wi h he excep ion
o he plan da a ob ained h ough he GESTIS da abase by using he A cGIS so wa e).
This is o g ea impo ance as o he me hods a e ne wo k-o ien ed (dis ic hea ing
ne wo k); lack om massi e su ace applicabili y [6], being inadequa e o such a big a ea
as Eu ope; a e limi ed o indus ial si es [7]; o p esen assessmen s which need a dis ic
hea ing ne wo k axonomy [8], in o ma ion no a ailable in he as majo i y o he cases.
As a consequence, hey a e no use ul o he pu poses o his pape . To ou knowledge,
he e is no a single scien i ic pape which speci ically add esses he po en ial o he join
use o he mal powe plan ejec hea in o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks ac oss he Eu opean
Union. Thus, we o e new insigh s in o his ma e .
In he i s sec ion, he i s app oach o he ene gy balance o he EU-28 membe s a es
is desc ibed, and he po en ial o using he was e hea om con en ional he mal powe
plan s is discussed. Meanwhile, he second sec ion will p esen he me hodology used o
de elop he e iew conduc ed he e. In he hi d sec ion, s udies e alua ing he po en ial o
using join ly dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and cogene a ion o di e en egions will be
p esen ed. In his sec ion, in o ma ion ega ding p ices o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks,
anspo , dis ibu ion, and he mal s o age, as well as a p esen a ion o he case o
Copenhagen as an example o a ci y ha has succeeded in combining elec ici y, dis ic
hea ing ne wo ks, na u al gas, and was e managemen p ope ly is p esen ed. In he ou h
sec ion, di e en scena ios on he e olu ion o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and he es ima ed
economically easible con en ional he mal powe plan con e sion po en ial will be
p esen ed. The i h sec ion is ese ed o he discussion, and he six h
sec ion p esen s he conclusion, in which he implica ions ( es ic ions and bene i s) ha
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 113
he gene alisa ion o he join use o cogene a ion and dis ic hea ing ne wo ks in he EU-
28 will be shown.
2. Ma e ial and Me hods
To gi e documen a y s eng h o his e iew, i was necessa y in he i s ins ance o consul
mo e han 100 scien i ic publica ions and/o g ay li e a u e in he ield o cogene a ion and
dis ic hea ing ne wo ks. While no absolu e, i is a ep esen a i e sample o he
s a e o he a o he subjec unde s udy.
Subsequen ly, and o de e mine he deg ee o ma ching be ween he abo e publica ions and
he pe cep ion o expe s om a ious membe s o he EU-28, a o al o nine expe s om
se en coun ies o he Eu opean Union (see sec ion "Acknowledgemen s") we e consul ed
h ough ques ionnai es, email co espondence and/o elephone con e sa ions.
Once he scien i ic/g ay li e a u e and he expe s we e consul ed, he hi d s ep aken was
o use a ious da abases o es ima e he po en ial o he join u ilisa ion o dis ic hea ing
ne wo ks and cogene a ion. Among hese da abases, he mos no able we e EUROSTAT,
GESTIS da abase based on Pla s, and The Eu opean Pollu an Release and T ans e
Regis e (Eu opean En i onmen Agency). The la e was essen ial o selec ing hose
con en ional ones po en ially con e ible in an economical way.
The ou h s ep aken was o in oduce some es ic ions on he ype o plan and he
dis ance om i o he he mal load (nea es own). To es ima e he cos ela ed o he hea
demand, membe s a es o he EU-28 we e i s ly di ided in o zones, wi h he coun ies o
cen al and sou he n Eu ope assigned a cos on ene gy demand di e en om he one
used only o he coun ies o sou he n Eu ope. This disc imina ion is based on he ac
ha , ob iously, he cos s o p o iding hea o he he mal loads dec ease as demand
inc eases.
Finally, and in o de o know he cos o p o iding hea h ough dis ic hea ing ne wo ks
o di e en ypical clima ic zones o he EU-28, [11] was consul ed, which cons i u es a
suppo ing ea u e o he e iew p esen ed he e. To he hea demand o each consump ion
loca ed in No he n and Cen al Eu ope, a alue o 2000 GWh/yea was assigned, ha ing
been es ablished he dis ance om he hea load a 75 km. Meanwhile, o hose loads
loca ed in he Sou he n Eu opean coun ies, a ype alue o 750 GWh/yea o hea and 400
GWh/yea o cooling was es ablished, being he dis ance in his case also 75 km. No e ha
hese condi ions a e much mo e es ic i e han hose desc ibed in [11]; we ha e p oceeded
in his way because such cases, al hough based on eal plan s, ha e be e cha ac e is ics
o he con e sion o cogene a ion plan s han hose ha would be conside ed as “ ypical”.
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 114
Due o he ac ha DHNs and DCNs lack a symme ical end-use pu pose (DHNs a e
usually aimed a a eas whe e he e a e esiden ial buildings wi hin a ci y, while DCNs end
o be ocused only on he cen al a eas o he ci ies) and i s p oximi y- o-load equi emen ,
i is no possible o dis ibu e cold app op ia ely om an economic pe spec i e. Dis ic
cooling is based on a di e ence o empe a u es much smalle han dis ic hea ing; see in
Theo e ical Backg ound sec ion o addi ional in o ma ion on he dis ibu ion o hea and
cold in mode n hea ing/cooling sys ems) [12]. I would be imp ac ical o ansmi he cold
a a dis ance o 75 km, so o he coun ies o Sou he n Eu ope, i has been supposed he
use o abso p ion hea uni s ha use he hea om dis ic hea ing ne wo ks o cooling, no
being, he e o e, necessa y o use pipes o anspo ing cold a a la ge scale.
Some es ic ions ha e been imposed, e.g. only hose he mal powe plan s wi h a a ed
powe o o e 300 MW loca ed wi hin 75 km o u ban cen e s o mo e han 100 000
inhabi an s a e conside ed as alid o con e sion, and some da a such as he ollowing was
ound ou :
 o al ins alled capaci y o he mal powe plan s using ossil uels
 o al ins alled capaci y o cogene a ion
 CHP gene a ion pe cen age
 CHP maximum ins allable capaci y om he mal plan s
F om his da a, a easible CHP capaci y ha would comply wi h he a o emen ioned
es ic ions is ob ained and p esen ed in he Resul s sec ion. F om hese easible con e ible
he mal powe plan s and om da a ob ained om he li e a u e, usable hea , he in es men
needed, and uel sa ings a e ob ained and shown in he Resul s sec ion.
A summa y o e e y s age o s udy and i s ela ionship wi h he Resul s sec ion would be
as ollows:
1) Scien i ic publica ons and/o g ay li e a u e e iew.
2) Expe s in he ield o cogene a ion and dis ic hea ing ne wo ks consul a ion.
3) Da abases (EUROSTAT, GESTIS, and The Eu opean Pollu an Release and
T ans e Regis e ) consul a ion.
 The ob ainmen o con en ional he mal combus ion capaci y, CHP elec ical
capaci y, sha e o CHP elec ici y p oduc ion, elec ici y gene a ion om
gene a ion plan s, hea gene a ion om CHP plan s, inal o al ene gy
consump ion, o al dis ic hea ing ne wo k sales, and pe cen age o ci izens
se ed by dis ic hea ing, is immedia e om EUROSTAT da abases.
 The me hodology o assemble he da a ob ained om GESTIS and EPRTR was
as ollows:
a. Plan da a: GESTIS da abase based on Pla s
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 115
i. This da a was accessed h ough he GESTIS da abase using he
A cGIS so wa e.
b. Plan coo dina es: EPER/ E-PRTR da abase
i. I can be accessed h ough he Eu opean Pollu an Release and
T ans e Regis e websi e. Then ollowing s eps we e
unde aken “Sea ch he egis e ”> “Facili y le el”> “Coun y”>
“EU27”> “Region”> “All egions”> “Yea ”> “2013”>
“Indus ial ac i i y”> “Ene gy sec o s” > “The mal powe
s a ions and o he combus ion indus ies” > “No sub-ac i i ies”
c. Ci y coo dina es: Google Ea h
i. No desc ip ion needed
4) Calcula ion o maximum con e sion o CHP by using o al con en ional he mal
combus ion capaci y and CHP elec ical capaci y; hea o powe a io by using hea
gene a ion om CHP plan s and elec ici y gene a ion om CHP plan s; and
maximum annual addi ional hea ou pu by using he maximum con e sion o CHP
calcula ed, he hea o powe a io, and supposing a load ac o o 0.6.
5) Res ic ions on he ype o plan (only con en ional he mal plan s wi h a a ed
powe o o e 300 MW a e o be conside ed), dis ance ( he mal plan s shall be
loca ed a a dis ance below o 75 km o u ban cen e s), popula ion o u ban cen e s
(highe o 100 000 inhabi an s) and hea demand in No he n and Cen al Eu ope
(2000 GWh/yea ) and hea and cooling demand in Sou he n Eu ope ( espec i ely
750 GWh/yea and 400 GWh/yea ) a e applied.
6) Calcula ion o DHNs easible po en ial by using he maximum annual addi ional
hea and he ac ha , a e he es ic ions imposed in 5), abou 50% o he ins alled
capaci y o all con en ional he mal powe plan s comply wi h hose es ic ions;
calcula ion o con e sion and dis ic hea ing cos s by classi ying coun ies in o
Regions (No h e n and Cen al Eu ope and Sou he n Eu ope) and aking in o
accoun hea ing (and cooling) cos s in hose egions.
7) Once DHNs' easible po en ial is achie ed and yea ly sa ings in uel a e known,
he cos o na u al gas o domes ic consump ion is de e mined, and he usual uel
consump ion pe uni o hea supplied o boile s and cogene a ion plan s ( o bo h
cases sepa a ely) a e assumed. Th ough he cos di e ence be ween he wo
echnologies, uel sa ings a e ob ained.
8) Finally, he esul s om p e ious s eps (1 o 7) a e analysed, and an ene gy s a egy
o he gene alisa ion o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and cogene a ion is p oposed,
achie ing, consequen ly, he objec i es o he esea ch.
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 122
3.3 La ge scale hea anspo echnology
Hea ansmission expenses h ough la ge-diame e pipes (e en wi h dis ances
being conside able) is low [22-25]. As an example, [22] shows ha he cos o ansmi ing
2 GW o hea h ough la ge-diame e pipes a a dis ance o abou 140 km would be abou
0.25 €/kWh, his being due o he ac ha he abili y o anspo hea h ough he pipe is
p opo ional o he squa e o he diame e , while he cos o he pipe inc eases
p opo ionally wi h he diame e [22]. The e o e, he la ge he piping and he demands o
use s, he g ea e he hea loss and he cos pe uni o ene gy deli e ed (Table 2).
Table 2. Compa ison o he hea anspo cos depending on he diame e and leng h o
he pipe [23]
DN
Flow
Capaci y
P ice p . km
ench
P ice p . km p . capaci y
P ice p . km p .
annual sale
Hea loss p .
km
mm
m/s
MW
m€/km
€/km/MW
€/km/MWh/yea
%/km
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.3
2.6
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.5
3.5
2
13
38
69
125
203
301
431
551
681
0.6
1.1
1.7
2.2
2.8
3.4
3.9
4.3
4.9
5.7
274 000
78 000
45 000
31 300
22 400
16 700
12 600
10 000
9000
8200
68.0
20.0
11.0
7.0
6.0
3.5
3.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.96
1.08
0.50
0.28
0.15
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.05
Supply empe a u e (p e-insula ed pipes)
Re u n empe a u e (designed maximum ope a ing empe a u e = 130 ºC)
P essu e loss ( a iable low pumps)
120 ºC
60 ºC
10 mm/m
An example o la ge-scale hea anspo echnology can be ci ed he case o Aa hus o
ha o P ague. Al hough he dis ance om he cogene a ion plan o he cen e o he ci y
o Aa hus is only 20 km [26], he o al leng h o he hea anspo ne wo k ises o 130 km
[27], ep esen ing he o al leng h o all pipelines ha a e con inuously connec ed. In (Fig.
10), i can be obse ed ha his la ge-scale hea anspo ne wo k is pa o a sys em
consis ing o gene a ing plan s (S uds up ae ke ), closed essels in which wa e o o he
luid is hea ed o consump ion peaks, and appa a uses o bu ning was e ma e ial (ACA).

Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 123
Figu e 10. Hea anspo sys em o Aa hus [28]
As o P ague, hea anspo piping om he cogene a ion plan o Melnik ha e a diame e
o 1.2 m and a sys em leng h o 63.5 km [29]. As can be seen in (Fig. 11), o co e much
o he dis ance be ween Melnik and P ague, pipes a e laid abo e he su ace.
Figu e 11. Pipes o anspo ing la ge-scale hea (2xDN 1200) be ween Melnik and
P ague [30]
Kedelanlaeg
Gjelle up
Fo b aendingsanlaeg
ACA
Kedelanlaeg
Jens Juuls Vej
Halm a me ae k
Solbje g
Kedelanlaeg
A hus ae ke
DONG Ene gy
S uds up ae ke
Hea exchange s sys em
Pumping plan
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 124
3.4 Hea dis ibu ion in mode n dis ic hea ing sys ems
In mode n sys ems, he hea dis ibu ion is almos always conduc ed h ough he use o p e-
insula ed pipes ha dis ibu e ho wa e [31] (HWP a e usually bu ied di ec ly in he
g ound, so hei ins alla ion is cheap, equi ing no main enance) [32].
Fu he mo e, i is no ewo hy ha o ob ain a highe e iciency ega ding elec ici y, hea
empe a u e ex ac ion should be as small as possible, being as consequences ha he hea
is cheape in uel cos s and he ca bon dioxide emissions a e lowe [33]. These a e he main
easons why he e is a end owa ds he use o wa e a a lowe empe a u e—al hough, in
a limi ed numbe o sys ems, such a small empe a u e as 45 ºC–55 ºC may be wo king
p ope ly [34], a empe a u e be ween 70 ºC and 80 ºC is a mo e “ easonable” one [35–37].
In some ci cums ances, and e y especially in loca ions wi h la e ain whe e dis ic
hea ing sys ems ha e a low- empe a u e design (below 90 ºC) [38,39], a di ec connec ion
om he dwelling o he p incipal dis ic hea ing ne wo k can be pe o med [37]. This
app oach has he ad an age o he abili y o use lowe empe a u es and p o ide he highes
e iciency possible, hus gi ing lowe losses pe uni o hea used. Wi h a di ec connec ion,
i is possible o elimina e he cos o any hea exchange [37]. A al e ha educes he
p essu e o each consume o p e en om o e p essu e o end-use acili ies is used [37].
Di ec connec ions, he e o e, ha e many ad an ages because i is no necessa y o alloca e
any in es men o hea exchange s and i allows a mo e e icien ope a ion o cogene a ion
ega ding ene gy gene a ion [37].
3.5 The mal s o age in accumula o s o dis ic hea ing sys ems
Cu en ly, a e y limi ed pe cen age o he EU-28 p oduced elec ici y is s o ed
(p edominan ly in e e sible hyd oelec ic powe s a ions) [40,41], so any signi ican
inc ease (such as by he use o wind ene gy o hea ing buildings) would be ex emely
cos ly [42,43] and would in ol e a conside able inc ease in he capaci y o ansmission
and dis ibu ion [44].
The elec ici y s o age h ough isen opic hea pumps is cu en ly he only long- e m
elec ici y echnology s o age ha can be used in he elec ical ne wo k in an economical
way, ha ing a cos o abou 35 €/kWh [45]. Meanwhile, he he mal s o age is conside ably
cheape as he cos a ies in a band ange o 0.1 and 10 €/kWh, in his case no needing
any upg ading o he elec ici y g id [46]. The mal s o age allows he cogene a ion plan o
gene a e elec ici y whene e and o inc ease sys em lexibili y due o he ac ha he mal
s o age hea ou pu change is almos immedia e and ha , unlike backp essu e cogene a ion
plan s ha ha e o gene a e hea e en when elec ici y p ice is high, condensing-ex ac ion
cogene a ion plan s ha e inc eased lexibili y hanks o he possibili y o gene a ing
elec ici y exclusi ely [47,48].
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 125
In (Fig. 12) and (Fig. 13) a e espec i ely shown he hea s o age di ec ly and indi ec ly
connec ed o he dis ic hea ing ne wo k.
Figu e 12. The mal s o age di ec ly connec ed o a dis ic hea ing sys em [49]
Figu e 13. Accumula o wi h hyd aulic sepa a ion om he dis ic hea ing sys em [49]
Re u n wa e
Fo wa d
wa e
Cogene a ion
plan
Hea accumula o
Hea consume s
Ne wo k
pumps
Hea accumula o
Hea consume s
Expansion
essel
Cogene a ion
plan
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 126
3.6 Fuel used in a iabili y and e iciency
Wi h he excep ion o hose buildings wi h a la ge numbe o compu e equipmen and due
o clima ological easons, domes ic ai condi ioning, in some pa s o Eu ope, is s ill being
conside ed a luxu y (meanwhile hea ing is seen as essen ial).
Dis ic cooling sys ems a e simila o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks in he sense ha a luid
is dis ibu ed and conduc ed h ough ubings [50]. Howe e , he e a e some majo
dis inc ions. Fo example, he e a e di e ences be ween he esiden ial and comme cial
sec o s, which o he la e , a e domina ed by dis ic cooling ne wo ks [22]. This si ua ion
can be gi en he ollowing ac o s:
 Ai condi ioning sys ems a e p o usely used in he se ices sec o , whe eas hey
ha e a limi ed pene a ion in dwellings [22].
 The size o he dis ic cooling ne wo k is a poin o be conside ed so ha i is iable
om an economic pe spec i e [51].
 No mally, he e is a e ige a ion densi y need equi emen in o de o be p o i able
o use as a dis ic cooling sys em, being compulso y ha he use s a e loca ed close
o each o he [52].
 Ano he ac o is he limi ed a io ene gy/liquid quan i y in compa ison wi h DHNs
[53] because o he lowe empe a u e di e ences. Fo ins ance, in dis ic cooling
sys ems, low empe a u e is a ound +5 ºC, and back empe a u e is +15 ºC
( empe a u e di e ence o abou 10 ºC). Meanwhile, in a dis ic hea ing sys em,
low empe a u e would be a ound 90 ºC, and back empe a u e is a ound 40 ºC
( he e o e, he e is a empe a u e di e ence o abou 50 ºC) [12,53]. This is he
eason why pipes used in dis ic cooling ne wo ks a e no mally highe han hose
used in dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and hus ha e a highe cos (Fig. 14).
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 127
Figu e 14. Compa ison be ween he pipe diame e s aking in o accoun he di e ences
be ween low and back empe a u es [53]
Mos cooling applica ions make use o comp esso s d i en by mo o s [54–57], whe e hei
coe icien o pe o mance depends hea ily on he empe a u e di e ence [58] ( he be e
he coe icien o pe o mance, he lowe he empe a u e o he hea sink is) [59], as well
as he ype o comp esso , he a ing powe o he cooling uni , and whe he wa e o ai is
used o ca y ou his ask [56].
Fo i s pa , he abso p ion chille s o he hea pumps ope a e unde a di e en p inciple
[60,61]. He e, ins ead o using he mechanical powe om a mo o , hey make use o he
hea o d i e he cycle [62-65].
I should be no ed ha he coe icien o pe o mance o his echnology lags behind ha
o comp esso s d i en by elec ici y [56,66] and a ies o comme cially a ailable low-
empe a u e dis ic cooling sys ems om 0.65 o 1.2 [53] — ha is, a uni o hea a low
empe a u e is capable o p o iding be ween 0.65 and 1.2 uni s o low- empe a u e
e ige a ion depending p ima ily on he numbe o imes ha he hea en e ing he chille
is in e nally used [53].
T adi ionally, and due o he ele a ed empe a u e's u ilisa ion ( hose ha occu wi h low-
p essu e s eam) [67], abso p ion chille s lowe he coe icien o pe o mance and he
e ige a ing capaci y g ea ly as he inle empe a u e o he hea ing medium dec eases
(Fig. 15). This has he impo an e ec ha o a gi en cooling capaci y, he p ice o he
de ice can become excessi e (Fig. 15) —ne e heless, hese de ices a e o en in dis ic
cooling sys ems [68].
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0100 200 300 400 500 600
Tempe a u e di e ence (°C)
Pipe diame e (mm)
Compa ison be ween diame e s ( < 2.5 m/s)
5 MW
20 MW

Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 128
Figu e 15. Cooling capaci y o abso p ion chille s in ela ion o wa e empe a u e [69]
In (Fig. 16), i is shown ha o 1000 hou s o ope a ion a ull load, cooling cos s by
abso p ion (excluding he cos s o cons uc ing he ne wo ks) a e signi ican ly highe han
he cos s incu ed wi h he echnology o e ige a ion h ough comp ession.
32 ºC
31 ºC
29.5 ºC
27 ºC
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Cooling capaci y (kW)
Hea medium inle empe a u e (ºC)
Cooling wa e inle empe a u e
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 129
Figu e 16. Compa ison o e ige a ion cos s h ough comp ession and e ige a ion
h ough abso p ion (excluding cons uc ion cos s o he ne wo ks) o powe anging om
300 kW o 500 kW and 1000 hou s o ope a ion a ull load [70]
As i is clea om (Fig. 17) and as a as ins alla ion cos s a e conce ned, comp ession
e ige a ion is signi ican ly cheape han e ige a ion h ough abso p ion. Howe e , as he
ins alled powe inc eases, he di e ences dec ease conside ably.
91
66
161
95
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
abso p ion e ige a ion
uni (cen alised)
comp ession uni
(cen alised)
abso p ion e ige a ion
uni (decen alised)
comp ession uni
(decen alised)
€/MWh
Comp ession e ige a ion and abso p ion e ige a ion cos
compa ison
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 130
Figu e 17. Compa ison o he in es men cos o di e en e ige a ion machines [70]
3.7 Fuel used in a iabili y and e iciency
No mally, when using cogene a ion powe plan s and sac i icing a uni o elec ici y, i is
possible o ob ain abou eigh imes his ene gy as hea (in con as , o example, when
using a hea pump, i would only be possible o ge ha amoun mul iplied by h ee) [71–
74]. When a plan s a s ope a ing as a cogene a ion plan and i s elec ici y p oduc ion
alls, ano he condensa ion plan which is no ope a ing a maximum ou pu will be
esponsible o inc easing he powe in o de o compensa e o his change,
hus esul ing in a modi ica ion o uel consump ion [75]. By de ini ion, ma ginal powe
plan s a e he ones ha dic a e he p ice in e e y hou o all echnologies [76] and, in his
case, combus ible used o gene a e elec ici y will emain cons an [77] and a a cons an
e iciency [78].
3.8 Cogene a ion, dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and sma ci ies: The case o
Copenhagen
The Eu opean Commission's “Sma Ci ies and Communi ies” ini ia i e has al eady
exp essed in he “S a egic Ene gy Technology Plan” (SET-Plan) an in e es in posi ioning
a numbe o ci ies a he o e on o comba ing and minimising CO2 emissions [79,80].
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0100 200 300 400 500 600
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
Speci ic in es men (€/kW)
Cold capaci y (kW)
In es men (€)
In es men cos compa ison
In es men abso p ion (linea eg ession)
In es men abso p ion (cu e i ing)
In es men comp ession
Speci ic in es men comp ession
In es men comp ession (linea eg ession)
Speci ic in es men comp ession (cu e i ing)
In es men abso p ion
Speci ic in es men abso p ion
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 131
Dis ic hea ing and cooling ne wo ks will be sma e as hey make he elec ic g id sma e
[81,82]. Consequen ly, i will be especially impo an ha he hea ing and cooling ha e
hea ese oi s [83,84] so ha he elec ic g id eac s quickly o p ice signals and can
s abilise i sel when he e a e luc ua ing enewable ene gy sou ces. In Denma k, hea ing
ne wo ks a e he backbone o he ene gy sys em, p o iding enough lexibili y o in eg a e
enewable ene gies (especially wind) in o he elec ic g id in a sa e way [85]. One o he
objec i es o he EU-28 ega ding ene gy is p ecisely o make hese sma ci ies adop he
Danish ene gy s a egy [86,87].
Renewable ene gy can gene a e elec ici y when p ices in he elec ici y ma ke a e high,
and e en hough i con inues o p oduce elec ici y a nigh when demand is low, he s o ed
hea may co e peak consump ion ha occu s du ing he mo ning. Wi h espec o he loads
o hea ing/cooling, dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and in elligen cooling con ibu e o
smoo hing hea ing and cooling peak demand, he eby educing peak p oduc ion [88].
Undoub edly, Copenhagen is he wo ld egion ha mo e has managed o in eg a e
elec ici y, dis ic hea ing ne wo ks, na u al gas, and was e managemen . Among i s
highligh s may be men ioned he ollowing:
 98% o he popula ion o Copenhagen is, in hose a eas whe e his in as uc u e is
p esen , connec ed o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks [89].
 LAs ha e de eloped hea ing plans o he en i e egion, di iding he a eas by
op imal echnologies, aking in o accoun economic c i e ia es ablished a a na ional
le el by he Ene gy Au ho i y [90–92].
 Municipali ies ha e c ea ed companies wi h a municipal pa icipa ion (CTR and
VEKS) o de elop he hea anspo sys em, while companies en i ely belonging
o he municipali y a e in cha ge o dis ibu ing his hea .
 Fo i s pa , he was e managemen company (Ves o b ænding) is in cha ge, apa
om he ecycling, o ea ing he was e p oduced by 20 municipali ies [93] o an
op imum le el o in oduce cogene a ion in la ge incine a ion plan s o ensu e ha
all he ma e ial ha canno be ecycled is used as ene gy.
In Denma k, he p o iding o he se ice o dis ic hea ing depends on companies ha a e
hemsel es local monopolies, and ha ypically ha e he necessa y in as uc u e o he
gene a ion, supply and sale o hea o he end use [94]. In con as o he companies
supplying gas and elec ici y, o hese local monopolies, any bene i om he sale o hea
will no be pe mi ed o be ob ained [94]. This means ha only he necessa y cos s o
cons uc ion, ope a ion, and main enance o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks can inally be
included in he ees [95].
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 138
Table 5. Analysis o he echnical po en ial o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks. Sou ce: Adap ed
om [2,11,102,103]
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Final o al
ene gy
consump ion
[2] (PJ)
To al dis ic
hea ing
ne wo ks sales
[102] (PJ)
Pe cen age o
ci izens se ed
by dis ic
hea ing
[102,103]
Maximum
annual
addi ional
hea (PJ)
DHNs easible
po en ial (PJ)
Region
Con e sion cos
+ DHNs cos [11]
(annual cos o
in es men in
millia ds o €)
2013
2013
2013
Vision
Vision
Vision
AT – Aus ia
1170.2
80.7
24%
111.6
55.8
N–C
2.4
BE – Belgium
1457.1
21.0
3%
60.1
30.1
N–C
1.4
BG – Bulga ia
367.2
18.0
18%
193.0
96.5
N–C
4.2
CY – Cyp us
67.6
0.0
0%
30.2
15.1
S
1.0
CZ – Czech
Republic
1000.0
89.4
38%
312.5
156.3
N–C
6.8
DE – Ge many
9096.0
254.8
12%
2393.6
1196.8
N–C
52.6
DK – Denma k
594.3
105.5
63%
57.6
28.8
N–C
1.4
EE – Es onia
120.2
23.0
62%
115.2
57.6
N–C
2.6
ES – Spain
3397.0
0.0
0%
1733.0
866.5
S
52
FI – Finland
1030.6
114.2
50%
115.2
57.6
N–C
2.6
FR – F ance
6366.3
96.1
7%
993.2
496.6
N–C
20.2
GR – G eece
642.2
1.0
0%
286.6
143.3
S
8.6
HU – Hunga y
628.8
31.0
15%
150.8
75.4
N–C
3.4
HR – C oa ia
243.4
9.7
10%
41.8
20.9
N–C
1.0
IE – I eland
449.6
0.1
0%
183.6
91.8
N–C
4.0
IT – I aly
4969.6
33.1
6%
1907.3
953.7
S
57.2
LT – Li huania
198.3
27.1
57%
75.6
37.8
N–C
1.6
LU –
Luxembou g
172.9
2.0
6%
0.0
0.0
N–C
0.0
LV – La ia
161.4
21.5
65%
5.0
2.5
N–C
0.2
MT – Mal a
21.0
0.0
0%
11.5
5.8
S
0.4

Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 139
NL –
Ne he lands
2141.8
26.1
4%
323.3
161.7
N–C
7.2
PL – Poland
2655.0
248.7
53%
1016.7
508.4
N–C
22.4
PT – Po ugal
663.5
9.0
2%
245.9
123.0
S
7.4
RO – Romania
911.0
54.0
23%
308.9
155.0
N–C
6.8
SE – Sweden
1322.8
176.0
52%
115.2
57.6
N–C
2.6
SI – Slo enia
200.9
7.7
15%
42.5
21.3
N–C
1.0
SK – Slo akia
454.9
82.7
35%
0.0
0.0
N–C
0.0
UK – Uni ed
Kingdom
5712.2
41.5
2%
1998.0
999.0
N–C
44.0
EU–28
46 214.5
1573.9
11.8%
12827.9
6414.9
315.0
Finally, he cos s ela ed o he con e sion o con en ional he mal powe plan s in o
cogene a ion plan s and he in es men equi ed o he expansion o he dis ic hea ing
ne wo ks a e es ima ed in column G (Table 5). Expansion cos s include cos s ela ing o
bo h hea anspo as hose incu ed in he dis ic hea ing ne wo k i sel . I should be no ed
ha he cos o ne wo k expansion will a y depending on he egion unde analysis.
Loca ions whe e AHDD is high incu smalle expenses ( o dis ic hea ing) han hose o
egions wi h a low hea demand, whe e a lowe numbe o buildings will need o be
connec ed o he dis ic hea ing ne wo k. Fo hose p ojec s loca ed in no he n and cen al
Eu ope, deno ed espec i ely unde he “N-C” ac onym (see column F o Table 5), i has
been assumed ha hey incu an annual hea demand cos o 45 €/GJ [8]. The cos s o
p o iding hea and cold join ly o hose p ojec s loca ed in sou he n Eu opean coun ies,
deno ed by he ac onym “S” (column F o Table 5), we e assumed o be 60 €/GJ [8]. No e,
howe e , ha ca ying ou an app op ia e assessmen o he ac ual po en iali y o
associa ing cu en he mal gene a ing plan s o DHNs (dis ic hea ing ne wo ks) equi es
a de ailed analysis o each pa icula case, in which a ious echno-economic pa ame e s
a e aken in o accoun –see [11]. Tha is an ex a ea u e o his pape , as his analysis is
beyond he scope o his pape .
As can be seen in column C (Table 5), abou 12% o he ci izens o he EU-28 ha e access
o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks, wi h signi ican di e ences be ween coun ies. I is possible
o ind cases whe e he con ibu ion o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks o hea demand is i ually
ze o, as in he case o Spain, and o he s whe e he weigh o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks is
high (nea ly 2 ou o 3 Danish ha e access o his echnology). A his o ical o he hea p ice
p o ided by he dis ic hea ing ne wo ks, he con ibu ion o cogene a ion o p oduce
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 140
elec ici y, and he pe cen age o ci izens who ha e access o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks is
p esen ed in (Fig. 6), (Fig. 7), and (Fig. 8); Theo e ical Backg ound sec ion.
I is possible o see ha he leng h o he pipes o anspo ing hea om he he mal powe
s a ion loca ed a Wilhelmsha en (757 MW) o he ci y o Oldenbu g is o mo e han 60
km and ha his con e sion would be easible om an economic poin o iew. So i can
be assumed conse a i ely ha abou 50% o all he elec ic powe allocable o
con en ional he mal powe plan s is loca ed wi hin a easonable dis ance o con e hese
plan s in cogene a ion plan s [11]. This pe cen age has been ob ained – om he da abase
(E-PTR) [104] – a e imposing as cons ain s ha only will be alid o con e sion o
cogene a ion plan s hose con en ional he mal powe plan s wi h a a ed ou pu o o e
300 MW placed a a dis ance o less han 75 km om owns o mo e han 100 000
inhabi an s, which esul s in abou 23% ( his ep esen s a 56% o he ins alled capaci y o
his echnology) o all con en ional he mal powe plan s no ye con e ed o cogene a ion
plan s placed in he EU-28 (in 2013) o comply wi h hese es ic ions (see Table 6). This
is he eason why in his pape i has been se as a goal ha 50% o he he mal load
(domes ic and comme cial) o he EU-28 is sa is ied h ough he join use o cogene a ion
plan s and dis ic hea ing ne wo ks.
Table 6. Con en ional he mal powe plan s (no con e ed o cogene a ion powe plan s)
wi h a a ed ou pu o o e 300 MW placed a a dis ance o less han 75 km om owns o
mo e han 100 000 inhabi an s. Sou ce: Da abase o E-PTR [104]
Numbe o con en ional he mal
plan s (uncon e ed) nea u ban
cen e s.
(dis ance <75 km and P> 300 MW)
To al con en ional he mal powe
plan s (uncon e ed) nea u ban
cen e s.
(GWe)
To al numbe o
con en ional
he mal powe
plan s
393
246.5
1690
Acco ding o (Table 5), i all po en ially con e ible he mal powe plan s, hose wi h a
a ed powe o o e 300 MW loca ed wi hin 75 km o u ban cen e s o mo e han 100 000
inhabi an s, we e con e ed in o cogene a ion plan s and hey would ha e access o dis ic
hea ing ne wo ks, abou 6400 PJ o hea could be used, wi h a low ca bon oo p in , i an
in es men o some 315 billion eu os will be made. A e ha ing consul ed he da abase
[104], i was ound ha in mos coun ies, he limi ing ac o is, a he han lack o hea
loads, he a ailabili y o he mal plan s. Howe e , in some loca ions, i was possible o
obse e he opposi e, as g oups o he mal powe plan s loca ed ela i ely emo e o a
uneconomical dis ances o anspo hea happened.
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 141
To ge a clea e idea o he economic bene i s o in es ing in dis ic hea ing ne wo ks, le
us assume ha uel consump ion pe uni o hea supplied is 1.1 in he case o boile s [105],
being meanwhile 0.125 in he case o cogene a ion plan s [105]. Assuming ha he cos o
na u al gas o domes ic consume s was abou 15 €/GJ o he second hal o 2014 [106],
yea ly sa ings o 93.6 billion eu os would be achie ed only in uel o an annual in es men
315 billion eu os.
This es ima e is only in ended o gi e con ex abou he ea ed magni udes; in any case, i
needs u he e alua ion case by case o debug his ough app oxima ion; see [11]. I should
be no ed ha , ob iously, his amoun is in i sel an uppe limi , which is subjec o
conside able unce ain y and ha some o he con en ional he mal plan s ha he e ha e
been supposed o be con e ible e en ually will no . Howe e , i a g ea e commi men a
he Eu opean le el in p omo ing he join use o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and cogene a ion
would be ob ained, in he long e m, i would be possible o app oach he uppe limi as
new cogene a ion powe plan s we e buil close o he he mal loads. Ce ainly, he ba ie s
ha he join use o cogene a ion and dis ic hea ing aces a e no echnological bu
ins i u ional and inancial; see [107] o know hese ba ie s in de ail.
5 Discussion
As in mos o he dis ic hea ing ne wo ks o he membe coun ies o he Eu opean Union
ha belonged o he o me USSR and in he ea ly s ages as compa ed o he es o he EU,
i was common p ac ice o use auxilia y boile s ha only gene a ed hea wi hou he e being
a i s a willingness o con e hem in o cogene a ion plan s [108-111]. Commonly, hey
used cheap o subsidised hyd oca bons [112] ha had di icul ies in bu ning [113]. Wi h
he passage o ime, a numbe o auxilia y boile s om some ci ies we e connec ed o o he
he mal gene a ing plan s ha could use hei ejec hea . In P ague, wha eally igge ed
he connec ion o he Poříčí II powe plan wi h he associa ed desul u ised emissions o
he exis ing dis ic hea ing ne wo k, e en aking in o accoun ha he pipes ca ying s eam
and ho wa e should ha e a leng h o abou 40 km each one, was he ealisa ion o he ac
ha he e was a need o desul u ise emissions om plan s ha bu ned di y uels [114].
I migh be hough ha he join use o cogene a ion and dis ic hea ing ne wo ks would
only be p o i able in he No he n Eu opean s a es due o hei coole clima e and g ea e
he mal equi emen s, a he han be consequen ly applicable o he es o he EU-28.
Howe e , he ac ha homes in hese coun ies ha e be e insula ion has as a consequence
ha he speci ic he mal demands a e lowe (Fig. 20). Mo eo e , i is unlikely ha he
he mal loads in buildings will dec ease so ha he join use o cogene a ion and dis ic
hea ing ne wo ks becomes non- iable [115]. On he o he hand, usual educ ions o hea
losses in buildings a e no as high as expec ed in he i s ins ance ( he use s o see an
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 142
imp o emen in he e iciency o an ene gy se ice ha leads o a educ ion o he ac ual
cos o he se ice end o consume mo e, causing he known ebound e ec ) [116]. This
e ec , al hough di icul o quan i y (bu eal), migh esul in a dec ease in he mal load
educ ions o be ween 10% and 30% [116]. The ision o he no o , a leas , modes
changes in hea demand is based on o ecas s conduc ed by each o he membe s a es. As
an example, i is p esen ed he case o I eland (Table 7), whe e i is possible o see ha o
he pe iod 2008–2020, i is expec ed o inc ease he he mal ene gy consump ion by only a
0.3% [117], e y much in line wi h o he coun ies EU-28.
Figu e 20. Use ul ene gy consump ion o hea ing in equi alen kilog ams o oil pe m2 and
hea ing days wi h espec o he pe cen age o cen alised hea ing o some EU membe
s a es [118]
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Use ul consump ion pe m2 (koe/m2/dd)
% cen al hea ing
Use ul ene gy consump ion o hea ing
Spain
Bulga ia
Slo akia
Po ugal
No way
Ne he lands
Slo enia
Czech Republic
La ia
Sweden
I aly
F ance
Denma k
I eland
Poland
Aus ia
Finland
UK
Ge many
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 143
Table 7. The mal ene gy consump ion by sec o o I eland (2008-2020) [117]
To al inal demand
(k oe)
G ow h (%)
A e age annual
g ow h (%)
Sec o al sha es (%)
End-use
2008
2012
2020
08-20
08-
20
08-
12
12-20
2008
2010
2020
Indus ial
139
148
150
0.6
1.5
0.2
2.5
2.8
2.6
Residen ial
44
43
41
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
0.8
0.8
0.7
Se ices
15
14
14
-0.5
-1.0
-.02
0.3
0.3
0.2
To al enewable
ene gies
198
205
205
3.7
0.3
0.9
0.0
To al consump ion
5502
5209
5718
4.0
0.3
-1.3
1.2
Hea ing om
enewable ene gies
3.6
3.9
3.6
Fu he mo e, he e a e se e al easons why i is easie o inc ease gene a ion om
enewable sou ces (pa icula ly wind) han om cogene a ion. In he EU-28, wind ene gy
(along wi h hyd oelec ic powe ) is he dominan ene gy sou ce om enewable o igins
[119,120], being necessa y in his case only ha he p omo e loca es a loca ion and would
ob ain he a ious needed pe mi s. Because he e a e usually many loca ions whe e o
deploy a p ojec , he e a e high chances ha he same is ca ied ou . By con as ,
cogene a ion is undoub edly much mo e es ic ed because i ine i ably has o be used in
ci ies and indus ies —ob iously, he di icul ies associa ed wi h implemen ing a dis ic
hea ing ne wo k o an en i e ci y a e o a di e en o de han hose ound in ob aining
pe mission o implemen ing a wind a m.
The cogene a ion plan s a e also subjec o mo e es ic ions han hose plan s ha p oduce
hea and elec ici y sepa a ely. This is because al hough he elec ici y is cheap and easy o
anspo o e long dis ances (in Theo e ical Backg ound sec ion i is possible o ind
addi ional in o ma ion conce ning la ge-scale hea anspo a ion), hea needs o be
gene a ed locally and can only be anspo ed o much sho e dis ances. Consequen ly, a
hea -gene a ing uni will always be connec ed o he end use ; meanwhile, elec ici y will
eed o he elec ic g id in gene al. In o he wo ds, he cogene a ion plan will ha e o
compe e in he hea ma ke wi h, o example, hea boile s o hea pumps, and in he
elec ici y ma ke wi h mo e lexible powe plan s [121].
Despi e hese es ic ions, i is o be emphasised ha a highe CHP and DHNs
gene alisa ion (and hei associa ed he mal s o age; see Theo eci al Backg ound sec io) is
o i al impo ance in educing o e all ene gy consump ion in he EU-28, which ob iously

Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 144
will impac CO2 emissions. This iew has been he one ha has enabled Denma k, along
wi h inc eased ene gy equi emen s o buildings, o p e en an inc ease in i s ene gy
consump ion o e he las 30 yea s despi e ha ing expe ienced an inc ease o 70% o GDP
du ing his pe iod [122].
Li e a u e indings a e ce ainly inconclusi e in wha dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and
cogene a ion po en ial a e espec ed a a pan-Eu opean le el. In ac , e en hough some
s udies ha e been unde aken o speci ic coun ies o egions, such as Sweden [123],
La ia [124], he Bal ic S a es [125], o USA [126], scien i ic li e a u e has no gi en he
same a en ion o he po en ial and he economic and en i onmen al bene i s esul ing om
he implemen a ion o an ene gy s a egy based on a massi e inc ease o he join use o
dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and cogene a ion in he EU-28. As a esul , and due o he
a o emen ioned lack o a en ion, a compa ison be ween his pape and o he scien i ic
publica ions is, a leas , p oblema ic (in pa icula , and o Sou he n Eu ope coun ies,
a en ion gi en has been i ually ze o). Howe e , i is possible o indica e ha one o he
main s eng hs o his pape is ha , by using a simple me hodology, i s app oach and
pe spec i e p o ide bo h no el esul s o he scien i ic li e a u e and new insigh s o he
Eu opean Union as a whole abou he ue po en ial o his unde exploi ed echnology.
Pa adoxically, his s eng h o he simple me hodology is a he same ime a sho coming
due o inaccu acies in he dis ic hea ing and cogene a ion po en ial assessmen , and
u he esea ch on his issue would be in e es ing o e inemen pu poses. Finally, and as
ano he esea ch ex ension, i would be in e es ing o e alua e he applicabili y o o he
ejec hea om o he ypes o he mal powe plan s such as biomass and nuclea ones o
dis ic hea ing pu poses.
6 Conclusions
Abou hal o he ins alled elec ic capaci y in he EU-28, om con en ional he mal powe
plan s, is loca ed a an app op ia e dis ance o be able o con e hese plan s in o
cogene a ion plan s and o use hei was ed hea in dis ic hea ing ne wo ks. Taking in o
accoun he maximum pene a ion ha is economically easible, om an annualised
in es men in in as uc u es o 315 billion eu os, he cos s, assignable o uel, would be
educed by 95 billion eu os pe yea and would sa e abou 6400 PJ o p ima y ene gy. This
ep esen s abou 15% o he o al inal ene gy consump ion in he EU-28 in 2013 (46 214.5
PJ). All hese sa ings a e achie ed om a by-p oduc , such as he was e hea om
con en ional powe plan s, cu en ly no u ilised in o de o mee any he mal load due o
hei low empe a u e (abou 30 °C). I he ene gy ision, p oposed in his pape , we e
implemen ed, i would quad uple ( om 12% o 50%) he access o he ci izens o he EU-
28 o he echnology o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks. This es ima e has impo an poli ical
implica ions as a gene alisa ion o he join use o cogene a ion plan s o aise he
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 145
a o emen ioned empe a u e, and dis ic hea ing ne wo ks would en ail some economic,
en i onmen al, and ene gy secu i y bene i s ha a e necessa y o he ul illmen o he
legal basis o he H2020 Socie al Challenges “Secu e, Clean, and E icien Ene gy” in a
sus ainable way. I has been consequen ly jus i ied ha , de ini ely, he ba ie s ha he
p oposed new ision ace a e no o a echnological no o an economic na u e bu
a e ins i u ional and inancial. I is wo h o ema k he o ecas ha , i a policy, commi ed
o he de elopmen o dis ic hea ing ne wo ks and cogene a ion, is ob ained, i would
imply ha o e he nex decades mo e and mo e powe plan s will be buil in p oximi y o
he mal loads and decommission hose loca ed emo ely. Finally, and as a possible esea ch
ex ension, i would be in e es ing o conside ejec hea om o he he mal powe plan s,
such as biomass and nuclea ones. E en hough he la e ones should be conside ed
cau iously due o hei ypical loca ions (no mally a om hea loads), ejec ed hea om
nuclea powe plan s migh ep esen a signi ican inc ease in he join use o CHP and
DHNs, as cu en ly hey ep esen abou 30% o he elec ici y p o ided in he EU-28.
Acknowledgemen s
We a e g a e ul o he expe s con ac ed who ga e us hei suppo , in pa icula and
especially o Poul Albe g Øs e gaa d (Aalbo g Uni e si e ), Capezzali Massimiliano (École
Poly echnique Fédé ale de Lausanne), Ke in Sa o (Uni e si é de Liège), E win Co nelis
(VITO NV), Chia a Wol e (Ambien e I alia), Alexand a Tudo oiu (COGEN Eu ope), Olu
Ogunbadejo (Depa men o En i onmen , Food & Ru al A ai s), Aleksand s Zajacs
(Riga Technical Uni e si y), and Ca s en Magass (Fo schungszen um Jülich GmbH).
Wi hou hei pa icipa ion, his a icle would no ha e been possible.
7 Re e ences
[1] Ecohea cool and Eu ohea & Powe . The Eu opean hea ma ke : Final epo . B ussels:
Eu ohea & Powe ; 2006.
[2] Eu os a . Simpli ied ene gy balances – annual da a. Luxembou g: Eu os a . Accessed
a <h p://ec. eu opa.eu/eu os a /en/web/p oduc s-da ase s/-/NRG_100A> on Oc obe 3,
2015.
[3] The Connec icu Academy o Science and Enginee ing. A s udy o he easibili y o
u ilizing was e hea om cen al elec ic powe gene a ing s a ions and po en ial
applica ions. Ha o d: The Connec icu Academy o Science and Enginee ing; 2009.
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 146
[4] IEA. Wo ld balance. Pa is: IEA. Accessed a <h p://www.iea.o g/sankey/> on
Sep embe 29, 2015.
[5] Eu opean En i onmen Agency. P og ess on ene gy e iciency in Eu ope; 2015.
Accessed a <h p://www.eea.eu opa.eu/da a-and-maps/indica o s/p og ess-on-ene gy-
e iciency-in-eu ope-2/assessmen > on Oc obe 7, 2015.
[6] Bo din C, Go dini A, Vigo D. An op imiza ion app oach o dis ic hea ing s a egic
ne wo k design. Eu opean Jou nal o Ope a ional Resea ch 2016 (In P ess).
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.ejo .2015.12.049
[7] Coope SJG, Hammond GP, No man JB. Po en ial o use o hea ejec ed om indus y
in dis ic hea ing ne wo ks, GB pe spec i e. Jou nal o he Ene gy Ins i u e 2016;89(1):57-
69. h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.joei.2015.01.010
[8] Kö inge M, Bascio i D, Schmid RR, Meissne E, Doczekal C, Gio annin A. Low
empe a u e dis ic hea ing in Aus ia: Ene ge ic, ecologic and economic compa ison o
ou case s udies. Ene gy 2016 (In P ess).
[9] In e na ional Ene gy Agency. Ene gy echnology pe spec i es 2015: Mobilising
inno a ion o accele a e clima e ac ion. Pa is: O ganisa ion o Economic and Co-ope a ion
and De elopmen ; 2015.
[10] Eu ohea & Powe . Dis ic hea ing and cooling–s a is ics. B ussels: Eu ohea &
Powe ; 2015.
[11] Colmena -San os A, Rosales-Asensio E, Bo ge-Diez D, Collado-Fe nández E.
E alua ion o he cos o using powe plan ejec hea in low- empe a u e dis ic hea ing
and cooling ne wo ks. Applied Ene gy 2016; 15:8.
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.apene gy.2015.10.161
[12] Boysen H. Hyd aulic balance in a dis ic  cooling sys em. No dbo g: Dan oss dis ic
ene gy; 2003.
[13] Combined Hea and Powe G oup. Combined hea and elec ical powe gene a ion in
he Uni ed Kingdom: Repo o he Sec e a y o S a e o Ene gy. London: H.M. S a ione y
O .; 1979.
[14] Eu ohea & Powe . Dis ic hea ing in buildings. B ussels: Eu ohea & Powe ; 2011.
[15] In e na ional Ene gy Agency. Cogene a ion and dis ic ene gy. Pa is: In e na ional
Ene gy Agency; 2009.
[16] Depa men o En i onmen Food and Ru al A ai s. Analysis o he UK po en ial o
combined hea and powe . London: Queen’s P in e and Con olle o HMSO; 2007.
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 147
[17] Osbo ne M. Making elec ici y ansmission sma e . Camb idge: Camb idge
Uni e si y Ene gy Ne wo k; 2013.
[18] Kelly SJ, Polli MG. An assessmen o he p esen and u u e oppo uni ies o
combined hea and powe wi h dis ic hea ing (CHP-DH) in he Uni ed Kingdom. Ene gy
Policy 2012;38(11):6936-6945. h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.010
[19] Woods P, Tu on A. Sma hea g ids – he po en ial o dis ic hea ing o con ibu e
o elec ici y demand managemen o acili a e enewable and nuclea elec ici y
gene a ion. Abingdon: The Sola Ene gy Socie y Con e ence C92; 2010.
[20] We ne S. Bene i s wi h mo e dis ic hea ing and cooling in Eu ope. Rome: 20 h
Wo ld Ene gy Con e ence; 2007.
[21] Eu ohea & Powe . Dis ic hea ing and cooling coun y by coun y su ey 2015.
B ussels: Eu ohea & Powe ; 2015.
[22] O cha d W. Cos o ansmi ing 2 GW o hea 140 km: Also longes hea main in
Eu ope 60 km. London: O cha d Pa ne s London L d.; 2011. Accessed a
<h ps://g oups.google.com/ o um/#!msg/ene gy-discussion-g oup/hOqh moHic8/0B O
uaIJ3V8J> on Ma ch 11, 2014.
[23] Riddle A. Dis ic hea ing & he u u e sma ci ies app oach. Copenhagen: Ramboll
G oup A/S; 2013.
[24] Pi ou i M. Modelling and analysis o a dis ic hea ing ne wo k. Ca di : Uni e si y o
Ca di ; 2013. 137 p.
[25] Ki sios K, Ch ysis I. Assessmen o na ional po en ial o cogene a ion in Cyp us.
Nicosia: Republic o Cyp us Minis y o Comme ce, Indus y and Tou ism Ene gy Se ice;
2009.
[26] Dy elund A. The Fu u e o he ene gy supply: Sma ene gy ci ies. Eu ohea & Powe
2012 (English Edi ion);9(1):12-15. Accessed a <h ps://www.s a eo g een.com/
CMSPages/Ge Azu eFile.aspx?pa h=~%5Ccache%5Cs a eo g een%5C33%5C3305a159-
39c0-4c5 -ae58-70883774a7d4.pd &hash=3e2d92789d181deb3076da90e24ce0ab
e6548c7 3131c70d1d8e172d7661ebec9> on Ma ch 11, 2014.
[27] Wo m J. Del appo 3 miscellaneous in es iga ions: CO2 educ ions in low-ene gy
buildings and communi ies by implemen a ion o low- empe a u e dis ic sys ems –
demons a ion cases in Ene gy lexhouse and Bolig o eningen Ringgå den, Jou naln .
63011-0152. Copenhagen: Danish Ene gy Agency; 2011. Accessed a <h p:// j u.dk/si
es/de aul / iles/del a ppo _3_miscellaneous_in es iga ions.pd > on Ma ch 11, 2014.
[28] Dong Ene gy. The S uds up æ ke CHP plan . Skøds up: Dong Ene gy A/S; 2007.
Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 154
[112] Biomass Cogene a ion Ne wo k. Cu en si ua ion on CHP and biomass CHP in he
na ional ene gy sec o . Pike mi: Biomass Cogene a ion Ne wo k; 2001.
[113] Al e na i e Pe oleum Technologies. Fuel oil emulsions. Reno: Al e na i e
Pe oleum Technologies; 2013. Accessed a <h p://www.al pe ol.com/en/2d-pd- oe.h
ml> on Feb ua y 19, 2014.
[114] CEZ G oup. The Po ici powe s a ions. P ague: CEZ G oup; 2014. Accessed a
<h p://www.cez.cz/en/powe -plan s-and-en i onmen /coal- i ed-powe
plan s/c /po ici.h ml > on Feb ua y 19, 2014.
[115] Wan KKW, Li DHW, Liu D, Lam JC. Fu u e ends o building hea ing and cooling
loads and ene gy consump ion in di e en clima es. Building and En i onmen
2011;46(1):223-234.
[116] So ell S. The ebound e ec : An assessmen o he e idence o economy-wide
ene gy sa ings om imp o ed ene gy e iciency. London: UK Ene gy Resea ch Cen e;
2007.
[117] Walke N, Schee J, Clancy M, Ó Gallachoi B. Ene gy o ecas s o I eland o 2020.
Dublin: Sus ainable Ene gy I eland; 2010.
[118] ENERDATA. Quan i a i e e alua ion o explana o y ac o s o he lowe ene gy
e iciency pe o mance o F ance o space hea ing compa ed o Eu opean benchma ks.
Ange s: Agence de l’En i onnemen e de la Maî ise de l’Ene gie; 2011.
[119] Hin ichs-Rahlwes R. Sus ainable ene gy policies o Eu ope: Towa ds 100%
enewable ene gy. 1s ed. Boca Ra on: CRC P ess; 2013.
[120] Eu os a . Elec ici y gene a ed om enewable ene gy sou ces, EU-28, 2003–13
YB15. Luxembou g: Eu os a . Accessed a <h p://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /s a is ics-expl
ained/index.php? i le=File:Elec ici y_gene a ed_ om_ enewable_ene gy_sou ces,EU-
28,_2003%E2%80%9 313_YB15.png&oldid=238269> on Oc obe 4, 2015.
[121] Pan aleo A, Candelise C, Bauen A, Shah N. ESCO business models o biomass
hea ing and CHP: P o i abili y o ESCO ope a ions in I aly and key ac o s assessmen .
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 2014;30:237-253.
[122] T abe g RL. Dis ic ene gy: The Danish expe ience. London: Royal Danish
Embassy; 2008.
[123] Di Lucia L, E icsson K. Low-ca bon dis ic hea ing in Sweden – Examining a
success ul ene gy ansi ion. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 2014;4:10–20.

Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Educa ion, h p://dx.doi.o g/10.4995/muse.2016.6339
Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Rosales-Asensio and Bo ge-Diez (2016)
h p://polipape s.up .es/index.php/MUSE/ Mul . J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 3 Nº 2 (2016): 107-155 | 155
[124] Ziemele J, G a elsins A, Blumbe ga A, Vigan s G, Blumbe ga D. Sys em dynamics
model analysis o pa hway o 4 h gene a ion dis ic hea ing in La ia. Ene gy 2015 (In
P ess).
[125] Ziemele J, Pake e L, Blumbe ga D. The u u e compe i i eness o he non-Emissions
T ading Scheme dis ic hea ing sys ems in he Bal ic S a es. Applied Ene gy
2016;162:1579-1585.
[126] Ch is ian Gils H, Co ala J, Wagne F, Schöpp W. GIS-based assessmen o he dis ic
hea ing po en ial in he USA. Ene gy 2013;58:318-329.