www.sciedu.ca/bm Business and Managemen Resea ch Vol. 3, No. 4; 2014
Published by Sciedu P ess 89 ISSN 1927-6001 E-ISSN 1927-601X
Gende Inequali y in Uni e si y Adminis a ion and Se ices
So ía Es elles-Miguel1, An onio Na a o-Ga cía1, Ma a E. Palme Ga o1 & José Miguel Alba acín Guillem1
1 Uni e si a Poli ècnica de València, Depa men o Business O ganiza ion, Edi ici 7D 46020 Valencia, Spain
Co espondence: So ía Es elles-Miguel, Uni e si a Poli ècnica de València, Depa men o Business O ganiza ion,
Edi ici 7D 46020 Valencia, Spain. Tel: 34-96-387-7007-Ex .76841. Fax: 963879779. E-mail: [email p o ec ed].es
Recei ed: No embe 15, 2014 Accep ed: Decembe 15, 2014 Online Published: Decembe 16, 2014
doi:10.5430/bm . 3n4p89 URL: h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5430/bm . 3n4p89
Abs ac
This a icle add esses inequali ies be ween men and women a wo k. Inequali ies in job access and ca ee p og ession
a e add essed. The a icle e iews li e a u e on equal oppo uni ies a wo k. A case s udy o adminis a i e and
se ices s a a a public uni e si y in Valencia (Spain) is hen p esen ed. The case s udy assesses he cu en eali y
o gende inequali y in Spanish public ins i u ions. Spanish public uni e si ies hi e candida es wi h he bes esul s in
public examina ions. Men and women should he e o e enjoy equal access o jobs a Spanish public uni e si ies. The
eali y, howe e , is no so.
Keywo ds: Equal oppo uni ies, Occupa ional seg ega ion, Ve ical seg ega ion, Ho izon al seg ega ion, Glass
ceiling
1. In oduc ion
Acco ding o he ILO (2010), occupa ional seg ega ion by gende is one o he mos common ea u es o de eloped
coun ies’ labou ma ke s. Like o he coun ies in he Medi e anean a ch, Spain has his o ically had one o he
highes le els o seg ega ion, wi h his le el inc easing du ing he nine ies (Cáce es e al. 2004, Ceb ián e al. 2008).
In addi ion, schola s ha e ound e idence o he inc ease o occupa ional seg ega ion by gende in Spain (Ga cía e al.
2011). This inc ease has aken place agains he backd op o echnological change ha has in ensi ied demand o
quali ied wo k, an a ea wi h which women now iden i y o a g ea e deg ee (Iglesias e al. 2010), and sec o ial
change, whe eby his o ically male-domina ed indus ial jobs a e eplaced by women-domina ed se ices jobs
(Iglesias e al. 2009).
Di e ences in pay and access o jobs may e lec di e ences in candida es’ quali ica ions o capabili ies, bu hese
di e ences may also e lec disc imina ion agains ce ain demog aphic g oups based on skin colou , sex, eligion,
ace and so o h, ega dless o educa ion, wo k expe ience o skills. I hese dispa i ies owed o di e ences in
p oduc i i y, he labou ma ke would be ope a ing e icien ly. Con e sely, i hese di e ences p incipally owed o
disc imina ion acco ding o cha ac e is ics such as ace o sex, hen he labou ma ke would be ope a ing
ine icien ly.
Some heo ies e e o gende di e ences in human capi al, om ei he o e (Becke , 1965) o demand (Becke ,
1971) pe spec i es. Besides hese heo ies, o he heo ies ha e eme ged ha s ess p e e ences in men and women.
Iden i y economics (Ake lo & K an on, 2000), pollu ion heo y (Goldin, 2002) and he heo y o p e e ence
disc imina ion exempli y such heo ies (Bende e al. 2005).
In i s annual epo , he Wo ld Economic Fo um publishes he Global Gende Gap Repo (Hausmann e al. 2010).
The aim o his index is o p o ide he a e a which he gende gap is closing in 130 coun ies. The index comp ises
ou c i ical inequali y a eas. In coun ies wi h g ea e gende equali y, inhabi an s enjoy be e well-being, and social
cohesion and in eg a ion. The e is a co ela ion be ween gende equali y, compe i i eness and GDP g ow h
(Hausmann e al. 2006, 2010). Globally, in heal h and educa ion he gap be ween women and men is closing mo e
apidly han in a eas o economic pa icipa ion, oppo uni ies and decision-making.
2. Objec i e and me hod
We analysed gende inequali y in adminis a i e and se ices jobs in a Spanish public uni e si y. To do so, we
employed a esea ch me hod based on a bibliog aphical e iew. This me hod allowed us o ame he p oblem and
hen analyse he cu en si ua ion in a speci ic Spanish uni e si y. We ook one Spanish public uni e si y as he
sample. We analysed he numbe o male and emale s a in adminis a i e and se ices jobs acco ding o scale,
www.sciedu.ca/bm Business and Managemen Resea ch Vol. 3, No. 4; 2014
Published by Sciedu P ess 90 ISSN 1927-6001 E-ISSN 1927-601X
classi ica ion and se o c i e ia.
3. Types o disc imina ion
Acco ding o Cons i u ional Ac 3/2007 o 22 Ma ch o e ec i e equali y be ween women and men, he e a e wo
ypes o disc imina ion:
1) “Di ec disc imina ion is ega ded o be a si ua ion whe e one pe son is ea ed less a ou ably on he g ounds o
sex han ano he is, has been o would be ea ed in a compa able si ua ion.” This ype o disc imina ion co e s
any ype o un a ou able ea men o women ega ding p egnancy and ma e ni y. Di ec disc imina ion also
co e s pay di e ences be ween men and women who do he same job, as s a ed in he Ams e dam T ea y (1997).
2) “Indi ec disc imina ion is ega ded o be a si ua ion whe e an appa en ly neu al p o ision, c i e ion o p ac ice
would pu pe sons o one sex a a pa icula disad an age compa ed wi h pe sons o he o he sex, unless ha
p o ision, c i e ion o p ac ice is objec i ely jus i ied by a legi ima e aim, and he means o achie ing ha aim
a e app op ia e and necessa y.” Fo ins ance, his ype o disc imina ion applies o he ollowing si ua ions:
a. Men and women a e allowed o apply o jobs o which only men o only women will be selec ed.
b. Sala ies a e equal wi hin he same job ca ego y, bu women a e mo e nume ous in lowe paid
ca ego ies.
c. Women o ego p omo ions a wo k because hey encoun e genuine di icul ies in econciling wo k and
amily esponsibili ies. Because women emain he main ca e s o he amily, wo k schedules wi h
wo king lunches o long hou s hampe women’s p o essional ca ee s. Reconcilia ion o wo k and
amily esponsibili ies is one o he p incipal easons why women, a he han men, ask o a educ ion
in hou s o eques lea e o ca e o child en.
4. Occupa ional seg ega ion
Seg ega ion in he labou ma ke e e s o he ep esen a ion o women and men in di e en occupa ions (i.e., hey
wo k in di e en sec o s and ha e di e en jobs). Female wo ke s sys ema ically clus e in occupa ions wi h g ea e
ins abili y, lowe pay and lowe ecogni ion.
Women ha e no ably inc eased hei pa icipa ion in he paid labou ma ke . Ne e heless, women end o expe ience
highe unemploymen a es han men, wo k mo e o en han men in empo a y o pa - ime jobs, and su e pay
disc imina ion, seg ega ion and lowe chances o p omo ions han men do. Hence, equali y has no accompanied he
inc ease in women’s pa icipa ion in he paid labou ma ke . In ac , women and men ha e unequal posi ions in he
paid labou ma ke (Rubio, 2008). Recen gende esea ch has specula ed ha occupa ional gende seg ega ion is
e lec ed in he gende ed aspec s, sel -exp essi e ca ee decisions o men and women (Cech, 2013).
Se e al au ho s ha e in es iga ed bo h occupa ional seg ega ion and seg ega ion by economic sec o (Niede le e al.
2013). Anke (1998) p o ided e idence ha occupa ional seg ega ion by gende is common a ound he wo ld and
a gued ha seg ega ion could be explained by h ee heo ies: human capi al di e ences (whe eby women would be
less quali ied o ce ain occupa ions han men would), labou ma ke segmen a ion (which posi s he educ ion o
sala ies in emale-based occupa ions) and g ea e esponsibili y in ca ing o child en.
A ound 2007, seg ega ion in Spain changed. This change was accompanied by shi s in a gumen s ha main ain
inequali y be ween men and women in he labou ma ke (Dueñas Fe nández e al. 2013). Resea ch has highligh ed
wo o ms o occupa ional seg ega ion by gende : ho izon al seg ega ion and e ical seg ega ion. In all EU coun ies,
bo h ypes o seg ega ion a e p esen , al hough he deg ee o seg ega ion a ies (Eu opean Commission, 2009).
4.1 Ho izon al seg ega ion
Ho izon al seg ega ion (Anke , 1998) e e s o si ua ions whe eby emale wo ke s clus e in ac i i ies adi ionally
linked o women. In Eu ope, women p edomina e in i e sec o s: heal h assis ance, social se ices, educa ion, public
adminis a ion and e ailing (Rubio, 2008). Acco ding o To ns e al. (2007), his dis ibu ion has no changed in he
las 30 yea s.
Ceb ián and Mo eno (2008) showed ha mo e han hal o employed women in Spain a e clus e ed in i e b anches
o he se ices sec o and ha nea ly hal o employed women wo k in six low-quali ica ion occupa ions. The epo
indica es ha he la ge inc ease in emale employmen has been accompanied by any inc ease in occupa ional
seg ega ion, he eby implying ha s e eo ypes ega ding “ emale” and “male” occupa ions emain.
www.sciedu.ca/bm Business and Managemen Resea ch Vol. 3, No. 4; 2014
Published by Sciedu P ess 91 ISSN 1927-6001 E-ISSN 1927-601X
4.2 Ve ical seg ega ion
Mo ison & Von Glinow (1990) i s de ined he glass ceiling as a ba ie “ ha appea s in isible bu is s ong enough
o hold women back om op-le el jobs me ely because hey a e women a he han because hey lack job- ele an
skills, educa ion, o expe ience. F om his i s ime, his de ini ion appea s in many o he publica ions (Mo ison e
al., 1992, Powell & Bu e ield, 1994 and US Depa men o Labo , 1991 and 1995) and s a s o become ele an o
he p esen day. Top managemen jobs should depend on candida es’ knowledge, e o and skills. In eali y, howe e ,
such jobs emain ou o each o many women in managemen posi ions. Ve ical seg ega ion a ec s all ypes o
wo k because “wha e e he sec o , e en he mos women-domina ed sec o s, he p opo ion o women d ops as hey
mo e up in he hie a chy, which means ha he p esence o women who a e in powe ul posi ions and assume
esponsibili y a wo k is minimal” (Sa ió e al., 2002, 56). Despi e exponen ial g ow h in women’s a e age
educa ion le el a ained, e ical seg ega ion emains unchanged (Rubio, 2008).
Nume ous s udies ha e highligh ed he main ba ie s acing women seeking p omo ions o managemen posi ions
(Ca alys , 2004; Chinchilla e al., 2005 and Ma eos de Cabo e al., 2007).
Table 1. Ba ie s in he p omo ion o women in di e en con ex s. Sou ce: Ba be a e al. (2011)
Eu ope Spain
- The exis ence o s e eo ypes.
- Lack o isibili y in op posi ions.
- Lack o expe ience.
- Commi men o pe sonal li e.
- Social ba ie s ( econcilia ion o
ca ee wi h pe sonal li e).
- Psychological pe cep ion o
sui abili y o managemen
posi ions.
- Occupa ional seg ega ion by gende
in he labou ma ke .
- Pac s be ween men o pee s.
- Managemen s e eo ype o
o ganisa ional cul u e wi h ea u es
associa ed wi h he ole o men,
commi men o he o ganisa ion,
ca ee success and wo k dedica ion.
- Di ision o p oduc i e/ ep oduc i e
wo k.
- The “conc e e ceiling”.
Chinchilla e al. (2005) a gues ha he “conc e e ceiling” (No e 1) can be iewed om wo pe spec i es. Fi s , some
women ejec s ic o demanding managemen posi ions because hey o esee po en ial di icul ies in econciling
hei ca ee s and pe sonal li es. Second, some women esign om managemen posi ions because hey expe ience
g ea e p essu e in his ype o posi ion han hei male colleagues do. Some s udies, such as ha o Es eba anz
(2004), ha e shown ha managemen posi ions imply di e en cos s o businesses depending on whe he women o
men ill hese posi ions.
5. Case s udy
The uni e si y o which we ga he ed da a has had an equali y plan since 2013. The main aspec s o his plan a e
equal pa icipa ion by men and women, policies aimed a inc easing he p esence o women in public and
go e nance posi ions, and ac i e pa icipa ion in he uni e si y communi y.
To pe o m he cu en analysis we ga he ed da a om he uni e si y’s in ane . The uni e si y’s equali y uni collec s
da a on equali y. Al hough he uni sha ed hese da a wi h us, we ha e no used hem in he p esen s udy o espec
con iden iali y. Impo an ly, in public unc ions, he p inciples o equali y, me i and capabili y ake p ecedence.
Da a show ha he p esence o men and women is balanced because nei he men no women occupy mo e han 60%
o less han 40% o jobs. Al hough da a show an inc ease in emale p esence om 2005 o 2014, he e a e small
imbalances by job ca ego y. Some ca ego ies such as adminis a ion, heal h assis ance, auxilia y se ices, a chi ing
and lib a y se ices and museum jobs a e women domina ed. O he ca ego ies a e male domina ed, al hough he
p esence o women has inc eased in hese ca ego ies. Such ca ego ies include p og amme s, and junio and senio
labo a o y echnicians.
In he p esen s udy, we analysed he s uc u e o adminis a ion and se ices s a in all uni e si y depa men s o
show he gende dis ibu ion o jobs. When we pe o med he analysis, he e we e 271 s a , o whom 151 we e men
and 120 women.
www.scied
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E
N
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Vol. 3, No.
4
E-ISSN 192
7
o s’ own wo
k
w
n wo k.
a
nd sys ems
a
a
use e y ew
p
u
ch a ca ego y
m
e women-do
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; 2014
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a
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6. Conclu
s
Th ougho
u
easons w
h
objec i es
manageme
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Al hough,
and despi
e
achie e ge
n
Business
a
p o ession
s
esponsibi
l
is s ill nee
d
Ob iously,
ad an age
s
equali y, i
n
In Spain,
o
g ea e am
o
occupa io
n
e en in a
n
emain. T
h
o ganisa i
o
Acknowle
d
The au ho
Poli ècnic
a
coo dina o
Re e ence
s
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715-7
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O ga
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Ba be á, T
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e 4. Gende
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u
he p esen
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y i occu s. C
u
a e no only
o
n
ha s esse
s
in heo y,
p
u
b
e
laws suppo
i
n
de equali y i
n
a
nd socie y a
e
s
and
p
osi ion
s
l
i
y
, ha e al ea
d
d
ed.
sociocul u a
l
s
in heo y ca
n
n
cluding in he
i
o
ccupa ional s
e
o
ng highly ed
u
n
al seg ega ion
n
ins i u ion
h
h
e es ablishm
e
o
ns. Wi hou e
dg
men s
s acknowled
g
a
de València.
o he ieldw
o
s
G
. & K an on,
53. h p://dx.d
o
Esco cia, A.
&
d
ad pa a el Pe
(1998). Ge
n
n
iza ion (ILO),
., Dema, C.M.
a
do labo al: L
a
n
dus ial Mana
(1965). A Th
e
d
is ibu ion in
o
s
ud
y
, we ha e
u
en l
y
, he n
u
o
maximize p
s
g ea e gend
e
b
lic adminis a
i
ng equali y,
e
n
hese o gani
s
e
p epa ed o
s
o which
h
d
y s a ed o d
e
l
changes do
n
become a e
a
i
alues. Seco
e
g ega ion and
u
ca ed people.
and a smalle
h
a should be
e
n and exec
u
al con ic ion,
g
e he inanci
Also, he a
u
o
k esea ch.
R. (2000). E
c
o
i.o g/10.116
2
&
Es elles-Mi
g
sonal de Adm
i
n
de and Job
s
Gene a.
, Es elles-Mig
u
a
Seg egación
gemen
, pp. 9
8
e
o y o he All
o
Business an
d
9
3
o
ne o he mos
a emp ed o
p
u
mbe o o ga
n
o i s, and hes
e
equali y.
ion should e
m
e
sul s show ha
s
a ions.
legisla i e c
h
h
ey a e well p
e
elop ac ions
no occu i
n
a
li y, i is i s
nd, he e mus
sec o seg eg
a
Hence, imp
o
pay gap. Sub
s
exempla y (i.
e
u
ion o mea
s
such measu e
s
al suppo
o
u
ho s ecogni
z
c
onomics and
I
2
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5
g
uel, So ía (2
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nis ación y S
e
s
: Sex Seg e
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Ve ical y Ho
8
6-995.Ca ag
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m
27
%
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3
male-domin
a
p
o ide insigh
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isa ions wi h
s
e o ganisa ion
s
m
body all kin
d
, in eali y, h
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h
anges ha e
l
epa ed. O ga
n
o igh again
s
n
s an aneously
;
essen ial o
o
be cohe ence
a
ion a e mo e
o
ing women’
s
s
an ial equali
e
., uni e si ie
s
s
u es does no
s
a e u ile.
o
m he p ojec
z
e he suppo
I
den i y. The
Q
5
4881
0
14). T abajo
F
e
icios de la
U
g
a ion o Oc
c
e
ce C. (2011).
L
izon al. 5
h
In
e
na.
m
e, Economic
J
7
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Labo a
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n
E
NWOME
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esea ch
I
S
a
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.
in o occupa i
o
s
ocial awa en
e
s
’ social espo
n
d
s o equali y
b
i
s is no he ca
s
l
imina e obs a
c
n
isa ions, und
e
s
gende ineq
u
;
hey need
o
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be ween hese
in ense o w
o
s
educa ion le
y equi es he
s
), inequali ie
s
depend onl
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PAID-06-12
by Ana del
Q
ua e ly Jou
F
inal de Ca e
U
ni e sidad P
o
c
upa ions in
L
as (des)igual
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e na ional Co
J
ou nal, Vol 7
5
7
3
%
o y
n
N
S
SN 1927-6001
.
Sou ce: Au h
o
o
nal seg ega i
o
e
ss is g owing.
n
sibili y in ol
b
e e han an
y
s
e. The e is s i
l
c
les and enab
e
he umb ell
a
u
ali
y
. Ne e
h
ime.
N
e e h
e
hemsel es o
businesses’
a
o
men han he
y
el does no ne
adop ion o a
s
– some imes
y
on busines
s
(Sp 201207
9
Ca men Al
e
nal o Econo
m
a: Campaña
d
o
li écnica de
V
he Wo dld.
d
ad en e Ho
m
n e ence on I
n
5
, Bº 299, pp.
4
Vol. 3, No.
4
E-ISSN 192
7
o
s’ own wo
k
o
n by gende
a
These o ganis
es human e
s
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No e
No e 1. Ce ain au ho s who conside he “conc e e ceiling” a di e en ba ie om he “glass ceiling” ha e claimed
ha some women decide o esign when aced wi h ex eme, disp opo iona e p essu e (Chinchilla e al., 2005,
He nández Ruiz e al, 2008).