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The!poli iciza ion!o !a!socio ac :!
explo ing!economic!inequali y!in! he!global!age!
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Manuel!A ias-Maldonado!
Uni e si y!o !Málaga!(Spain)!
ma [email protected]!
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IPSA%2016,%23-28%July%2016,%Poznan.%
Panel:%Is%Economic%Inequali y%a%Poli ical%P oblem!
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DRAFT!-do!no !quo e!wi hou !pe mission.!
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1.!Mapping!ou ! he! e ain:!inequali y!and!poli ics.!
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Inequali y!is!back!as!a!public!conce n!in!Wes e n!democ acies,!and!so!is! he!ques ion!abou !how! o!
deal!wi h!i !poli ically,!i.e.!poli ical!decisions!a e!expec ed! o! es o e!accep able!le els!o !inequali y!
a he ! han! o!se !up!a! egime!o !comple e!equali y!among!ci izens.!The!logic!behind! his! eques !is!
also!pu ely!poli ical:!as!B anco!Milano ic!has!a gued!in!his!sobe ! ea ise!on!global!inequali y,!i ! he!
la e ! leads! o! he! ise! o ! collec i e! ange ! and! hence! populism,! democ acies! become! se e ely!
endange ed,!a ec ed!by!a!lack!o !legi imacy.!Wha !an!accep able!le el!o !inequali y!is!canno !be!said!
easily,!jus !as!i !is!nei he !easy! o!p edic !when!will!a!gi en!deg ee!o !inequali y!will!be!pe cei ed!as!
unaccep able.!The!key! o! ha !dilemma!is,!p ecisely,! he!pe cei ed!quali y!o !bo h!psychopoli ical!
s a es:!i !depends!hea ily!on!public!moods!and!p i a e!pe cep ions,!as!well!as!in! he!e ec !o !poli ical!
discou ses!and! mobiliza ions.!Ye !i !seldom! is!a!cap icious! hing,! esponding!usually! o!ex e nal!
economic!shocks!-mos ly!a! ecession-! ha ! igge ! he! eeling!o !being!empo e ished.!This! eeling,!in!
u n,!is!g ounded!in! wo!main!compa a i e!ope a ions:!whe he !a!subjec !is!be e !o !as!compa ed!
o!he !pas !sel !and!as!compa ed! o!o he !people.!
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These!nuances!a e! ele an !i !we! y! o!answe ! he!ques ion!abou ! he!poli ical!na u e!o !inequali y.!
Is!inequali y!a!poli ical!p oblem?!O ,! o!pu !i !di e en ly,!is!i !in%i sel !a!poli ical!p oblem,!o !jus !a!
social!p oblem! ha !may!o !e en!mus !be! ans o med!in o!a!poli ical!p oblem?!Migh !i !also!be! he!
case! ha ! we! can! concei e! o ! p oblems! whose! poli ical! quali y!is! pa ial! o ! can! be! measu ed! in!
deg ees?!
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Wha ! hose!in incacies!show!is! ha !inequali y!possesses!an!unescapable!social!dimension.!I !is!a!
ela ion!be ween!subjec s! ha !compa e! hemsel es!wi h!each!o he !wi hin!a!social!o de ! ha !makes!
inequali y!possible!o !does!no !hinde !i s!p oduc ion.!Howe e ,! he!sou ces!o !inequali y!mus !be!
iden i ied,!because!i !inequali y!is!a ibu ed! o!di e ences!in!na u al! alen s!o !abili ies,! he!s a e!
could!only!impede!i ! ia!a!b u al!equalizing!o !socioeconomic!condi ions! ha !would!be! o ali a ian!
in!na u e!-while!di e ences! hemsel es!would! emain,!as!some!people!would!be!mo e!in elligen !o !
p e y!o !e en!happie ! han!o he .!O !cou se,!a!mo e! easonable!s andpoin !can!be!adop ed,!so! ha !
wha !ma e s!is! ha !na u al!di e ences!do!no !lead! o! oo!la ge!social!di e ences,!a! ask! ha !would!
pe ain!poli ics.!Somebody!could!e en!a gue! ha !such!di e ences!a e!no !comple ely!na u al,!as!a!
agic!loop!can! ake!place!i !someone!is!bo n!disad an aged!and! hus!dep i ed!o ! he!chance! o!mo e!
upwa d,!bu !could!imp o e!he !lo !i ! ha !lack!o !oppo uni ies!is!deal !wi h!poli ically.!This!claim!
could! hold! e en! i ! we! assume! ha ! a! pa ! o ! hose! na u al! di e ences! belong! o! each! gene ic's!
ha dwa e,!in!a! wo old!way:!by! ecu ing! o!epigene ics!o !by!s a ing! ha ,!in!such!case,! he!indi idual!
is!ha dly! esponsible!o !he ! o unes,!so! ha ! he! easons! o !poli ical!in e en ion!a e! i m.!
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Fo ! he!pu poses!o ! his!pape ,!inequali y!will!be!unde s ood!as!a! eal!o !pe cei ed!di e ence!in!
socioeconomic!s a us!among!indi iduals! ha !may!be!a !leas !pa ially!co ec ed!by! he!s a e.!Tha !is,!
inequali y!is!seen!as! ac able!by!poli ical!means,!i espec i e!o ! he!e ec i eness!o ! he!solu ions!so!
adop ed.!I ! he!p oblem!could!no !be!sol ed!a !all,!as!seems! he!case!wi h!na u al!di e ences!among!
indi iduals,! i !could!ha dly! quali y!as!a!p oblem!in! he! i s !place.! On! he! o he !hand,!a!poli ical!
p oblem!is!de ined!as!one! ha !a ises! om! he!poli ical!o ganiza ion!o !socie y,!so! ha !i !socie y!we e!
o ganized!di e en ly! om! he!ou se ! he! e y!p oblem!-an!unaccep able!deg ee!o !inequali y-!would!
ne e !mani es !i sel .!Wha ! emains! o!be!explo ed!is! hus!whe he !inequali y!is!in!i sel !a!poli ical!
p oblem!and,!depending!on! he!answe ,!whe he !i !is!jus i ied! o!deal!wi h!i !as!such.!
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This!pape !is!o ganized!as! ollows.!Fi s ,! he!ques ion!abou ! he!sou ces!o !inequali y!will!be!explo ed!
oge he !wi h! he! ac abili y!o ! he!la e !as!a!poli ical!p oblem.!Secondly,! he! easons! o ! he!cu en !
inc ease!in!inequali y!a e! e lec ed!upon,!in!o de ! o!add!collec i e!phenomena!a ! he!mac ole el! o!
he!mo e!basic,!e en!p epoli ical!conside a ions!made!in! he! i s !sec ion.!Thi dly,! he!p oblems!
posed!by!en y!and! esen men !will!be!conside ed,!so! ha ! he!key! ole!o !pe cep ion!is!highligh ed.!
Finally,! a! conclusion! is! o e ed,! whe eby! bo h! capi alism! and!inequali y! a e! seen! as! p epoli ical!
ea u es!o ! he!species! ha !howe e !mus !be!poli ically!app oached!and!deal !wi h,!les !an!excessi e!
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deg ee!o !inequali y! h ea ens! he!gene al!bene i s!p o ided!by!an!una oidable%bu %accep able!le el!
o !socioeconomic!inequali y.!
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2.!The!p epoli ics!o !inequali y.!
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Inequali y's! en ée!in! he!public!and!academic!deba e!has!been!ma ked!by!a!F ench! ouch.!I !makes!
sense,! since! he! a en ion! o! inequali y! is! ac ually! a! e y! F ench! hing! -a! conce n! ha ,! in! i s!
socioeconomic!sense,!has!been!b ough ! o! he!global!spo ligh !by!Thomas!Pike y's!unlikely!bes -
selle .!I s! i s !edi ion,!published!in!F ance,!did!no !s i !such!schola ly!passions!as! he! ansla ion! o!
English!has:!a e ! all,! he! opic!is!always!p esen ! in! he! F ench! con e sa ion,! whe eas!economic!
s a i ica ion!has!no ! adi ionally!had!such! ac ion!in! he!Ame ican!collec i e!psyche.!
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A !leas ,! ha !is!how!jou nalis !Gillian!Te !explained!Pike y's!sudden!success!in! he!anglo-saxon!
wo ld.!The!F ench!economis !would!dispel! he!my h!o !equali y!in! eedom!-acco ding! o!which,!in!
opposi ion! o!an!Eu opean! adi ion!plagued!by!inhe i ed!p i ileges!and!en enched!in e es s,!any!
Ame ican!ci izen!should!be!able! o!en ich!he sel ! h ough!wo k!in!a!me i oc a ic!socie y1.!Bu !da a!
do!no !seem! o!suppo ! his!p inciple!anymo e,!o !no !jus !now!-and! ha !is!why!inequali y!is!back! o!
mains eam! poli ics.! Ye ! i ! would! be! un ai ! o! say! ha ! inequali y! has! been! absen ! in! he! US!
con e sa ion,!since! he!mos !in luen ial!piece!o !poli ical! heo y!published!in! he!second!hal !o ! he!
wen ie h!cen u y!was!no !w i en!in!Pa is!bu !in!Ha a d!and!had!inequali y!- he!goal!o !assigning!
esou ces! ai ly!wi hin!a!socie y-!as!a!cen al! heme:!John!Rawls'!A%Theo y%o %Jus ice2.!F om!New!
England!has!also!come,!much!mo e! ecen ly,!a!b ie !wo k!by!Da un!Acemoglu!and!James!Robinson!
which,! om!an!ins i u ionalis !s andpoin ,!p esen !a!deep!c i ique!o !Pike y's! hesis3.!
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My! pu pose! in! his! sec ion! is! o! dwell! on! a gumen s! like! hose! p esen ed!by! Rawls! and!
Acemoglu/Robinson!-agains !Pike y-!in!o de ! o!highligh ! he!unsu moun able!di icul ies! ha !pose!
he!goal!o !equali y.!By!doing!so,!I!hope! o!explo e! he!p epoli ics!o !inequali y.!
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Pike y's!wo k!has! been! widely!discussed.!His! main! a gumen s!a e! well-known:!challenging! he!
Kuzne 's!cu e,!Pike y!claims! ha !inequali y!does!no ! end! o!disappea !as!economies!ma u e.!As!a!
esul ,!capi alism!would!no !be!able! o!neu alize! he!inequali y! ha !i !gene a es.!The!main! eason!
lies!in! he! o mula! %
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%g,!acco ding! o!which!capi al!p o ides!g ea e ! e u ns! han!labou .!Wi h! he!
passing! o ! ime,! his! explains! he! accumula ion! o ! weal h.! I ! he! la e ! is! passed! on! be ween!
gene a ions,!inequali y!g ows.!In! imes!o !low!economic!g ow h,!inequali y!g ows!mo e! apidly.!
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This! easoning! has! been! subjec ed! o! a! numbe ! o ! c i icisms.! Lea ing! me hodological! ques ions!
aside,!one!can!make!objec ions!o !di e en !kinds:!economic!( he! ole!o ! echnological!dis up ion!as!
a! empo a y! eason! o ! he!widening!o !inequali y,! he!dec ease!in!global!po e y,! he!a ailabili y!o !
goods! and! se ices! ha ! would! ha e! been! he! p ese e! o ! eli es! yes e yea ),! sociological! ( he!
in luence!o !gene ics!in!po e y),!o !no ma i e!(inequali y's!inc ease!could!well!be!less!impo an !
ha !g ea e !g ow h).!Ye !i ! emains! he!case! ha !inequali y!has!inc eased!wi hin!ad anced!socie ies!
and! eme gen ! economies,! i espec i e! o ! he! ansien ! na u e! o ! he! easons! ha ! can! a e! o en!
in oked! o!explain! his!e olu ion:! echnological!change,!globaliza ion,! inancial!c isis.!This!is!whe e!
Acemoglu!and!Robinson!s ep!in:! hey!sugges ! ha !Pike y!is!a ec ed!by! he!same!pa hology! ha !
su e ed!in! he!pas !economis s!like!Ma x!o !Rica do:! he!need! o! o mula e!gene al!laws,!igno ing!
he!key! ole!played!by!cul u e!and!ins i u ions!wi hin!socie y.!So! ha ! he!gene al!law,% %
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%g,!is!no !a!
gi en!bu !one!o ! he!many! ac o s! ha !can!explain!inequali y.!
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Howe e ,!i !we! ee!Pike y! om! he!bu den!o ! heleology!and! educe!him! o!his!essence,!he!s ill!has!
some hing!impo an ,!albei !ha dly!new,! o!say.!O !we!can!say!some hing!impo an !dwelling!on!
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1!Gillian!Te ,!"Lessons! o m!a! ock-s a !economis ",!25!ab il.!
2!John!Rawls,!A%Theo y%o %Jus ice,!Ha a d,!Ha a d!Uni e si y!P ess,!1971.!
3!Da en!Acemoglu!and!James!Robinson,!"The!Rise!and!Decline!o !Gene al!Laws!o !Capi alism",!NBER!Wo king!
Pape !No.!20766,!Decembe !2014.!
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Pike y.!Namely:! ha !economic!equali y!is!un easible!wi hou !an!ex eme!deg ee!o !coe ion.!In! ac ,!
no !e en!s a e!socialism!was!able! o!make! ha !equali y!possible!-some!we e!mo e!equal! han!o he s.!
This!does!no !imply! ha !inequali y!mus !be!accep ed!as!such,!in!any! o ms!i !migh ! ake;!bu !i !does!
imply! ha !i !is!impossible! o!e adica e,!hence! o cing!us! o!limi !ou sel es! o! educe!i !i !we!decide!
so.!Mo eo e ,! hese!conside a ions!a e!p io ! o,!and!independen ! om,! he!deba e!abou !equali y's!
o !inequali y's!deside abili y:!be o e!we!de elop!any!no ma i e!a gumen !abou ! his,!i !is!ad isable!
o!know!in!which!deg ee!and! h ough!wha !means!is!equali y!a!goal! ha !can!be!achie ed!a !all.!
Feasibili y! umps!deside abili y.!
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Fo ! ha ! eason,!i !is!help ul! o! educe! he!p oblem!o !equali y! o!i s!mos !basic!componen s.!This!
simpli ica ion!is!akin! o! he!one!p ac iced!by!con ac ualis ! hinke s!who!employ! he! ic ion!o ! he!
s a e!o !na u e!in!o de ! o!shed!some!ligh !on! he!ques ion!abou ! he!s a e.!Likewise,!i !we!place!
ou sel es!in!some!so !o !o iginal!si ua ion!as! a !as!equali y!is!conce ned!(lea ing!aside!ins i u ional!
and!poli ical!di e ences!be ween!pa icula !socie ies),!wha !Pike y! eminds!us!is! ha ! he!shee !
accumula ion!o !capi al!makes!some!people! iche ! han!o he ,! ha !such!capi al! ends! o!g ow!and!is!
in e gene a ionally! ansmi ed,! hus! ein o cing! he!di iding!line!be ween! hose!who!we e!able! o!
s ock!i !ini ially!and! hose!who!we e!no .!
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S ic ly!speaking,!public!con isca ion!is!no !enough! o!p e en !accumula ion,!since!i !en ails!a!simple!
ans e ence!o ! en s! om!p i a e! o!public!hands.!Tha !is!why!Pike y!himsel ! inds! ha !wa s!a e!
he!bes !le elling!mechanisms!-and! he!g ea e ! he!wa ,! he!mo e! adical! he!le elling.!A e !a!b u al!
con lic ,!such!as! he!Second!Wo ld!Wa ,!socie y!mo es!close ! o!a!new!beginning:!a!Yea !Ze o!o !
Equali y.!Acco ding! o!Pike y,!i !weal h!is!no !e en!mo e!une enly!dis ibu ed! oday,!is!because!no !
so! much! ime! has! passed! since! 1945.! In! o he ! wo ds,! no ! enough! ime! has! passed! o ! some! o!
accumula e!much!mo e! han!o he s.!
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A ! his!poin ,!Acemoglu!and!Robinson!would!p o es ! ha !ins i u ional! ac o s!- edis ibu ion!by! he!
s a e-!may!p e en ! he!g adual!bu !s eady!di e gence!be ween! he!ha es!and! he!ha e-less.!And!so!i !
seems:!Sweden!is!di e en ! han!England.!Bu !in! u h!i !can!only!p e en !i !up% o%a%poin ,!because,!
unless! he! au ho i ies! assume! ull! con isca o y! powe s! and! implemen ! a! policy! whose! goal! is!
absolu e!equali y,!no hing!can!p e en ! ha !some!people!pe o m!be e ! han!o he !in! he!economic!
ealm!- hus!dis ancing! hemsel es! om! hose!who!pe o m! ela i ely!wo se!and!ending!up,!in! ac ,!
inhabi ing! uly!di e en !social!wo lds.!I!am!no !going! o!p ess! he!ques ion!as! o!why!some!pe o m!
be e ! han!o he s,!al hough!po en ial! easons!abound.!One!way!o !ano he ,! he e!will!be!winne s!
and!lose s.!In! ela i e! e ms:! hey!mus !no !be!absolu e!winne s!and!lose s! o!be!winne s!and!lose s!
in! ela ion! o!each!o he s.!
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The e o e,! %
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%g!is!no ! he!explana ion! o !inequali y,!bu ! a he !a! ac o ! ha !helps! o!explain! he!
inc ease!in! he!weal h!o ! hose!who!a e!al eady!-by!pe o mance!o !inhe i ance-! a !be e !o ! han!
o he s.!O !cou se,!we!could! hink!o !supp essing! he! igh ! o!inhe i ,!so! ha !no!weal h!could!be!
ansmi ed!bu ! o! he!s a e,!which!in! u n!would!use!i ! o !making!people!e en.!Howe e ,! his!would!
c ea e!o he ,!a guably!mo e!dis u bing,!p oblems:!incen i es! o ! he!ini ial!accumula ion!o !weal h!
would!be!supp essed,! hus!neu alizing! he! e y!p econdi ion!o !any! edis ibu ion:! he!c ea ion!o !
weal h.!
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His o ically,!e en!in!a!"new"socie y!such!as! he!Ame ican!one!- ee!o ! he!p i ileges!and!bu dens! ha !
a ec ed!Eu ope!be o e!and!a e ! he!libe al! e olu ions-!inequali y!s a s! o!be!p oduced!as!soon!as!
socie y!i sel !is!in!mo ion.!Sla e y,! hough,!shows!as!well!how!di icul !i !is! o!ma k!a! ue!Yea !Ze o!
o !Equali y!when! eal!socie ies!a e!a !play.!S ill,!Cali o nia!a ound!1835!will!be!close ! o! ha !s age!
han! London! in! 2014.! And! his! p oblem! is! acu ely! highligh ed! by! Robe ! Nozick's! heo y! o !
dis ibu i e!jus ice!-an!answe ! o!Rawls4.!Al hough!Nozick!will!cease!la e ! o!be!a!libe a ian,! his!
books!is!conce ned!wi h! he!jus i ica ion!o !a!minimal%s a e!compa ible!wi h! he!highes !indi idual!
eedom.! To! such! end,! he! deals! wi h! he! public! dis ibu ion! o ! weal h,! a acking! i ! whe e e ! i !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4!Robe !Nozick,!Ana chy,%S a e,%U opia,!Malden,!Blackwell,!2008.!
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h ea ens!indi idual! eedom.!Fo !ins ance,! o! each!ag eemen s!and!sign!con ac s!-ag eemen s!and!
con ac s! whose! ui s! a e! dis ibu ed! while! hey! a e! p oduced.! Nozick! p e e s!dis ibu ion! o!
edis ibu ion!-libe y! o!equali y.!
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His!depa u e!poin !is!well-known.!The! ai ness!o !indi idual!(o ! amilia )!possessions!depend!on!
wo!only! ac o s:! hei !o iginal!acquisi ion!and!i s!la e ! ansmission.!A!simple!dis ibu i e!p inciple!
eme ges!by!which!a!gi en!dis ibu ion!will!be! ai !i !e e yone!possessions!a e!legi ima e.!Ye ! eali y!
complica es! hings,!as!usual,!since!i !canno !be!igno ed! ha ! he e!exis !pas !injus ices.!Thus!Nozick!
in oduces!a! hi d! ac o :! he! ec i ica ion!o !possible!injus ices!in! he!acquisi ion,!possession,!and!
ansmission!o !goods.!The e o e,!a!pe son!will!possess!legi ima ely!he !goods! -and!will! hus!be!
unequal! in! ela ion! o! o he s-! i ! acco ding! o! one! o ! hose! p inciples:!acquisi ion,! ansmission,!
ec i ica ion.!So! ha !a!gi en!dis ibu ion!o !goods!-be!i !Cali o nia!a ound!1835!o !London!in!2014-!
will!be! ai !o !un ai !depending!on!i s!his o y.!Nozick:!
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“The!sys ems!o !en i lemen s!is!de ensible!when!cons i u ed!by! he!indi idual!aims!o !indi idual! ansac ions.!
No!o e a ching!aim!is!needed,!no!dis ibu ional!pa e n!is! equi ed.!(...)!F om%each%as% hey%choose,% o%each%as%
hey%a e%chosen"5.!
!
I ! hese!p inciples!a e!applied!equally! o!all!be o e!a!socie y!pu s!i sel !in!mo ion!-in! he!Yea !Ze o!o !
Equali y,! be! i ! poli ically! c ea ed! anew! o ! ec ea ed! ia! he! ec i ica ion! o ! pas ! injus ices-! he!
eme gence! o ! inequali ies!among! indi iduals! will! be! jus i ied! and! nobody,! acco ding! o! Nozick,!
should!ha e! he! igh ! o!co ec ! hem.!In! his!con ex ,! he!accumula ion!o !weal h!de i es! om! he!
economic!in e play!and!does!no ! equi e!any! ec i ica ion!i !no!injus ice!is!made.!Fo !Nozick,!any!
heo y! o ! jus ice! based! upon! an! s uc u al!p inciple! o ! dis ibu ion! is! unaccep able,! because! i !
de e mines!ex%an e!who!ends!up!ha ing!wha ,! hus!in e e ing!wi h!pe sonal!libe y.!A!dis ibu ion!
is! ai !when!i s!his o ical!o igin!is! ai ,!whe eas!public! edis ibu ion!mus !be!guided!by!an!abs ac !
p inciple!and! hus!canno !be!legi ima e.!
!
Wha !is!in e es ing!he e,! hough,!is! ha !no !e en!a!libe a ian! hinke ,!whose!main!goal!is! o!p o ec !
he!sanc i y!o !indi idual!ag eemen s,!can!igno e! he!une en!oppo uni ies!and!possessions!inhe i ed!
om! he!social!pas :! he!una oidable!dis ance! ha !sepa a es!us! om!Yea !Ze o.!In! his! ega d,!no!
ma e !how! easonable!Nozick's!p inciple!o ! ec i ica ion!may!appea ,!i s!implemen a ion!would!be!
so!di icul ! ha !i !would!ne e !be!conside ed! ully! ealized.!Wha !coun s!as!a!pas !injus ice,!how!
should! he!la e !be! ec i ied!exac ly,!when!is! he! ic im! edeemed?!Sla e y!is!a!pe ec !example!o !
he!obs acles! ha ! aces!any!such! ec i ica ion.!Injus ices!canno ,!in! ac ,!be! ec i ied.!
!
Tha !said,!is! he!inequali y!p oduced!a e wa ds!-once!an!equal!socie y!is!in!mo ion-!pe missible?!An!
inequali y! ha !is! he!ou come!o !a!socioeconomic!p ocess!whe e!all!depa ! om! he!same!posi ion.!
!
Much!depends!on!wha ! ha !"same!posi ion"!means.!I !inequali y!s ems! om!di e ences!in! alen !
and!skills!be ween!indi iduals!-Rawls'!"na u al!lo e y"-,!we!could!p o es :!no!indi idual!can!be!held!
esponsible! o !he !inna e!abili ies.!On! he!con a y,!i !such!di e ences!a e! aken!as!a!consequence!
o ! ou ! common! humani y,! ano he ! ule! o ! he! social! game,! hen! he! inequali y! ha ! is! g adually!
p oduced!due! o! he!dispa a e!pe o mances!o !indi iduals!(and!g oups)!would!be!de ensible.!
!
In!a! ecen !book,!economis !Robe !F ank!has!emphasized! he! ole! ha !luck!plays!in!ou !li es6.!In!his!
iew,! he!con ingency!o !bi h!possesses!a!decisi e!impo ance! o ! he!ou line!o !ou !biog aphies,!
since! being! bo n! in! di e en ! social! g oups! de e mines! he! ex en ! o ! ou ! oppo uni ies! and! he!
s eng h!o ! he!secu i y!ne !we!can! es !on!i !we! ail.!The!la e !poin !is! ele an ,!inso a !as!wha !we!
do!wi h!ou !unequal! alen s!and!abili ies!will!also!di e !depending!on!how!many!chances!we!enjoy!
o!ge !i ! igh .!Mo eo e ,!F ank!a gues,!we! end! o! hink! ha !we!ha e!conque ed!wi h!ou !e o !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5!Robe !Nozick,!op.%ci .,!2008,!p.!159-160.!
6!John! Rawls,! op.% ci .,! 1971;! Robe ! F ank:! Success% and% Luck:% Good% Fo une% and% he% My h% o % Me i oc acy,!
P ince on!Uni e si y!P ess,!P ince on,!2016.!

!
5!
e e y hing! ha !we!ha e!achie ed,! hus!o e looking! he!key!pa ! ha !luck!plays!in!li e.!Me i !would!
hen!be!a!delusion! ha !is!ha d! o!deac i a e!-we!a e! he!appa en !p o agonis s!o !ou !li es,!so! ha !
successes!a e!ou s!and! ailu es!a e!a ibu ed! o!exogenous!causes.!F ank!claims! ha ! his!collec i e!
mi age!is!c ea ed!by! he! o mal!p oclama ion!o !me i oc acy.!I !indi idual!me i s!a e! he!p oduc !o !
inna e! ac o s!and!sys emic! o ces,!why!should! he!lose !be!punished?!
!
As! i ! happens,! ha ! ini ial! inequali y! ein o ces! i sel ! wi h! he! passing! o ! ime,! because! o ! he!
accumula ion!o !capi al!and!i s! ansmission! ia!inhe i ance.!Yea !Ze o!would!be! a he !away!in! he!
pas !and!we!would!end!up!wi h! he!same!ini ial!p oblem:! he!disad an ages!among!indi iduals!who!
do!no !hold! he!same!posi ion!when!beginning! hei !li es.!As!a! esul ,!an!inequali y! ha !seemed! ai !
inso a !as!i !de i ed! om!an!o iginal!equali y!o !oppo uni y!ends!up!cu ailing! he!la e .!Inequali y!
becomes! hus!a!laby in h! ha !has!no!exi !-jus !as!equali y.!Needless! o!say,!con empo a y!deba es!
a e!no !conce ned!wi h!an!absolu e!inequali y,!bu !wi h! he!deg ee!o !inequali y! ha !is!pe missible:!
o ! hose! who! wish! o! be! equal,! o ! hose! who! wish! o! be! unequal.! I ! would! be! good! i ! his!
con e sa ion! deal !wi h! easible!equali ies! and! inequali ies,! ye ! his! is! no ! always! he! case:!
some imes!an!un easible!equali y!is!demanded,!and! he!same!goes! o !inequali y.!!
!
Now,! he!beau y!o !o !Rawls'!solu ion!is! ha !he! educes! he!a gumen ! o!i s!essen ial!componen s.!
he!does!so!wi h!a!cle e !mo e,! ha !o !placing!indi iduals!in!an!"o iginal!posi ion"!whe e! hei !own!
pe sonal! ea u es!and!social!ci cums ances!a e!hidden!unde !a!" eil!o !igno ance"!when! hey!a e!
asked!abou ! he!kind!o !socie y! hey!would!suppo !as!p e e able.!Thei !answe ,!acco ding! o!Rawls,!
is!a! ee!socie y!whose!s a e!howe e !assume!legi ima ely! he! ask!o ! edis ibu e!weal h!in!o de ! o!
help! he!mos !disad an ages.!This!social!con ac !is! hus!concei ed! o !a!socie y! ha !is!al eady!in!
mo ion,!whe e!a!gi en!and! ela i ely!dynamic!dis ibu ion!o !abili ies!and! esou ces!al eady!exis ,!
so! ha ! he!pending! ask!is!gi ing! he!s a e!a!manda e! o!make!co ec ions!in! ha !dis ibu ion.!
!
Bu ! e en! in! such! socie y,! as! long! as! i ! emains! one! whe e! a! ma ke ! economy! is! unc ioning,!
indi iduals!will!be!condi iones!by! he! ela i e!posi ion!occupied!by! hei ! amilies!when! hey!a e!
bo n.!Fo ! hose!who!a e!disad an aged!in! ela ion! o!o he s,! his!si ua ion!canno !possibly!be! ai .!Is!
i ! ai ,! o ! ins ance,! ha ! a! eenage ! inhe i s! a! small! o une,! because! his! aun ! died,! whils ! his!
classma e!inhe i s!deb s!a e ! he!acciden al!dea h!o !he !pa en s?!Maybe!i !is!no !un ai !-bu ! ai !is!
no !ei he .!This!poin s!ou ! o! he!impossibili y! o!gua an ee! ai ness! h ough!s a e! edis ibu ion.!O !
cou se,!when! axing,!one!does!no ! akes! om!Pe e ! o!gi e! o!John,!as!An hony!de!Jasay!claims:!a!
Ro schild!is! aken! om,!in!o de ! o!gi e! o!John.!Howe e ,!maybe!Robe !is! ecei ing!s a e!bene i s!
when!he!could!wo k!bu ! e uses! o!do!so.!O !maybe!Alex!is!also!bene i ing! om!s a e! edis ibu ion,!
bu !he!makes!enough!money!in! he!pa allel!economy!beyond!s a e!con ol.!And!so!on,!and!so! o h.!
!
I !can!does!be!concluded! ha !equali y!is!impossible,!bu ! oo!much!inequali y!is!undesi able!-as! he!
global! ise!o !populism!in!ou !days!comes! o!show.!Ye !i ! emains! o!be!elucida ed!whe he !inequali y!
is!a!poli ical!p oblem.!Be o e!we!answe ! ha ,!i !is!use ul! o!comple e! he! e lec ion!abou !inequali y!
in! he! asb ac ! by! conside ing! how! con empo a y! inequali y! is! p oduced.! This! will! show! ha !
inequali y!is!no !by%i sel !a!poli ical!p oblem,!bu ! a he !a!socio ac ,!a! ea u e!o !social! ela ions! ha !
canno !be!e adica ed!ye !can!and!mus !be!poli icized.!
!
3.!Inequali y!in! he!global!age.!
!
Why!inequali y!mus !be!poli icized!becomes!clea !p ecisely!in!ou ! imes,!a guably!a! momen !o !
ansi ion!be ween! wo!di e en ! a ie ies!o !capi alism.!The!main!ques ion!is!whe he !we!can!a i m!
ha !an!indi idual!is! esponsible!o !i s!own!socioeconomic!des iny.!I !a! obo !pu s!someone!ou !o !
o de !a e ! h ee!decades!as!a! ac o y!wo ke !o !as!accoun an ,!is!he! o!blame! o ! he!co esponding!
all!in!disposable!income?!
!
Cu en ! economic! u moil! canno ! be! explained! wi hou ! aking! globaliza ion! in o! accoun .!
Rema kably,! he!la e ! ein o ces! he!poin !made!abo e!abou ! he!deg ee!in!which!bi h!condi ions!
indi idual! pe o mances! and,! ul ima ely,! whole! li es.! I ! does! so! because! being! bo n! in! di e en !
!
6!
coun ies!also!ma e s!- he!abandonmen !o !me hodological!na ionalism!allows!us! o!see! his! om!
a!wide !pe spec i e.!In!his!wo k!on!globaliza ion!and!inequali y,!B anko!Milano ic!has!showed! ha !
while!inequali y!has!inc eased!wi hin!coun ies,!i !has!diminished!be ween! hem,!so! ha ! eac ions!
agains !globaliza ion!!on! he!pa !o ! hose!social!g oups! ha ! eel!mos !damaged!by!i !(blue-colla !
wo ke s!in! ich!coun ies,!mos ly)!can!be!unde s ood!as!a!de ence!o ! he!g ea e !"ci izenship! en "!
ha !enjoy!ci izens!o !ad anced!socie ies7.!This!can!be!de ined!as! he!ad an age!enjoyed!by! hose!who!
a e!bo n!in!a! ich!coun y!-an!exogenous!ci cums ance! ha !is!independen ! om!indi idual!e o s.!
Being!agains !inmig a ion,!Milano ic!claims,!is! an amoun ! o!de ending!ou !ci izenship! en .!We!a e!
de ending!ou !luck.!
!
The! undamen al!ques ion!conce ns! he! ela ion!be ween!pe sonal! esponsibili y!and!impe sonal!
compulsion.!The!la e !was!de ined!by!F ied ich!Hayek!as! he! o ce ul!adap a ion! o!be!made!by!mos !
social!ac o s!in! he! ace!o !an!economic!o ! echnological!change! ha !dep ecia es!o !neu alizes!ou !
abili ies!o !asse s8.!I !is!impe sonal,!since!i !does!no !de i e! om!a!decision,!bu !is! a he ! he!ou come!
o ! a! social! p ocess! ha ! agg eg a es! millions! o ! indi idual! decisions! and! causal! e ec s;! i ! is!
compulsi e!because! hose!who!do!no !adap !will!be!le !behind.!
!
I !could!be!deduced! he e om! ha ! he!s a e!is!obliged! o!make!a!supplemen a y!e o !in!excep ional!
imes,! i.e.! imes! in! which! an! accele a ed! and! adical! ans o ma ion! in! p e-exis ing! economic!
condi ions! ake!place.!In!o he !wo ds:!whe e%a% easonable%managemen %o %one's%own%li e%oppo uni ies%
is%no %enough% o%secu e%a%socioeconomic%posi ion% ha %is%acco d% o%ou %abili ies.!O :!when!one!would!
like! o,!bu !canno .!A e !all,!i !an!indi idual!ac s! esponsibly!and!ap ly,!bu ! he!sys em! ails!him,!i !
canno !be!said!o !he ! ha !she!ac ed!i esponsibly.!The e o e,!i !would!no !be!jus ! o!punish!him!as%i !
he!had!been.!
!
Howe e ,! his!p inciple!is!easy! o! o mula e!bu !ha d! o!implemen .!Wha !exac ly!is!"a! easonable!
managemen !o !one's!own!li e!oppo uni ies"?!I !a!pe son!comple es!a!deg ee!in!A chi ec u e!o !
Jou nalism!and!s eps!in!a!ma ke !sa u a ed!wi h!a chi ec s!and!jou nalis s,!whose! aul !is! ha ?!Tha!
same! goes! o ! someone! who! makes! a! bad! managemen ! decision! o ! misses! ob ious! business!
oppo uni ies.! A! case-by-case! analysis! could! be! done,! bu ! which! public! adminis a ion! has! such!
capaci y?!This! a ionale!could!also!be!applied! o! he!"socioeconomic!posi ion! ha !is!acco d! o!ou !
abili ies".!Mo e e ,! he!compensa ion!sy em! ha !could!be!implemen ed,!since! he!de ice! ha !pushes!
people! o!new!sphe es!o !economic!ac i i y!should!be!p ese ed,!les ! he!whole!economic!sys em!is!
damaged!and!no!money! o!pay!compensa ions!exis s.!
!
As! a! esul ,! he! ela ionship! be ween! pe sonal! esponsibili y! (as! de i ed! om! he! p inciple! o !
au onomy)! and! impe sonal! compulsion! (as! esul ing! om! he! ma ke ! p ocess)! canno ! be! easily!
disce ned.!Ye !i !is!a! oublesome! ela ionship! ha !canno !be!disdained!by!in oking! he!p imacy!o !
pe sonal!libe y!( ha !makes!indi iduals!ul ima ely! esponsible!o !e e y hing! ha !be alls! hem)!o !
by!doing!jus ! he!opposi e!(desc ibing!a!de e minis ic!mechanism!whe e!indi idual!ac o s!disappea !
unde ! he!shee !opp esi e! o ce!o !sys emic!s uc u es).!A!basic!economic! ac ,! ha !de i es! om! he!
basic!poli ical! ac ,!is!hin ed!a :! he!impossibili y! o! econcile! he!indi idual!and! he!collec i e! ealms.!
The!in e play!be ween! he!mic o!and! he!mac o!le els!is!simila !in!bo h!cases:! he!capi alis !economy!
p oduces!inno a ions! ha !a e!bene i ! o!all,!bu !punishes!pa icula !g oups!and!membe s!o !such!
socie y!du ing! he!p ocess.!Unless!we!supp ess!economic!compe ence!upon!which!ma ke s!depend,!
hese! wo!pe spec i es!a e!i econciliable.!This! eali y,!as!inequali y!i sel ,!is! agic.!I !canno !be!
sol ed,!al hough!i s!- hei -!mos !des uc i e!consequences!can!and!should!be!alle ia ed.!
!
In!sum,! he! easons! ha !explain! he!inc ease!in!inequali y!in! he!global!age! ein o ces! he! iew! ha !
inequali y!is!no !a!poli ical!p oblem!in!i sel ,!bu !a!socio ac ,!i.e.!a! ea u e!o !social! ela ions! ha !exis !
in!any!gi en!social!body.!As!socie ies!become!mo e!complex,!howe e ,! he!abili ies!o !indi iduals! o!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7!B anko! Milano ic,! Global% Inequali y.% A% New% App oach% o % he% Age% o % Globaliza ion,! The! Belknap! P ess,!
Camb idge!y!Lond es,!2016.!
8!F ied ich!Hayek,!The%Cons i u ion%o %Libe y,!Rou ledge,!Lond es,!2006,!p.!140.!
!
7!
make! indi idual! p og ess! a e! weakened,! while! a! basic! social! p o ec ion! is! g an ed! by! he! s a e.!
Di e ences!in!bi h!gain!impo ance!as!social!mobili y!is! educed!-and! he! a he !we!a e! om!a!Yea !
Ze o,! he!g ea e !inequali ies! end! o!be.!As!a! esul ,!inequali y!becomes%a!poli ical!p oblem!due! o!a!
g owing!social!discon en !and!an!inc easing!p opensi y! o!p o es !on! he!pa !o ! hose!who!a e!o !
eel!le !behind!when!compa ed! o!o he s.!Poli iciza ion,!e en!a!p e-emp i e!poli iciza ion,!is! hus!
ad isable.!
!
4.!Poli ical!emo ions!and!inequali y.!
!
We!may!well!ag ee! ha !inequali y,!no !being!a!poli ical!p oblem!bu !a!social! ea u e,!mus !howe e !
be!poli icized!in!o de ! o!p ese e!a!democ a ic!social!o de !-o ,! e e sely,! o!pull!down!a!non-
democ a ic!one!whe e!inequali y!is! ein o ced!by!social!and!economic!s uc u es! ha !p e en !social!
mobili y.!Ye ! his!poli iciza ion!b ings!abou !i s!own!p oblems,!which!I!would!like! o!discuss!b ie ly!
in!o de ! o!highligh !how!di icul !i !is! o!deal!poli ically!wi h! his!issue.!Abo e!all,!I!would!like! o!
highligh ! esen men ,!a!poli ical!emo ion! ha !usually!makes!i sel ! isible!du ing!economic!c isis!and!
akes! he! o m!o !a!dennouncia ion!- ha !o !an!un ai ! ea men ! ha !in! u n!demands! epa a ion.!In!
ac ,!i !could!well!be!seen!as!akin! o!Nozick's! ec i ica ion!p inciple:! he!complain !would!no !conce n!
he!ilegi ima e!possession!o !goods,!bu ! a he ! he! esen ul!ci izen!claim! ha !he!is!dispossessed! o !
illegi ima e! easons.!The! esen ul!ci izen!desc ibes! he!ha m!she!has!su e ed!as!unjus ,!opening! he!
doo ! o !a!social!change! ha !is! epai ing!in!na u e.!Ma ha!Nussbaum! hus!claims! ha ! esen men !
is!a!mo al!emo ion! ha !en ails!an!idea!o !wha !is!jus 9.!
!
The!key!poin !is! o!dis inguish!be ween! eali y!and!belie :! he!subjec i e!belie ! ha !an!injus ice!has!
been!done!and!i s!objec i e!exis ence.!Somehow,! his!dis inc ion!is!p esen !in!some!au ho s.!John!
Rawls!a gues! ha !a!" a ional"!subjec !canno ! eel!en y,!a !leas !no !while! he!di e ences!be ween!
he !and! he!o he s!a e!no !pe cei ed!as!unjus !o !exceed!ce ain!limi s10.!This!is!a!key!poin :!i ! hose!
di e ences!a e!jus !bu !excessi e,! he!indi idual!-albei ! a ional-!will! eel!en y.!An!objec i e!injus ice!
demands! epa a ion,!whe eas!an!imagina y!injus ice!does!no .!The!p ocess!by!which! hese!emo ions!
a e! o med!is!decisi ely!media ed!by! he! aming!o ! he!injus ice/inequali y.!Ins ead!o ! aking!ange !
as! he!au oma ic!answe ! o! he!lack!o ! ecogni ion! ha !su e s! he!ange ed!ci izen,!i !all!depends!on!
he!way!in!which! ha !expe ience!is!cons uc ed:! he e!may!be!no!injus ice!a !all!o ! he!la e !may!be!
a ibu ed! o! he!w ong!sou ce11.!
!
How! o!dis inguish! hem?!Who!is! o!decide!whe he !we! ace!a! eal!o !imagina y!injus ice?!Rawls,!
while!discussing!" he!p oblem!o !en y"! o !a!well-o de ed!socie y,!sol es! he!p oblem!by!pu ing! he!
bu den!o !p oo !on! he! esen ul,!appealing! o! he!delibe a i e!dimension!o !a!plu alis !democ acy:!
!
"I !we! esen !ou !ha ing!less! han!o he s,!i !mus !be!because!we! hink! ha ! hei !being!be e !o !is!
he! esul !o !unjus !ins i u ions,!o !w ong ul!conduc !on! hei !pa .!Those!who!exp ess! esen men !
mus !be!p epa ed! o!show!why!ce ain!ins i u ions!a e!unjus !o !how!o he s!ha e!inju ed! hem"12.!
!
In!o he !wo ds,! he! esen ul!mus !pe suade! he!o he !pa icipan s!in! he!public!con e sa ion!o !he !
good! easons.! Bu ! his,! being! he! only! solu ion,! is! howe e ! a! icky! solu ion.!Specially! since! he!
ela ionship!be ween!en y!and! esen men !is! a ! om!mo ally!edi ying.!As! he! o me !is!a!shame ul!
eeling! ha !we!can!ha dly!acknowledge!in!public,! he!solu ion!is!o en! o! ans o m!en y!in! igh eous!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
9!Ma ha!Nussbaum,!Poli ical%Emo ions.%Why%Lo e%Ma e s% o %Jus ice,!The!Belknap!P ess!o !Ha a d!Uni e si y!
P ess,!Camb idge!y!Lond es,!2013,!p.!344.!
10!John!Rawls,!op.!ci .,!1971,!p.!530.!
11!Simon! Thompson,! "Ange !and! he! s uggle! o ! jus ice",! en! S.! Cla ke,! P.! Hogge ! y! S.! Thompson! (eds.),!
Emo ions,%Poli ics%and%Socie y,!Palg a e,!Basings oke,!2006.!
12!John!Rawls,!op.%ci .,!1971,!p.!467.!
!
8!
indigna ion! h ough!a! e-w i ing!o ! he!s o y!we! ell!ou sel es,!a guing! ha ! he!o he !has!achie ed!
he!objec !o !ou !en y!by!illegi ima e!and!inmo al!means13.!
!
Social!and!poli ical!mobiliza ion!is,!o !cou se,!an!o dina y!way!o !making!demands!in!democ a ic!
egimes.!The!p oblem!wi h! esen men -d i en!p o es !in!complex!socie ies!is! ha !some imes! he!
demand!made!by!g oups!o !ci izens!may!be!misguided,!bu !p oduces!poli ical!e ec s!all! he!same.!
Le !us! ake! he! inancial!c isis,!which!is! he!agg ega e! esul !o !so!many!decisions! ha ! he!blame!
canno !be!a ibu ed!clea ly! o!any!o ! hem.!In!coun ies! ha !su e ed!a! eal!s a e!bubble,!like!Spain,!
a!ci izen!ends!up!being!economically!punished!i espec i e!o !he !own!con ibu ion!-she!migh !ha e!
en ed!he !home,!in! ac .!Mo eo e ,!economic!policy!depends!on!go e nmen s!and!go e nmen s!a e!
chosen!by! he!elec o a e,!which,!by!doing! ha ,!becomes!also! esponsible! o ! he!decisions!adop ed!
by!i s! ep esen a i es.!In!Spain,! he!Socialis !Pa y!claimed,!ahead!o ! he!gene al!elecion!in!2008,! ha !
no!economic!c isis!was! in!sigh ,!whe eas! he! Conse a i e!Pa y! said!jus ! he!opposi e.!Spanish!
o e s!backed! he!Socialis !Pa y,! hus!gi ing!a!manda e! o! he!ensuing!go e nmen !no ! o!p e en !
he!c isis.!Many!o ! hese! e y! o e s!unsea ed! he!P esiden !in! he!nex !gene al!elec ions,!a e !he!
had!been!pushed!by!e en s! o!make!deep!cu s!in!public! inances!in!o de ! o!a oid!Spain's!bank up cy!
a ! he!end!o !2010.!As!i !happens,! hose!who!d ama ize! hei ! esen men ! h ough!a!display!o !ange !
ha e!an!ad an age:! he! isibili y!o ! he!claim,!linked! o!a!ha m,!neu alizes!any!appeal! ha !can!be!
made! o! he!his o y!o ! ha !ha m.!Only! he!p oblem!we! ace,! ull!o !a ec i e! o ce,!coun s!-o iginal!
causes!do!no .!
!
Bu ! he!mobiliza ion!o ! esen men !poses!some!o he !conund ums.!Fi s ly,! he!abili y! o!be!lis ened!
o!by!s a e!ac o s!and! o!be!g an ed!a!compensa ion!depends!on! he!g oup's! isibili y,!in! u n!highly!
dependen !on!d ama iza ion!and! u nou .!Bu !no hing!gua an ees! ha ! he!mos !un ai ly! ea ed!a e!
he!ones!who!ge ! he!a en ion,!no ! ha ! hei !demands!a e!consis en !o ,! o ! ha !ma e ,! ha ! hei !
ela i e! inequali y! is! he! ou come! o ! an! un ai ! ea men .! Secondly,! mo eo e ,! an! e ec i e!
mobiliza ion!o ! his!powe ul!emo ion!can!lead! o! u he !inequali y!i !disad an aged!g oups! emain!
in isible!o !no !a ended! o.!
!
Rega ding! he!ques ion!abou ! he!na u e!o !inequali y,!i !is!in e es ing! o!dis inguish!be ween!en y,!
emula ion!and! esen men .!They!a e!membe s!o ! he!same!mo al! amily!-- ha !o !mime ic!desi e-!
wi hou !being!exac ly! he!same! hing.!To!di e en ia e! hem!is!impo an ,!in!o de ! o!answe ! o!each!
o ! hose!a ec s.!Pu e!en y,!a e !all,!canno !be!sa is ied.!Rawls!dis inguishes!be ween!a!gene al!en y!
ha !is!expe ienced!by! he!disad an aged!agains ! he!ad an aged,!and!a!speci ic!en y! ha !is!in insic!
o! i al y! and! compe i ion,! i espec i e! o ! he! depa ing! poin ! o ! he!pa icipan s.! The! mos !
des uc i e!en y!is! he!hos ili y! owa ds!o he !people's!goods!al hough! hey!make!no!ha m! o!us.!
Howe e ,!en y!can!be!posi i e! o! he!whole!socie y!when!in eg a ed!in o! he!ma ke !economy,!i.e.!
when!i !is! ans o med!in o!emula ion:! he!aspi a ion! o!be!whe e!o he s!a e.!Obio usly,! hese! ine!
concep ual! dis inc ions! can! ha dly! be! ound! in! he! eal! wo ld,! whe e! ac ual! a ec s! will! be!
in e wined.!Ye !i !is!no ! he!same! hing! o! eac !agains !o he !people's! o unes!by!se ing!up!a! i m!
han!by! h owing!s ones!agains !a! illa.!
!
In!o de ! o!a oid! he!nega i e!consequences!o !en y,!Rawls!se !up!a!double!de ence!line.!On! he!one!
hand,!a!numbe !o !basic! igh s!and! edis ibu i e!p inciples!o ien ed! o!p o ide!e e y!ci izen!wi h!
oppo uni ies;!on! he!o he ,!legal!and!poli ical!ins i u ions! ha !make!possible! o!channel!genuine!
claims!on! he!pa !o ! hose!ci izens! ha ! hink!o ! eel!ha ing!been!unjus ly! ea ed.!This!would!no !
e adica e!en y,!bu !would!make!i !socially!manageable.!
!
The e o e,! he!c ucial!dis inc ion!is! ha !be ween!a!speci ic!o !compe i i e!en y! om!which!no! igh s!
a e!deduced,!and!a!jus i ied! esen men ! ha !poin s! owa ds!unjus ices! ha !mus !be! epai ed.!The!
la e !a e!less!likely,!bu !s ill!possible,!in!a!democ a ic!socie y.!On!i s!pa ,!speci ic!en y!is!a!na u al!
ou come!o ! he!o dina y! unc ioning!o !a!libe al!socie y!and!a!ma ke !economy.!This!s uc u al!en y!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
13!Jon!Els e ,!Explaining%Social%Beha io .%Mo e%Nu s%and%Bol s% o % he%Social%Sciences,!Camb idge!Uni e si y!
P ess,!Camb idge,!2007,!p.!158-159.!