The ans o ma ion o mobili y in Eu ope: Technological change and
social condi ionings
Ja ie Tu ienzo
a,*
, Pablo Cabanelas
b
, Jesús F. Lamp´
on
c
, G aham Pa khu s
d
a
Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, Facul y o Business Adminis a ion and Managemen , Al onso X, s/n, Lugo, 27002, Spain
b
Uni e si y o Vigo, Facul y o Comme ce, To ecedei a 105, Vigo, 36208, Spain
c
Uni e si y o Vigo, Facul y o Business and Tou ism, 32004 Ou ense, Spain
d
Uni e si y o Wes England, Cen e o T anspo and Socie y, F enchay Campus, Coldha bou Ln, B is ol BS16 1QY, Uni ed Kingdom
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Mobili y ans o ma ion
Social issues
En i onmen al alues
Au onomous Vehicles (AVs)
Mobili y-as-a-Se ice
MaaS
ABSTRACT
The mobili y o pe sons is changing due o echnological inno a ion linked o au onomous and elec ic ehicles
o o connec i i y and da a communica ion echnologies. Fu he mo e, i is being condi ioned by social be-
ha iou s. Quali a i e esea ch based on in-dep h in e iews wi h expe s in mobili y om h ee Eu opean
coun ies is used o analyse he main ends ha cha ac e ize he cu en ans o ma ion o mobili y. Resul s
show ha he ans o ma ion owa ds he new au onomous, connec ed, sha ed and elec ic mobili y is no only
d i en by echnological de elopmen , bu mainly by social condi ionings such as en i onmen al alues,
beha iou al change o adap abili y o use s’habi s, and socio-demog aphic ea u es o ci izens o adop se i-
iza ion. These changes in ol e di e en impac s depending on he segmen o niche o popula ion, especially in
e ms o di e en age g oups. The main conclusion o he esea ch is ha he new mobili y can be conside ed a
social challenge a he han a echnological one.
1. In oduc ion
Mobili y is a ele an opic o esea che s and policy make s and i s
ans o ma ion is analysed om di e en pe spec i es. O e ecen
yea s, mobili y has been unde going a p o ound change in such aspec s
as he use o new powe ains (Wannia achchi e al., 2023), he imple-
men a ion o Au onomous Vehicles (AVs) (Hakak e al., 2023) and MaaS
Se ices (Smi h e al., 2022). Howe e , no only echnological changes
a e in ol ed in his ans o ma ion. Some esea che s ha e ecen ly
included social and beha iou al change in hei s udies on he ma e
(Whi le e al., 2019; K iswa dhana and Esz e g´
a -Kiss, 2023; Tu ienzo
e al., 2022a).
Di e en esea ch pape s poin ou he ele ance o social issues in
mobili y ans o ma ion. These include changes in he mobili y p e e -
ences o he popula ion, such as he educ ion o indi idual ca owne s
(Focas and Ch is idis, 2017; Jain e al., 2022), o inc easing conce ns
abou en i onmen al alues, which means sus ainabili y should be
included when choosing he ype o anspo (Alya ina e al., 2020,
A oyo e al., 2020). I is also ecognized ha mobili y is in luenced by
he a ailabili y o in o ma ion and da a communica ion be ween
anspo means and he popula ion. This communica ion p ocess
encou ages people o use di e en mobili y solu ions in he mos e i-
cien way, especially in he use o dis inc o ms o sha ed mobili y
(Guyade and Piscicelli, 2019; Smi h e al., 2019). Finally, he adop ion
o AVs (Wadud e al., 2016) in ol es a se ies o e hical and legal con-
ce ns wi h a philosophical backg ound, which include sa e y o decision-
making o au oma ion (Tu ienzo e al., 2022a). In his con ex , Mobili y-
as-a-Se ice (MaaS) i ms ha e eme ged o o e new se ices o sa is y a
changing demand in anspo a ion (Zhao e al., 2020; Co win e al.,
2019).
Al hough hese s udies ha e made i possible o iden i y he main
social aspec s ha a e condi ioning he e olu ion o mobili y, he exis-
ence o di e en limi a ions make i necessa y o s udy hem in-dep h.
Fi s , ce ain ends a e s ill unde analysis. Fo example, he e is no
consensus among esea che s ega ding he p e e ence o indi idual ca
owne ship and i s gene aliza ion o all coun ies (Kuhnimho e al.,
2013); u he mo e, schola s a e no aligned on he mo i a ions behind
his end. Resea che s associa e his p e e ence wi h di e en ac o s,
which include he socio-economic si ua ion o indi iduals (S aple on e
al, 2017) o en i onmen al alues (Geels, 2018). In addi ion, he
implemen a ion o AVs is a a nascen s age and he e o e di e en
unce ain ies a ise ega ding hei use (Ep ing, 2018; Paddeu e al.,
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (J. Tu ienzo).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
T a el Beha iou and Socie y
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ bs
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. bs.2024.100907
Recei ed 2 Feb ua y 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 18 Sep embe 2023; Accep ed 11 Sep embe 2024
T a el Beha iou and Socie y 38 (2025) 100907
A ailable online 25 Sep embe 2024
2214-367X/© 2024 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d on behal o Hong Kong Socie y o T anspo a ion S udies. This is an open access a icle unde he CC
BY-NC-ND license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ).
2020). Second, ce ain aspec s such as in o ma ion and da a sha ing o
ca owne ship show di e en beha iou s among segmen s o he pop-
ula ion, such as age g oups. Fo example, young people ask o a cos -
e ec i e and lexible anspo se ice in con as o he oldes popula-
ion ha is mo e in e es ed in eliabili y (Whi le e al., 2019; A hana-
sopoulou e al, 2019; K iswa dhana and Esz e g´
a -Kiss, 2023). In
summa y, he eme gence o echnologies in he mobili y sec o equi es
an exhaus i e analysis ha conside s he cha ac e is ics o each social
g oup.
This s udy aims o analyse he ends ha a e ede ining and modi-
ying mobili y paying special a en ion o he social pe spec i e h ough
long- e m o ecas ing o ends. In pa icula , he pape looks in dep h a
social issues o unde s and he new endencies in mobili y ha a e
closely connec ed wi h echnological change o answe he ollowing
esea ch ques ion:
RQ -Wha a e he main social aspec s and how a e hey condi ioning he
ans o ma ion o mobili y?
In o de o answe his ques ion, he o ganiza ion o he pape is he
nex : Sec ion 2 includes he li e a u e e iew ocused on mobili y and i s
associa ed social issues, Sec ion 3 p esen s he me hodology applied in
he empi ical wo k, Sec ion 4 displays he esul s ob ained and Sec ion 5
p esen s he analysis o esul s and conclusions.
2. Li e a u e e iew
2.1. Popula ion’s mobili y p e e ences
The di e si y o many indi iduals’daily ac i i ies, cha ac e ized by
g ea dispe sion and a iable schedules, has os e ed he use o indi-
idual ehicles (e.g., usually ca s) because hey o e g ea lexibili y
when mo ing people a a ela i ely low ma ginal cos (Lucas, 2009;
Wiks øm and Røe, 2022). The ad an ages associa ed wi h hose ehi-
cles also inc eased as hey became social symbols abo e and beyond
mobili y (Kange and Scho , 2016). Nowadays, he eedom and social
s a us associa ed wi h hei owne ship and use is declining as ce ain
segmen s o popula ion show a g owing ejec ion o owing ca s (Lyons,
2015; Iacobucci, 2022).
Concu en ly, s a is ical da a e eal ha younge gene a ions a e
nei he in e es ed in d i ing license holding no owning p i a e mo o
ehicles (Focas and Ch is idis, 2017). They ha e changed hei men-
ali y and habi s owa ds a phenomenon known as ‘peak ca ’, which
indica es how impo an social ends a e in de e mining how people
mo e (Tilley and Hous on, 2016). The e o e, walking, using bicycles o
aking public anspo a e inc easingly becoming al e na i es o d i ing
p i a e ehicles, pa icula ly o gene a ions bo n since 1981 (Focas and
Ch is idis, 2017; Whi le e al., 2019; A hanasopoulou e al, 2019;
Iacobucci, 2022).
A he same ime, he lowe income a ailable o young people is a
de e mining ac o o selec ing hei means o mobili y. Go e nmen s
can ake ad an age o his ci cums ance by suppo ing sus ainable
mobili y h ough subsidies o public se ices o capi al con ibu ions o
sus ainable businesses, a ou ing a highly compe i i e se ice in eco-
nomic e ms (Ji api om e al., 2018). The in e ela ion o cos educ-
ion and en i onmen al p o ec ion can be in ensi ied in mobili y
h ough he applica ion o concep s o he ci cula economy and e icien
use o esou ces (Alae s e al, 2019). Consequen ly, he in ol emen o
policymake s in he de elopmen o sus ainable mobili y makes i
possible o modi y people’s habi s (B own and Mi chell, 2010; Jain
e al., 2022). The applica ion o measu es aimed a p omo ing new be-
ha iou s and ep esen a i e examples o social leade s (celeb i ies,
a hle es, o poli icians, among o he s) can c ea e a a ou able en i on-
men o he implemen a ion o new mobili y p e e ences (C opanzano
e al, 2017).
2.2. En i onmen al alues
In pa allel, en i onmen al awa eness is p omo ing he use o mo e
sus ainable ehicles. The elec i ica ion o ehicles o he implemen a-
ion o sus ainable uels (e.g., hyd ogen) has impo an en i onmen al
bene i s (Whi le e al., 2019; Wannia achchi e al., 2023). Howe e , he
cu en si ua ion o echnological e olu ion s ill limi s hei use due o
economic and geog aphical easons, as hey a e una ailable o a la ge
pa o he popula ion and hei implemen a ion is mo e a ou able o
public se ice ehicles (Globisch e al., 2019) and local goods deli e
ehicles. Thus, au omo i e indus y is in es ing impo an esou ces on
he de elopmen o EV echnologies o inc ease he cha ging capaci y,
densi y and dec ease he weigh and p ices o ba e ies (Zhao e al. 2019;
Bu d e al., 2021). This si ua ion e eals he need o balance social
awa eness and sus ainabili y in he ace o he ex a cos o hose ech-
nologies when deciding o pu chase o consume mobili y se ices
(K u illa and G aham, 2012; Liu e al., 2021).
In addi ion, hese echnologies mus no only be echnically easible,
bu mus be socially ex ensible h ough s anda diza ion and adap a ion
o he in as uc u e (Tu ienzo e al., 2022a). Thus, policymake s, awa e
o he en i onmen al impac o mobili y, should encou age he use o
sus ainable means o anspo in de imen o p i a e mo o ehicles by
p o iding economic suppo , enabling in as uc u e, c ea ing egula-
ions and sp eading knowledge abou he bene i s o he cleanes
mobili y echnologies (B own and Mi chell, 2010; Eckha d e al. 2018).
Recen ly, hanks o he policy implemen ed, he ehicle lee is
adop ing mo e en i onmen ally iendly mo o sys ems (Tu ienzo e al.,
2022b). Howe e , e en hough elec ic ehicles and hyd ogen engines
ha e g ea en i onmen al bene i s (Chapman, 2007; Whi le e al., 2019;
Globisch e al., 2019) and social epu a ional (Buhmann and C iado,
2023), hei use is no widesp ead due o economic o mis us ac o s
(Alma az e al, 2022). The deg ee o no el y o he echnology esul s in
a high cos o he ehicles (Tu ienzo e al., 2022b), which can be an
economic ba ie o la ge sec o s o he popula ion (Globisch e al.,
2019).
2.3. Social accep ance o AVs
O iginal Equipmen Manu ac u e s (OEMs) and se ices p o ide s
(insu ance companies, epai wo kshops, se ice s a ions, in as uc u e
ope a o s) will need o adap hei business and ace he new scena io
(Su akka e al., 2018; Da iy and Shakina, 2021). The clien o mobili y
ela ed companies (e.g., se ices pee - o-pee such as Blablaca ) will
become ano he compe i o ins ead o only cus ome s (Pü z e al., 2019),
and hose en e p ises wi h a mo e digi al mindse will be e adap hei
ac i i ies o he new business models (Guyade and Piscicelli, 2019).
Thus, he inc easing impo ance o MaaS, he g ea e is he in e es o
companies in AVs. OEMs, echnology companies, esea ch cen e s and
Go e nmen s a e s udying how in eg a e he new ad ances in au ono-
mous d i ing. Since 2016, he usage o AVs in closed and open a ic is
being es ed (Monios and Be gq is , 2019). AVs will enable economic
sa ings due o he no-need o a d i e and will also lead o mo e e icien
d i ing, bu hey equi e he in as uc u e ha suppo s i (Ep ing,
2018). Aiming a ob aining he maximum possible pe o mance, OEMs
and se ice p o ide s a e p omo ing he c ea ion o ecosys ems (Pü z
e al., 2019). Mobili y ecosys ems a e a ne wo k o in e connec ed
mobili y ehicles ha con ibu e o imp o e he secu ance and a ail-
abili y o speed limi (Tu ienzo e al., 2024). The e o e, he da a ob-
ained om he ehicles connec ed h ough ne wo ks could be used o
calcula e ou es, op imizing cu en esou ces and allowing a be e
s udy o u u e in as uc u es, opening new a enues o inc ease e i-
ciency, secu i y and ma ke oppo uni ies (Van Als yne e al., 2016;
Cabanelas e al., 2023). In addi ion, he usage o AVs could imp o e he
quali y o he se ice o mul iple ype o business (e.g., es au an s, e ail
shops, supe ma ke , gas s a ions, insu ance…) due o he in o ma ion
p o ided by he ehicles (Tu ienzo e al., 2023).
J. Tu ienzo e al. T a el Beha iou and Socie y 38 (2025) 100907
2
Despi e hose bene i s, he ce ain y and con idence in eme ging
echnologies and he con iden iali y o he da a gene a ed by connec-
i i y is essen ial in o de o a ou he adop ion o new echnologies by
po en ial consume s as a whole ins ead o niches o segmen s o he
popula ion (Geels and Scho , 2007; Tu ienzo e al., 2022a; Cabanelas
e al., 2023 ). A he same ime, au oma ion leads o mo al and e hical
dilemmas in i s p og amming and sa e y. Wha is known as he “ olley
dilemma” aises he e hical issue o killing he d i e o killing o he
people in he e en o an una oidable acciden (Lin, 2015). In si ua ions
o imminen and una oidable acciden s, he e a e wo al e na i es:
p o ec ing ehicle occupan s suppo ed by OEMs o minimizing he
numbe o ic ims, a ou ing he weak pa y (Gogoll and Mülle , 2016).
The e o e, i is essen ial o know he psychosocial and cul u al pe -
spec i es o he popula ion o unde s and he possible ans o ma ion o
mobili y and cla i y he e hical and mo al dilemmas (Geels, 2011; Weigl
e al., 2022).
2.4. The use o MaaS
The cha ac e is ics o sha ed mobili y in e ms o cos s and e sa ili y
a ou s he adop ion o he mobili y sys em because pu chasing powe is
less exposed and a lowe isk is associa ed o he selec ion o he se ice
as i does no in ol e a majo in es men in apidly obsole e p oduc s o
he selec ion o ailed echnologies (Maye e al., 2018). Thus, linked o a
highe le el o educa ion, people ha e s a ed o assess he cos s and
bene i s associa ed wi h he use and owne ship o a ious means o
anspo (Tu ienzo e al., 2022a). This se i iza ion o mobili y will
inc ease he e iciency o sha ed ehicles and hei bene i s h ough he
implemen a ion o da a-sha ing echniques ela ed o ou es, des ina-
ions, o igins and schedules (Guyade and Piscicelli, 2019). The abili y
o imp o e bene i s and lowe he cos o se ices will lead o a shi om
p i a e ehicles o he use o public mobili y means (Ma le o, 2018;
K iswa dhana and Esz e g´
a -Kiss, 2023). As consequence, MaaS can be
conside ed a u ning poin o gene alize anspo due o i s e sa ili y
and low cos (Maye e al., 2018).
In pa allel, associa ed o he new ehicles’ echnology, despi e he
ini ia i es o ma ke mul iple al e na i es o he indi idual pu chase o
ehicles (e.g., en al, leasing, sha ed owne ship…) consume s a e no
p ope ly awa e o hem (Pü z e al., 2019). A he same ime, p i a e and
on-demand anspo a ion se ices a e inc easingly widesp ead and
accessible, being conside ed an al e na i e in la ge ci ies (Guyade &
Piscicelli, 2019). Howe e , he usage o sha ed ehicles en ails he
adap a ion o cus oms and habi s o ci izens o adap o he se ices
o e ed (Haz´
ee e al., 2017; Kim and Rasouli, 2022).
3. Me hodology
Resea ch in o he implica ions and he deg ee o social accep ance o
no el echnologies has linked he exis ence o mul iple unce ain ies o
he echnology i sel . Consequen ly, he analysis o ends and pe cei ed
accep ance h ough quali a i e explo a o y echniques is app op ia e
(S ake, 2010). The quali a i e app oach based on induc i e echniques
allows o s udying he e olu ion and di e si y o social pe cep ions
ela i e o incoming ends and echnologies (C eswell, 2014). The de-
g ee o no el y o he echnology implies ha only a ew people ha e
enough knowledge on he ma e and i s po en ial social impac . Spe-
ci ically, quali a i e echniques a e he mos widely used me hodologies
in he s udy o beha iou al pa e ns and social accep ance (Jones e al.,
2005). In pa icula , he me hodology used o da a collec ion was in-
dep h in e iews. The use o his echnique allows he esea che s o
dialogue wi h p o essional and expe s who will se e he aim o he in-
dep h s udy (Coope and Schindle , 2008).
A g oup o expe s was selec ed based on hei academic expe ise
and indus ial expe ience and d awn ac oss cen al oles in he p esen
no el mobili y sec o , p o iding a wide sec o ial pe spec i e ha in-
ol es di e en pe spec i es and iewpoin s. The sample was selec ed
om h ee Eu opean coun ies. The coun ies we e Spain – he second in
Eu ope in numbe o uni s o ca s manu ac u ed by he au omo i e in-
dus y, he UK –a leade coun y in esea ch and de elopmen ac i i ies
in Eu ope, and Po ugal –a coun y wi h eme ging business and s a -
ups wi h no el au omo i e echnologies.
A sc ip was designed, based on open ques ions, o he in e iews o
maximize he in o ma ion ga he ed om he expe s. The in e iews
we e eco ded and subsequen ansc ibed, including no es ega ding
he beha iou o he expe , o la e de ailed analysis. Add essing he
esea ch h ough open maximized he chance o ob aining esponse ha
we e no condi ioned by he es ablished pe spec i e o he esea che s.
Acco ding o C eswell (2014), he usage o closed ques ions could esul
in he unin en ional guide o he esul s due o he biased esponses. A
pilo es wi h wo in e iews was ca ied ou o alida e he da a
collec ion p ocedu es and o help in he de elopmen o he ques ions. A
o al o 18 in e iews we e conduc ed om No embe 2019 o Ap il
2020 by he esea che s (Table 1 de ails he cha ac e is ics o he sam-
ple). The in e iews ook place in wo di e en ways: mos we e con-
duc ed in pe son and o he s by elephone wi h an app oxima e du a ion
o 30–80 min. The ansc ibed eco dings an o mo e han 130 pages
and 55,000 wo ds. Con en analysis was used as he analysis me hod o
p ocess he collec ed da a. The in e p e a ion o he da a can be ca ied
ou h ough he applica ion o h ee s a egies (con en ional con en
analysis; di ec ed o summa i e con en analysis) o analyse he con en
o he in e iews coding schemes (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005). Th ough a
Table 1
Cha ac e is ics o he sample.
In e iew Coun y Posi ion En i y En i y’s co e business
#1 Po ugal Manage Resea ch Cen e De elopmen o echnologies and o ma ion
#2 UK Resea che Uni e si y Socie al and en i onmen al impac s o anspo
#3 UK Business De elope Public Adminis a ion Planning and economic de elopmen
#4 Spain CEO T anspo Company Road anspo se ice
#5 UK CEO IT Company Connec i i y and senso s o AVs
#6 UK CEO OEM Au onomous d i ing ehicles
#7 Po ugal CEO S a -up Clean mobili y pla o m
#8 Spain CEO Technological Company Assis ance d i ing sys ems
#9 UK CEO Technological Company Senso and con ol sys ems o AVs
#10 Spain CEO OEM Elec ic ehicles
#11 Po ugal CEO Mo o cycle sha ing Company Pe sonal elec o-mobili y sha ing
#12 Spain Region Manage T anspo Company Taxi se ice
#13 Po ugal Resea che Resea ch Labo a o y Collabo a i e p ojec s in digi al ans o ma ion
#14 UK CMO R&D Company Designing, modelling and simula ion o ou es
#15 Spain CEO Technological Company De elopmen o connec i i y de ices
#16 UK P oduc Manage Technological Company Sma came as o AVs decision making
#17 Spain CEO Enginee ing Company Real- ime objec s in en o y o in as uc u es
#18 Spain Technical Di ec o Consul ing Company Mobili y in e -modal planning
J. Tu ienzo e al. T a el Beha iou and Socie y 38 (2025) 100907
3
Table 2
Da a collec ed om in e iews classi ied by social issues and ends.
Social issues T ends iden i ied In e iew Main quo es selec ed
Popula ion’s mobili y
p e e ences
No indi idual ca -owne ship as p e e ence #2, #3, #5, #8, #10, #11,
#14, #16, #17
Q#2-1: “I ’s ue, young people don’ ha e a ca . The weak pa o he a gumen is
ha hey s ill wan o own and d i e ca s, bu hey do i la e . Ins ead o doing i a
20, hey do i a 30, when hey ha e amily, child en, when hey wan o li e in he
su oundings ins ead o in he cen e o he ci y”.
Q#3-1: “[…] The e has been a change ha is modi ying mobili y. Ci izens do no
seek o own a ca ; hey in end o use ehicles. People only show in e es on he
se ice p o ided by he ca , changing he cul u e associa ed o mobili y”
Q#11-1: “No ha ing a ca i no using i makes i easie o you o ge a ound in
you o o he ci ies o in di e en coun ies, pay and mo e is a e y com o able
me hod”.
Demand o a el by ca will each a peak #2, #3, #5, #8, #9¸#10,
#11, #16, #17
Q#1-1: “I is key o ensu e he social accep ance o he wo ke s o he new ehicles
o a oid he all o sales in Eu ope. I is impo an o ensu e he con inui y o he
companies and in es men s o he nex yea s”.
Q#9-1: “We can speak now o he Peak Ca , bu he u u e is no clea , because he
p oduc ion o ca s c ea es jobs”.
Q#10-1: “The in e p e a ion o ends in demog aphics and use p e e ences such
as in mos o Wes e n Eu ope he sha e o he popula ion holding a d i e ’s license
has s abilised ac oss gene a ions, gi e he imp ession ha we ha e eached he
momen o lowe ing he dependence on he ca ”.
En i onmen al alues Accep ance o clean mobili y p o ided i is
a o dable
#1, #2, #4, #7, #11, #12,
#15, #16, #18
Q#1-2: “The poin is ha we ind ca s on he ma ke wo h
€
15,000 han in
Eu ope, simila elec ic models ha e a p ice highe han
€
70,000. This complica es
compe i i eness”.
Q#2-2: “Clima e change is e y ele an , bu keep in mind social jus ice is
pa amoun . […] Elec ic ca s will be e y expensi e and e en ca pooling can be
e y expensi e”.
Q#4-1: “I he elec ic ca does no o e a solu ion o all budge s, i will be e y
di icul . The p oblem oday is ha he e a e no low-cos solu ions o he o dina y
ci izen who can gi e hem he mobili y solu ion ha is now p o ided by a
combus ion ehicle”.
Q#7-1: “In heo y, he elec ic ehicle mus be alued no only economically. I is
impo an o sa e emissions om mobili y, no because o he p ice pe on o
emissions, bu i mus be alued o i s eal impac , also on heal h. Bu wha i he
sala y does no each you?”.
Q#11-2: “The e is a g owing awa eness ha i is necessa y o deca bonise he
en i onmen , bu i seems ha cos sa ings s ill weigh mo e a his ime”.
En i onmen al alues subo dina ed o
se ice and echnology unce ain ies
#1, #4, #6, #8, #9, #10,
#13, #17
Q#1-3: “Who is going o buy is no awa e o many o he echnologies linked o
elec ic, hyb id, hyd ogen ca s […] This lack o knowledge in luences he non-
in es men in hese ehicles”.
Q#4-2: “Elec ic ca in his case, he idea is good, bu i gi es wo se se ice han
he combus ion ha you al eady own”.
Q#6-1: “People ha e ealized ha elec ical echnology is no as good as hey
belie ed i o be. I does no ope a e in all clima es, i is eliable, bu hey a e no
adi ional ca s and people do no us hem”.
Q#10-2: “One o he bigges isks o he commi men o elec ic mobili y is he lack
o a su icien cha ging ne wo k o p o ide a good se ice”.
Social accep ance o
AVs
AVs condi ioned o he e hical dilemma and
de elopmen o a obus legal amewo k
#1, #2, #3, #4, #6, #7,
#8, #12, #13, #14, #16,
#18
Q#1-4: “Suppose ha ca wi hou d i e is in ol ed in an acciden . who will be
esponsible?? I am jus he owne , no he d i e …Do OEMs ha e o insu e hei
au onomous ehicles? Do hey ha e o do i o e e o jus du ing he wa an y?
The e mus be a esponsible.”.
Q#4-3: “The implemen a ion o AVs equi es a sense o e hics, and his is a
no o iously di icul capabili y o educe in o algo i hms o a compu e o ollow”.
Q#8-1: “[…] in indus ial en i onmen s wi h acciden s ha ha e implica ions in
ma e ials ha imply es ic ions and egula ions bu in he ci y. I is much mo e
complex o egula e due o he a iables”.
Q#12-1: “The egula ion o a ic in all ci ies is in he hands o he ci y council. In
he same coun y o e en egion, i can be 15 ci ies wi h hei own ules. This
ci cums ance can c ea e a o al con usion”.
Q#13-1: “The implemen a ion delay is no due o echnological p oblems.
Au onomous ehicles a e acing social and poli ical incon eniences. Once sol ed
and egula ed, s ep by s ep; i s , i will be used in highways and, inally, in ci ies”.
Q#14-1: “AVs le el 5 will ne e appea in highly egula ed coun ies o some
belie e no o a leas he nex 10 yea s. Regula ion and he e hics ha de e mine i
is he i s hing we mus sol e. The key is o de ine hose esponsible in he e en o
an acciden ”.
The use o MaaS The massi e use o MaaS depends on i s
a o dabili y
#1, #2, #3, #9, #10, #11,
#12, #13, #15
Q#2-3: “In u al a eas o in ci ies he e is poo people o whom he se ice could
be expensi e. This socie y segmen will su e he ans o ma ion due o he
p edic ion o he elimina ion and educ ion o public anspo se ices because o
p i a e mobili y se ices like Ube ”.
Q#3-2: “The di icul hing is o ind an economic iabili y. Fo his eason,
go e nmen s should be s ongly in ol ed in he app oach o he p icing sys em in
(con inued on nex page)
J. Tu ienzo e al. T a el Beha iou and Socie y 38 (2025) 100907
4
di ec ed app oach, analysis o he ansc ibed eco ds begun wi h a
heo y e iew, posed on he li e a u e e iew, as guidance o ini ial
codes o he analysis p ocess (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005).This me hod o
analysis consis ed o he sys ema ic desc ip ion o he con en s o he
in e iews in o de o in e p e hem and be e unde s and he ma e
unde esea ch (Sch eie , 2012), in his case he social changes associ-
a ed wi h he ans o ma ion o mobili y.
4. Resul s
The da a collec ed in he in e iews and selec ed o analysis o he
cu en pape a e p esen ed in Table 2. This able summa izes he e-
sponses ound in he in e iews o each o he social issues being ana-
lysed, g ouping hem in o wha cons i u es a end. Only hose ends
esul ing om he answe s indica ed by he expe s and in which he e
has also been a deg ee o consensus among he expe s a e p esen ed. To
p o ide de ailed in o ma ion, he in e iews in which his end has
been iden i ied a e de ailed (coded as #1, #2, …, #18). In addi ion,
li e al esponses (quo es) ha e been selec ed as hey se e o illus a e
he ends p esen ed and o highligh some nuances abou hese en-
dencies. These quo es ha e been coded as Q#i-j, whe e #i is he in e -
iew numbe and −j is he consecu i e numbe o he quo e o each
in e iew.
The e o e, he ends e lec ed in he able can be conside ed as he
main poin s o con e gence among expe s. Fu he mo e, he e a e nu-
ances ega ding some o he ends ha ha e been exposed in he
selec ed quo es ha a e discussed in he esul s analysis sec ion which
ollows.
5. Discussion
5.1. Popula ion’s mobili y p e e ences
The esul s show wo p edominan ends in mobili y p e e ences. On
he one hand, expe s poin ou ha he popula ion is changing i s habi s
owa ds he consump ion o se ices a he han he pu chase o hei
own mo o ehicles. This is because buying a ca has al eady pa ially
los i s high social and cul u al alue, and he appea ance o al e na i es
o ‘on-demand’mobili y is a end ha is pushing his e olu ion (Q#3-
1, Q#11-1). Howe e , despi e he consensus o expe s and p e ious
esea ch on he g owing end o using se ices ins ead o pu chasing by
ce ain popula ion g oups (Lyons, 2015; Focas and Ch is idis, 2017;
Iacobucci, 2022), he e a e some nuances ha need o be obse ed.
While young ci izens li ing in he ci y a e less likely o own ehicles,
hose mo e complex amily uni s (wi h dependen child en o elde ly
membe s) li ing in he subu bs o ci ies s ill main ain hei in e es in
owing a ehicle (Q#2-1).
On he o he hand, he esul s suppo he iew ha he ‘peak ca ’has
been eached. I sugges s a lowe dependence on he ca (Q#9-1; Q#10-
1), suppo ing he end ad anced by p e ious li e a u e abou a u u e
wi h ewe p i a e mo o ehicles in ci cula ion (Tilley and Hous on,
2016). Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha some in e iewed expe s
poin ou he u u e employmen ac o as a po en ial ba ie o
consolida ing his end. The s ong ea o losing jobs in mobili y in-
dus ies (e.g., d i e s, ehicle cons uc ion companies) can lead o a
ejec ion o se i iza ion, encou aging people and socie y o possess
hei own ehicles (Q#1-1; Q#9-1). O cou se, e e y end can ha e i s
coun e end. I becomes a conce n o deal wi h du ing he de elopmen
o new mobili y modes.
5.2. En i onmen al alues
The esul s also e ealed he g owing conce n abou clima e change
and he impac o mobili y on he en i onmen . The e is a g owing
awa eness o he need o adop cleane ehicles due o hei en i on-
men al impac in e ms o ai quali y and consequen ly on heal h (Q#2-
2; Q#7-1; Q#11-2). In his way, ou esea ch sugges s he ele ance o
he popula ion’s in e es in en i onmen al alues ela ed o mobili y
Table 2 (con inued)
Social issues T ends iden i ied In e iew Main quo es selec ed
o de o be ex ensible by poo people”.
Q#11-3: “I is e y p ac ical; you ha e less cos , less hassle wi h pa king ca s o
ha ing ga ages…I p ices d op, he massi e use o MaaS is ine i able”.
Limi a ions in sha ing in o ma ion and da a
communica ion on MaaS
#2, #3, #8, #14, #16,
#17, #18
Q#2-4: “Companies ha e o make money in some way. So, he e is a p oblem as
people seem o be happy sha ing hei in o ma ion wi h Google”.
Q#14-2: “I is necessa y be cau ious in he s o age and in da a ga he ing. I is
necessa y be awa e o ul il he Da a P o ec ion Law equi emen s, bu also o
gene a e con idence in he popula ion”.
Q#17-1: “Some use s, especially young people a e looking o mobili y designed in
eal ime and o adjus he esponse o he se ice o eali y and no o a p edic ion,
da a mus be sha ed”.
Q#18-1: “Measu emen wi h embedded sys ems in ca s… hey gene a e a la ge
olume o in o ma ion. Howe e , i he ca is mine, why am I going o gi e i ee?”.
Adap abili y o use s’habi s and socio-
demog aphic ea u es as main d i e o
se i iza ion
#2, #3, #4, #8, #9, #10,
#11, #12, #15
Q#2-5: “You ha e o adap he echnology o he use ; he echnology is o he
use . I is w ong o ocus on he p oduc ins ead o he se ice i is o e ing o he
use ea u es and demands: People who li e in neighbou hoods, amilies”
Q#3-3: “In e ms o MaaS he g oup a ou ed is people wi h echnological
knowledge, educa ed in ha . People who don’ ha e hese echnological skills will
ha e p oblems o access o sha ed mobili y”.
Q#9-2: “The s udy o he lows o mo emen s o ci izens will make i possible o
imp o e public se ices. The e o e, people will begin o lea e he ca a home
because i is no necessa y o hei daily ac i i y”.
Q#10-3: “Elde ly people, who ha e money, ha e ime, bu who can no longe
d i e. These a e clea ly candida es o bene i om MaaS”.
Q#11-4: “Ci y dwelle s will bene i om he ac ha se ices will be c ea ed in
ci ies. Howe e , u al a eas will no ha e access o se ices due o emo eness,
being excluded. You may ha e a huge compe ence in some ci ies like Mad id,
Ba celona o Lisbon and in he neighbou ing ci y you may ha e no hing, no sha ed
mobili y se ices”.
Q#15-1: “Find he mos op imize ou e o public se ice is mo e ele an han o
sa e esou ces. Nowadays, ime is like gold”.
J. Tu ienzo e al. T a el Beha iou and Socie y 38 (2025) 100907
5
(Whi le e al., 2019). Howe e , he esea ch also e lec s he expe s’
conce ns abou he highe p ices and ea u es o new, clean mobili y
echnologies, especially elec ic (Bu d e al., 2021), compa ed o com-
bus ion ehicles and simila bene i s ha a e mo e cos ly (Q#1-2; Q#2-
2; Q#11-2). The esea ch e en de ec s a ce ain ea o he possible loss
o social jus ice de i ed om he inabili y o access clean ehicles due o
hei p ice, which could be a ba ie o mains eaming sus ainable
mobili y (Q#4-1; Q#7-1).
A he same ime, he esul s sugges ed ha he s a e o ma u i y o
elec i ica ion echnologies and he lack o s anda diza ion a e impo -
an inhibi o s o using elec ic ehicles. This is a esul pa ially
explained by he p oblems caused by he limi ed ange o ba e ies and
he di icul y o he echa ging p ocess highligh ed by p e ious wo ks
(Globisch e al., 2019; Tu ienzo e al., 2022b). Ou esea ch goes u he
and hin s ha he en i onmen al alues a e cu en ly being subo di-
na ed o se ice and echnology unce ain ies (Q#4-2; Q#6-1). The
coexis ence o echnologies wi h di e se cha ac e is ics and he absence
o complemen a y se ices lead o unce ain y when i comes o
acqui ing cleane mo o ehicles (Alma az e al, 2022); i delays he
pu chasing decision o encou ages consume s o buy cheape , be e
unde s ood, adi ional combus ion echnologies (Q#1-3; Q#10-2).
5.3. Social accep ance o AVs
The esul s ob ained in he in e iews con i m he exis ence o a
g owing conce n among bo h ci izens and egula o s ega ding he
e hical p oblems and dilemmas associa ed wi h au onomous ehicles
(Weigl e al., 2022). Al hough p e ious s udies (Lin, 2015; Gogoll and
Mülle , 2016) ocus hei e o s on s udying he beha iou o he ehicle
in he e en o an acciden , expe s poin ou he impo ance o de e -
mining e hical issues in he p og amming and design o ehicles. This
can lead o a pos ponemen in he de elopmen o new capabili ies and
au onomous unc ions o he ehicles (Q#4-3; Q#13-1). In addi ion,
expe s poin ou a po en ial delay in egula ion in mo e complex en-
i onmen s, such as ci ies. Fu he mo e, he exis ence o mul iple eg-
ula o s wi h compe encies in a ic ma e s may limi he de elopmen
o a obus egula o y amewo k o he use and accep ance o AVs
(Q#8-1; Q#12-1; Q#13-1). In ac , expe s highligh he unce ain y
associa ed wi h au onomous ehicles in he case o acciden s, making i
necessa y o cla i y he esponsibili ies o manu ac u e s and passenge s.
All hese ci cums ances gene a e no only mis us in he implemen a-
ion bu also in ela ed businesses, especially by insu ance companies
(Q#1-4; Q#14-1), which needs o be add essed o an e ec i e e olu-
ion o hese ehicles. A he same ime, esul s show some misgi ings
abou using means o anspo ha sha e in o ma ion due o he loss o
p i acy (Q#18-1) despi e he possible ad an ages in se ices (Tu ienzo
e al., 2024). Howe e , he abili y o imp o e a ic planning and
managemen inhe en o AVs (Cabanelas e al., 2023), could s eamline
he egula o y amewo k ha delays he implemen a ion o AVs (Q#13-
1).
5.4. The use o MaaS
The esul s ob ained a e analysing he expe s’insigh s sugges ha
he adop ion o se i iza ion depends on i s a o dabili y (Haz´
ee e al.,
2017; K iswa dhana and Esz e g´
a -Kiss, 2023). The esponden s poin
ou ha , al hough mobili y in p i a e ehicles is an expensi e al e na-
i e, he use o se ices o anspo a ion can also be e y expensi e in
some geog aphical en i onmen s (Q#2-3), which is in line wi h he
unde lying ideas sugges ed in p e ious esea ch (see Maye e al., 2018).
In addi ion, he inco po a ion o ad hoc mobili y se ices managed by
p i a e companies (e.g., Ube , Cabi y) can lead o unde use o adi-
ional public se ices which a e hen educed. Howe e , people wi h
limi ed economic esou ces canno be le behind, sugges ing a ce ain
in e en ionism by policymake s. Consequen ly, he adop ion o he use
o MaaS will depend no only on he cos o he se ices bu also on he
socio-economic si ua ion o he popula ion (Q#2-3; Q#3-2; #11-3).
Second, he expe s’ e lec ions seem o indica e he possible suspi-
cions ha pa o socie y may ha e abou se i iza ion due o limi a ions
in sha ing in o ma ion and da a communica ion. On he one hand, he e
is conce n abou he loss o p i acy esul ing om ans e ing he use ’s
pe sonal da a and mobili y habi s (o igin, des ina ion, schedules, e c.).
On he o he hand, despi e hese appa en ai s, use s a e consciously o
unconsciously, al eady gi ing pe sonal da a eely o la ge communi-
ca ion and in e ne co po a ions (e.g., Google o Apple) (Q#2-4; Q#18-
1). Expe s ag ee ha companies mus espec he law and be ans-
pa en in how hey conduc da a collec ion and p ocessing in o de o
a oid public ejec ion o such hings as sha ed mobili y (Q#14-2).
Fu he mo e, while young people demand imp o emen s in he in o -
ma ion and communica ion sys ems linked o MaaS, he olde segmen s
o he popula ion ha e di icul ies adop ing ce ain mobili y sys ems as
hey equi e knowledge and expe ience in he use o so wa e applica-
ions and communica ion echnologies (Q#3-3; Q#17-1). This esul is
pa ially in line wi h p e ious esea ch (Guyade and Piscicelli, 2019),
because in ou analysis he need o op imize se ices and new-sha ed
mobili y sys ems h ough da a managemen is only demanded by pa
o he popula ion: he young.
Finally, adap abili y o use s’habi s and socio-demog aphic cha -
ac e is ics becomes a majo d i e o se i iza ion (Kim and Rasouli,
2022). The esul s highligh ha any echnological de elopmen linked
o MaaS will no be e ec i e unless he se ices a e op imized and
designed on he basis o eal use s’habi s and needs (Q#2-5; Q#9-2;
Q#15-1). Mo eo e , p e ious wo k on MaaS has ocused on he ech-
nical aspec s as key o i s adop ion, namely he e sa ili y o he ans-
po mode o e (Maye e al., 2018) o in as uc u es a ailable
(Tu ienzo e al., 2022a), o on a single social aspec ela ed o use s such
as he geog aphical en i onmen in which hey li e (Globisch e al.,
2019) o hei age (Ma le o, 2018). In ou case, he esul s e eal wo
conclusions. Fi s , social aspec s a e p eponde an in he adop ion o
MaaS and, second, hose social issues a e di ec ly ela ed o he socio-
demog aphic cha ac e is ics o use s. He e, expe s ha e iden i ied
di e en ea u es ela ed o he se ice, such as ime and equency
equi ed, alongside o he issues ela ed o he geog aphical en i onmen
whe e use s would li e (Q#11-4; Q#15-1) o hei amily and economic
si ua ion, age, o educa ional backg ound o use s (Q#2-5; Q#3-3;
Q#10-3).
6. Conclusions and u u e esea ch
The cu en esea ch sugges s he willingness o some pa o he
popula ion o e ol e in he way people mo es. The s udy e eals ha he
popula ion begun o modi y how hey mo e using mo e commonly
sha ed se ices. Despi e he ad an ages o e ed by MaaS and sha ed
anspo s in economic and en i onmen al e ms, hei adop ion a e
highly dependen on cul u al changes om beha iou s deeply oo ed in
socie y. Howe e , a cul u al and social change linked o mobili y is
beginning o eme ge, namely Peak Ca . Peak Ca e eals ha he
maximum numbe o ca s sold we e eached, and now he people is less
in e es ed in owning hei ehicles no possess a d i e ’s license.
Howe e , his end is usual in la ge ci ies and o young people, ha
is, he popula ion wi h less pu chasing powe and (maybe) highe
en i onmen al awa eness. Howe e , he adop ion o MaaS depends on
he need o adap he mobili y habi s o ci izens who eso o MaaS
se ices o mul imodal anspo due o he limi ed equency o ou es
o he p i a e se ices. This need o adap a ion is inc easingly impo an
in u al egions due o he lowe equency o se ices. The e o e, he
social accep ance o change he ype o p i a e anspo o a public o
sha ed one can be educed in u al a eas. A he same ime, he economic
J. Tu ienzo e al. T a el Beha iou and Socie y 38 (2025) 100907
6
ad an ages may no be enough i he adap a ion equi ed is high in
ce ain niches o segmen s o he popula ion.
A he same ime, he echnology o he elec i ica ion o ehicles o
he use o clean uels shows an inc easing le el o echnological de el-
opmen and bene i s. Howe e , i s adop ion is la gely subjec o he
con ic ion o end use s o he ad an ages o he new engines. E en
hough he indus y ocuses on imp o ing echnical cha ac e is ics (e.g.,
echa ge ime, weigh , ange…), he bigges d awback is linked o he
unce ain y and lack o knowledge o he end use abou he di e en
possibili ies. Consequen ly, use s pos pone he pu chase o ehicles wi h
new engines o ea o making a mis ake wi h he echnology o mis us
in he use ul li e.
Finally, he adop ion o ehicles wi h au onomous echnology is
subjec o he insu ance and legal gua an ee. In addi ion, he digi al
na u e o he AVs wi h he abili y o sha e ou e and passenge in o -
ma ion cause misgi ings in po en ial use s. E en hough ha in o ma-
ion can gene a e ad an ages and i can imp o e se ices o e ed o
use s, he loss o p i acy is shown o be he main cause o social ejec ion
o AVs adop ion.
6.1. P ac ical implica ions
The ans o ma ion o exis ing mobili y depends on he in ol emen
o policy make s in he de elopmen o egula ions, incen i es, o o he
poli ical ini ia i es. Go e nmen s should endea ou o cla i y he
cha ac e is ics and ad an ages o he di e en echnologies, e en being
able o p o ide echnological guidelines based on he ci cums ances o
use. This will accele a e he adop ion o sa e , mo e sus ainable ans-
po al e na i es. Howe e , despi e inc easing social awa eness, he
widesp ead use o sus ainable ehicles will no be possible un il hei
p ices a e like hose o combus ion ehicles. Fo his eason, go e n-
men s should s udy s imulus measu es such as subsidies o ax cu s ha
equalize he cos o bo h echnologies.
On he o he hand, he implemen a ion o MaaS se ices h ough
p i a e companies could lead o a de e io a ion o adi ional mobili y
se ices in u al a eas o lowe equencies in he se ice, so losing hei
impo an social ‘me i good’bene i unless go e nmen s decide o
egula e minimum se ice s anda ds. A he same ime, he possible
comme cializa ion o he da a associa ed wi h se i iza ion could cause
a s ong ejec ion by some, possibly many, ci izens. I is essen ial o
es ablish a clea amewo k ha egula es da a collec ion and p ocessing
o a ou he p i acy o he in o ma ion sha ed. Mo eo e , his should
be ounded on he highes le el o anspa ency possible in o de o
secu e deep us om indi iduals, gi ing hem he possibili y o un-
de s and who has access o hei pe sonal in o ma ion and how hey gain
i . In o he wo ds, wha is happening wi h he da a in a simple bun no
misleading way?
6.2. Limi a ions and u u e esea ch
The esea ch has some limi a ions mainly de i ed om he me h-
odological app oach, which should be add essed in u u e wo ks.
Al hough he s udy has ocused on mobili y in Eu ope, he selec ed
sample o expe s belongs o only h ee coun ies. Fu u e esea ch could
in eg a e a la ge numbe o expe s om o he Eu opean coun ies in
o de o gain a wide scope in he esul s ob ained. Mo eo e , his would
open up he possibili y o iden i ying he possible speci ici ies connec ed
o he expe s’na ionali ies.
On he o he hand, al hough he wo k allows us o s udy he e olu-
ion o social pe cep ions, he quali a i e na u e o he esea ch does no
allow o gene alizing he esul s. In u u e esea ch, i would be in e -
es ing o ope a ionalize he di e en social aspec s h ough quan i a i e
a iables. This, oge he wi h an inc ease in he numbe o in e iews,
would allow o he use o econome ic models o analyse hese a iables
and ob ain s a is ically signi ican esul s o gene aliza ion.
Au ho s a emen
Ja ie Tu ienzo: Concep ion and design o s udy, Acquisi ion o
da a, Analysis and/o in e p e a ion o da a, D a ing he manusc ip ,
W i ing – e iew &edi ing, Funding acquisi ion.
Pablo Cabanelas: Concep ualiza ion, Acquisi ion o da a, W i ing –
e iew &edi ing, Funding acquisi ion
Jesús F. Lamp´
on: Concep ualiza ion, W i ing – e iew &edi ing,
Funding acquisi ion.
G aham Pa khu s : Fo mal analysis, Acquisi ion o da a, W i ing –
e iew &edi ing.
Acknowledgemen s
The esea ch is suppo ed by he Eu opean p ojec ( e e ence: COST
WISE-ACT) and unded by he Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a-
ion h ough he p ojec wi h e e ence PID2020-116040RB-I00. Fund-
ing o open access cha ge: Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela/
CISUG.
Appendix:. Sc ip
En i y Con ex ualiza ion:
1. How would you de ine you economic o comme cial ac i i y? Wha
is you main inancial asse ?
2. Whe e do you hink he alue c ea ion o he associa ed companies
esides? Does he c ea ion o alue depend on he geog aphical a ea,
u al o u ban?
3. How do you o esee he u u e and how do you o esee he e olu ion
o ma ke needs?
New engines:
4. Will he mo o iza ion o he ehicles be elec ic? Wha easons can
accele a e o delay i s implemen a ion?
5. Is he ehicle ha uses hyd ogen uel conside ed as an al e na i e?
Wha social and p o essional implica ions does i ha e?
Applica ion o echnologies and connec i i y in ehicles:
6. Will he au onomous and connec ed ehicle be accep ed by
socie y?
7. Can he impac on he employmen o p o essional d i e s be a
ba ie ?
8. Do you hink ha le el 4 o 5 o ehicle au oma ion will be
eached in Eu ope?
9. Vehicles wi h connec ed and au onomous echnologies will
gene a e a la ge amoun o da a, who has access o hese sou ces
o in o ma ion? Wha ad an ages can hey b ing o use s?
10. Can he con iden iali y o he da a gene a ed pose p oblems?
The se i iza ion o mobili y as a p edominan al e na i e:
11. Se i iza ion, will ha idea be a niche ma ke idea o will i be
gene alized?
12. Wha a e he social implica ions o he change owa ds
se i iza ion?
Go e nmen al and social in luence on mobili y ends:
13. Rega ding he geog aphical a ea, u al o u ban, will i ha e
equal oppo uni ies?
14. Which a el pa ne s do you ha e o all hese changes?
15. Do esea ch cen e s o uni e si ies cons i u e de elopmen
suppo ?
J. Tu ienzo e al. T a el Beha iou and Socie y 38 (2025) 100907
7
Economic implica ions:
16. Should he in es men e o in in as uc u e and lee adap a-
ion be social, business o public? Will i be accep able o all
ci izens?
17. A e he e in es o s o en i ies ha lend money o hese
pu poses?
Fu u e p edic ion:
18. Wha is you ision o mobili y in 5, 10 and 20 yea s?
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