sus ainabili y
A icle
Digi al Tools and Pe sonal Lea ning En i onmen s:
An Analysis in Highe Educa ion
José-An onio Ga cía-Ma ínez 1,2,* , F ancisco-Césa Rosa-Napal 3, Isabel Rome o-Tabeayo 4,
Sa a López-Cal o 2and Edua do-JoséFuen es-Abeledo 5
1Resea ch Cen e in Teaching and Educa ion, Nacional Uni e si y, He edia 86300, Cos a Rica
2Depa men o Pedagogy and Didac ics, Uni e si y o A Co uña, 15071 A Co uña, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o Speci ic Didac ics and Resea ch Me hods and Diagnosis in Educa ion,
Uni e si y o A Co uña, 15071 A Co uña, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
4Depa men o Applied Didac ics, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, 15782 San iago de Compos ela,
Spain; isabel. ome [email p o ec ed]
5Depa men o Pedagogy and Didac ics, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela,
15782 San iago de Compos ela, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: jose.ga [email p o ec ed]
Recei ed: 16 Sep embe 2020; Accep ed: 30 Sep embe 2020; Published: 4 Oc obe 2020


Abs ac :
The e ec i e use o In o ma ion and Communica ions Technology (ICT) and he discussion
su ounding i s educa ional con ibu ions in o mal se ings a e key elemen s in he analysis o
pe sonal lea ning en i onmen s (PLE). The aim o his s udy was o analyze he ools ha s uden s
use o access in o ma ion, c ea e con en , and sha e and in e ac in he amewo k o highe educa ion.
The s udy ook a quan i a i e app oach, using an ex pos ac o, ansac ional design. Da a collec ion
was ia he applica ion o a ques ionnai e o a s a i ied p obabilis ic sample (n =1187) o uni e si y
s uden s on di e en cou ses a he Na ional Uni e si y (Cos a Rica). Analysis o he da a showed
mode a e use o ools in s uden s’ PLEs. S uden s made mo e equen use o esou ces aimed a
accessing in o ma ion, ollowed by applica ions o sha ing and in e ac ing, and, o a lesse ex en ,
con en c ea ion. We also ound signi ican di e ences in he use o ools depending on sex, p e ious
educa ion in echnology, and academic pe o mance. We ecommend he inclusion o open, lexible
lea ning s a egies in uni e si y educa ion which inco po a e he a ious echnological esou ces
a ailable in he digi al e a o ensu e he de elopmen o PLEs and li elong lea ning.
Keywo ds:
ICT; pe sonal lea ning en i onmen ; web 2.0; uni e si y s uden s; o mal educa ion;
highe educa ion
1. In oduc ion
Fo mal educa ion in gene al, and highe educa ion in pa icula , a e wi nessing a echnological
e olu ion esul ing in signi ican changes o pedagogical p ocesses and o he way educa ion is
concei ed and o ganized in line wi h he cu en demands o he knowledge socie y [
1
]. The inclusion
o In o ma ion and Communica ions Technology (ICT) in highe educa ion may p oduce a deep
ans o ma ion [
2
] ha would be bene icial in a a ie y o aspec s: on he one hand, he de elopmen o
new me acogni i e skills [
3
] in esponse o he dynamic lea ning s yles equi ed o cu en uni e si y
s uden s, and on he o he , in line wi h he pa adigm o sus ainable de elopmen , he encou agemen
o g ow h in all aspec s and a eas o socie y [4].
Access o and e ec i e use o ICT can p omo e he democ a iza ion o educa ion, suppo ing
eaching p ocesses ha encou age equali y and in eg a ion o less ad an aged social g oups, o cons uc
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180; doi:10.3390/su12198180 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180 2 o 11
a ai e , mo e sus ainable socie y. Fac o s which con ibu e o his include access o and managemen
o in o ma ion, con en c ea ion, he possibili y o sha ing in o ma ion quickly and ee o cha ge,
and he ease o online i e a ion [
5
]. Howe e , despi e he many s udies on his opic, use o ICT in
highe educa ion does no gua an ee ha he bene i s hese ools may p oduce in he eaching/lea ning
p ocess will be aken ad an age o [
6
]. In some cases, his is due o poo eache aining [
7
] as well as
a lack o ins uc ional design linking eaching s a egies, ools, and unde lying pedagogical heo y [
8
].
Va iousin e na ionalbodies, such as heO ganiza ion o EconomicCoope a ion andDe elopmen
(OECD) and he Uni ed Na ions Educa ional, Scien i ic and Cul u al O ganiza ion (UNESCO),
ha e p oposed b eaking he pa adigm o highe educa ion ins i u ions in o de o mo e he axis o
lea ning om he educa ional ins i u ion o he s uden , p omo ing an ac i e, conscious p ocess on
he pa o he lea ne [
9
]. In his ega d, he e ec i e use o ICT may acili a e he de elopmen o
skills and abili ies o sel -di ec ed, li elong, and li e-wide lea ning [
10
,
11
] which may help educe he
a ious gaps be ween di e en le els in socie y and help add ess some o he cu en challenges in he
wo k en i onmen [12] which a e la gely based on he knowledge economy [13].
2. Pe sonal Lea ning En i onmen
The de elopmen o ICT—especially web 2.0—has made a g ea expansion o knowledge possible,
now ha people ha e been able o mo e om a me ely ecep i e ole and become ac i e agen s in he
c ea ion and di usion o con en . Lea ning is an ac i i y ha con inues h oughou li e, nou ished by
a ious sou ces o knowledge in o mal, non- o mal, and in o mal se ings. Nowadays, hanks o he
ease o access and he huge de elopmen and sp ead o ICT, echnological media ion is a common
esou ce in lea ning p ocesses ega dless o he le el, en i onmen , o sys em in which hey ake place.
I is in his amewo k ha highe educa ion ins i u ions mus ace he challenges o ans o ming and
eassessing educa ion and aining p og ams o hei s uden s in esponse o socie y’s demands [
14
].
Al hough we can ind an eceden s om se e al decades ago, echnological p oli e a ion makes a
eawakening o wha some au ho s conside a new educa ional app oach [
15
], called he Pe sonal
Lea ning En i onmen (PLE).
In ecen yea s, he idea o he PLE has gi en ise o much deba e, and has had a signi ican
impac in he ield o educa ional echnology [
16
]. Consequen ly, he e is no consensus in he scien i ic
communi y ega ding he de ini ion [
17
]. On he one hand, he e a e he au ho s who de end he
posi ion o a pedagogical app oach, and on he o he hose who ad oca e a mo e echnical meaning,
as a se o ools. In he amewo k o his esea ch, a mo e holis ic pe spec i e co esponded in which
he PLE is composed o ools, ac i i ies, and connec ions [
15
] ha a e used o lea n, om a pe spec i e
ha is insepa ably bo h pedagogical and echnological. In o he wo ds, a PLE allows one o make he
mos o he po en ial o ICT and inco po a e i in o bo h o mal and in o mal lea ning p ocesses [
16
],
gi ing p ominence o s uden lea ning [18].
The e ha e also been discussions abou he componen s o PLE. Fo his s udy, we conside ed he
s uc u e p oposed in [
15
], which de ined h ee PLE componen s: ools and s a egies o accessing
in o ma ion, con en c ea ion, and in e ac ion and in o ma ion exchange.
3. The Componen s o PLE
Gi en he amoun o online in o ma ion we a e exposed o nowadays, as well as he many
o ma s ha a e adap ed o di e en lea ning s yles [
19
], in o ma ion access is a pa icula ly impo an
componen in PLEs. E ec i e sea ching, along wi h il e ing and in o ma ion managemen a e essen ial
o uni e si y s uden s, pa icula ly in o de o p oduce mo e au onomous, li elong, lea ning p ocesses
which can and should be con inued a e uni e si y. Va ious s udies ha e indica ed ha his is one o
he mos help ul componen s o uni e si y s uden s’ PLEs [
20
–
22
]. Resul s o hose s udies no ed ha
he mos commonly used ools we e gene al sea ch engines and ideo channels, whe eas podcas s,
newsle e s, RSS eade s, and mic oblogging we e used less equen ly [20].
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180 3 o 11
Con en gene a ion ools and s a egies a e ano he PLE componen . Nowadays, s uden s ha e an
eno mous ange o applica ions (many o which a e ee) o c ea ing hei own con en . In his ega d,
he mul iplici y o esou ces allows skills o be de eloped which a e ela ed o e lec ion, summa izing
abili y, s uc u ing ideas, and c ea i i y, among o he s [
15
]. Gi en he indi idual na u e o PLEs, he e a e
no absolu ely equi ed ools o hem; howe e , some s udies [
23
,
24
] e e o esou ces such as blogs, wikis,
and social ne wo ks, among o he s, as use ul esou ces o de eloping PLEs. O he s udies [
21
,
25
,
26
]
indica e ha his componen ( ocused on con en c ea ion) is less well-de eloped in uni e si y s uden
PLEs due o s uden s no being awa e o many web 2.0 esou ces, as well as he use o adi ional desk op
ools ha make in e ac ion, collabo a i e wo king, and apid con en di usion di icul [25].
Las ly, he mos social componen o PLEs is abou sha ing in o ma ion and in e ac ing wi h
o he use s [
27
]. In his ega d, he nodes ha can be c ea ed be ween a ious connec ion op ions
a e impo an , gi ing ise o pe sonal knowledge ne wo ks (PKN) which anscend o mal educa ion,
and p o ide au onomous, li elong lea ning [
28
]. As wi h he p e ious componen s, he e a e many
esou ces ha allow in e ac ion, exchange o con en , and collabo a i e lea ning [
5
,
29
]. P e ious
s udies ha e indica ed ha he mos commonly-used ools o communica ion and publishing ocus on
social ne wo ks and ideo channels [
30
], pa icula ly ia mobile phones [
31
], al hough hey also no e
ha he use o hese ools is no necessa ily linked o o mal educa ion o educa ional aims [32].
4. Highe Educa ion and PLE
As no ed abo e, PLEs suppo sel -di ec ed and li elong lea ning, and one cha ac e is ic o his
educa ional app oach is he decen aliza ion o lea ning om he highe educa ion ins i u e owa ds
he s uden [
33
]. PLEs can be included in o mal and in o mal educa ional se ings; howe e , igh om
he s a , hey can lead o a pa h ha means including ICT h ough app op ia e eaching design [
8
]
which bene i s a ious subjec cu icula and has a posi i e impac on he s uden s.
Va ious s udies ha e linked he use o ICT wi h academic pe o mance, wi h s uden s making mo e
equen and e ec i e use o i ha ing highe g ades [
34
]. Simila ly, [
35
] ela ed alen ed s uden s wi h
amilia iza ion wi h digi al da a, along wi h he conscious design o hei PLEs, cha ac e ized by in e es
in sha ing and discussing hei knowledge du ing he educa ional p ocess. Howe e , he cons uc ion
and de elopmen o PLEs is no wi hou obs acles which may be echnical o pedagogical [
8
]. S uden s
need new skills and abili ies [
36
] o make he mos o he po en ial o ICT in hei PLEs, and hese skills
may be a ec ed i he s uden s do no see he bene i s, o i hei eache s lack aining [7,22].
Inaddi ion, some s udiesha e wa ned ha adi ionalmedia ion s a egiesin he eaching/lea ning
p ocess in o mal se ings, and pa icula ly uni e si ies, may be a he de imen o s uden PLEs due
o poo inclusion o ICT [
37
]. In con as , he e is a ange o ICT possibili ies ha can complemen
o mal educa ion which may be ealized ia he de elopmen o PLEs, cha ac e ized by being p ac ical,
open, dynamic, and allowing socializa ion and collabo a i e wo king [18].
5. Me hodology
This s udy is pa o a b oade p ojec analyzing PLEs in uni e si y s uden s. The s udy was
unde aken om a quan i a i e pe spec i e. We used a non-expe imen al [
38
], ansac ional design,
as we did no manipula e a iables, and da a we e collec ed a a single imepoin [39].
5.1. Objec i e and Hypo hesis
Bea ing in mind he abo e, ou o e all s udy objec i e is o analyze Cos a Rican uni e si y s uden s’
PLEs based on he ools hey use in he con ex o highe educa ion in each o he PLE componen s
(accessing in o ma ion, con en c ea ion, and communica ion). We hypo hesize he ollowing:
1.
The e will be signi ican di e ences wi h espec o sex in he equency o ICT use in each o he
PLE componen s.
2. Educa ion in ICT will p oduce signi ican di e ences in he de elopmen o s uden PLEs.
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180 4 o 11
3.
The e will be signi ican di e ences in s uden academic pe o mance in acco dance wi h he
de elopmen o PLEs.
5.2. Popula ion and Sample
The o e all popula ion (N =3165) comp ised inal-yea uni e si y s uden s ca ying ou ei he
bachelo ’s o licen ia e deg ees a he Cos a Rica Na ional Uni e si y (UNA) on he Oma Dengo and
Benjamin Núñez campuses.
The sample (n =1187) was s a i ied and p obabilis ic [
39
], wi h he s a a being he acul ies
making up he UNA. To calcula e he sample, we used he ini e popula ion o mula [
40
]: e o 3%,
95% con idence le el, and he expec ed p opo ion (p=5%). We also conside ed ep esen a i eness,
ga he ing da a om 51 cou ses in he se en knowledge a eas in he UNA.
The age o he s uden s in he sample anged om 20 o 57 yea s old, wi h a mean o 24 yea s
(SD =4.18). Almos wo- hi ds (64.1%) we e women; he emaining 35.9% we e men. In e ms o
academic pe o mance, 30.0% had ne e ailed a cou se and had a mean g ade o e 9; 26.6% had ne e
ailed a cou se bu had a mean g ade below 9; and 43.5% had ailed a leas one cou se.
5.3. Da a Collec ion Ins umen s and Techniques
We used a su ey o collec da a ia a ques ionnai e c ea ed ad hoc ollowing a ho ough e iew o
he li e a u e and bea ing in mind he heo e ical and me hodological guidelines o c ea ing hese ypes
o ins umen s [
41
]. The ins umen was cons uc ed in di e en blocks o closed ques ions. In his
s udy, we p esen da a om he block ela ed o ICT in o mal educa ion, which had 30 Like - ype
i ems measu ing he h ee PLE componen s: inding, c ea ing, and sha ing in o ma ion. Each i em had
5 esponse op ions ( om 1 =ne e o 5 =always). In e nal consis ency es ing ia C onbach’s alpha
ga e a coe icien o α=0.83.
5.4. P ocedu e and Da a Analysis
To ensu e con en alidi y, we submi ed he ques ionnai e o expe alida ion. I was e iewed
by 20 p o essionals in highe educa ion, esea ch me hodology, and educa ional echnology. Based
on hei assessmen , we c ea ed he i s e sion o he scale. Tha was submi ed o a pilo s udy
wi h 45 s uden s wi h simila cha ac e is ics o he inal sample. The esul s o ha es allowed us o
con i m ha he scale unc ioned in ha con ex . A p in ed e sion o he ques ionnai e was gi en
ou in class ooms, and s uden s we e gi en 20 min o comple e i . The i s page o he ins umen
in o med s uden s o he esea ch objec i es; he p ocedu es o handling da a; and he olun a y,
anonymous, and con iden ial na u e o he s udy, as well as in o ming hem ha hey could d op ou
o he s udy a any ime wi hou gi ing any explana ion. As hey we e all adul s, we ob ained o al
in o med consen , and hem handing in he comple ed ques ionnai e implied hei consen o us o
use he da a o he s udy objec i e.
Once we had collec ed he in o ma ion, we p oduced a da abase using SPSS .21. We pe o med
desc ip i e es s abou posi ion and dis ibu ion. Following ha , we ca ied ou Pea son co ela ions
be ween he s udy a iables. Finally, we pe o med compa isons be ween g oups using MANOVA,
ANOVA, and he S uden es , ollowing con i ma ion o no mali y (using he Kolmogo o –Smi no
es o di e en g oups) and equali y o a iance (using Le ene’s es ).
6. Resul s
6.1. Desc ip i e Analysis o he ICT Tools in Fo mal Lea ning Scale
Fi s , we calcula ed s a is ics o cen al endency and dis ibu ion o he i ems making up he
scale (Table 1). In he accessing in o ma ion componen , he mos o en-used ools we e gene al sea ch
engines wi h a mean o 4.29 (SD =1.11), ad anced sea ch engines (M =4.15, SD =1.20), and ideo
channels (M =3.78, SD =1.18). The leas -used ools o inding in o ma ion we e massi e open online
cou ses (MOOCs) (M =1.48, SD =0.97), in o ma ion managemen applica ions (M =1.77, SD =1.18),
and he Na ional Uni e si y a chi es (M =2.70, SD =1.48).
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180 5 o 11
Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o ganized by pe sonal lea ning en i onmen s (PLE) componen s.
12345MSD
n % n % n % n % n %
Accessing in o ma ion
1. Blogs, wikis, websi es . . . o eading 85 7.2 157 13.3 299 25.3 324 27.4 316 26.8 3.53 1.22
4. Video u o ials (You ube, Vimeo, e c.) 54 4.6 96 8.2 338 28.9 345 29.5 337 28.8 3.70 1.11
17. Ins i u ional a chi es 379 32.8 156 13.5 238 20.6 193 16.7 188 16.3 2.70 1.48
18. Video Channels (YouTube, e c.) sea ching o in o ma ion 67 5.7 92 7.8 297 25.2 300 25.4 424 35.9 3.78 1.18
20. Ad anced sea ch engines (Google schola , e c.) 80 6.8 53 4.5 129 11.0 263 22.4 651 55.4 4.15 1.20
23. “Read la e ” applica ions (Pocke , Ins apape , e c.) 740 62.7 168 14.2 142 12.0 68 5.8 63 5.3 1.77 1.18
24. Massi e Open Online Cou ses (MOOC) 878 74.2 147 12.4 87 7.4 36 3.0 35 3.0 1.48 0.97
26. Specialis da abases in you a ea o s udy 111 9.5 93 8.0 240 20.5 297 25.4 428 36.6 3.72 1.29
27. Gene al sea ch engines (Google, Bing, Yahoo, e c.) 52 4.5 52 4.5 117 10.2 219 19.0 710 61.7 4.29 1.11
35. Podcas lis ening ools (SoundCloud, iVoox, Spo i y, e c.) 544 44.2 148 12.6 188 15.9 117 9.9 205 17.4 2.44 1.54
Con en c ea ion
3. Image edi o s (Pho oshop, Gimp, iMo ie, e c.) 3282 32.4 267 22.6 303 25.7 142 12.0 86 7.3 2.39 1.11
5. Audio edi ing ools (Audaci y, Adobe Audi ion, SoundFo ge, e c.) 605 51.0 264 22.4 165 14.0 91 7.7 54 4.6 1.92 1.17
6. Mul imedia c ea ion esou ces (P ezi, Glogs e , Pow oon, e c.) 164 13.9 176 14.9 276 23.4 269 22.8 297 25.1 3.30 1.36
13. Tex p ocesso s (Wo d, W i e, Wo dpad, e c.) 21 1.8 19 1.6 42 3.6 112 9.5 986 83.6 4.71 0.76
14. Sp eadshee s (Excel, e c.) 152 13.0 158 13.5 253 21.6 252 21.5 356 30.4 3.43 1.38
19. Digi al ask manage s (E e no e, T ello, Wunde Lis , Google Tasks, e c.) 592 49.9 207 17.5 182 15.3 121 10.2 84 7.1 2.07 1.30
21. Digi al p ojec managemen (MS P ojec , Basecamp, Gan PV, e c.) 780 66.1 181 15.3 136 11.5 55 4.7 28 2.4 1.62 1.02
28. In o ma ion c ea ion ools (blog, wiki, YouTube) 292 25.4 238 20.7 259 21.8 164 14.3 197 17.1 2.77 1.41
29. Da a analysis p og ams (SPSS, A las i, e c.) 598 50.8 171 14.5 206 17.5 120 10.2 82 7.0 2.08 1.31
32. Collabo a i e documen c ea ion (Google Docs, e c.) 108 9.3 70 6.0 132 11.3 231 19.8 623 53.5 4.02 1.31
36. P esen a ions (Powe Poin , Keyno e, e c.). 52 4.4 20 1.7 110 9.3 258 21.9 737 62.6 4.37 1.03
Sha ing in o ma ion
2. Mic oblogging ne wo ks (Twi e , e c.) 598 52.3 261 22.8 157 13.7 70 6.1 58 5.1 1.89 1.16
7. Ne wo ks o ga he ing and commen ing on con en (Tumbl , Pin e es , ScoopI )
580 49.2 235 19.9 193 16.4 87 7.4 83 7.0 2.03 1.26
8. P o essional ne wo ks (LinkedIn, e c.) 588 50.1 218 18.6 201 17.1 103 8.8 64 5.5 2.01 1.23
9. Gene al social ne wo ks (Facebook, Ins ag am, Google+) 245 20.9 215 18.4 239 20.4 174 14.9 298 25.4 3.06 1.48
10. Mobile messaging (Wha sApp, e c.) 45 3.9 42 3.6 157 13.5 229 19.7 687 59.2 4.27 1.07
11. Email, calenda , ask, and con ac manage s, e c. (Ou look, Gmail, e c.) 19 1.6 19 1.6 60 5.1 203 17.1 883 74.6 4.61 0.79
12. Videocon e encing (Skype, e c.) 405 34.1 243 20.6 265 22.5 167 14.2 99 8.4 2.42 1.31
15. Social bookma king (Delicious, Diigo, e c.) 966 82.3 113 9.6 53 4.5 23 2.0 19 1.6 1.31 0.79
22. S o ing and exchanging iles in he cloud (D opbox, D i e, Box, Oned i e) 41 3.5 50 4.2 136 11.5 256 21.6 703 59.3 4.29 1.05
No e: n =1187; esponse op ions 1 =“ne e ”; 2 =“almos ne e ”; 3 =“occasionally”; 4 =“almos always”; 5 =“always”; M =mean; SD =s anda d de ia ion.

Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180 6 o 11
Fo con en c ea ion, s uden s mos o en used ex p ocesso s (M =4.71, SD =0.76), esou ces
o c ea ing p esen a ions (M =4.37, SD =1.03), and esou ces o collabo a i e wo king (M =4.02,
SD =1.31). The ools hey used leas o en we e digi al ask manage s (M =2.07, SD =1.30) and da a
analysis p og ams (M =2.08, SD =1.31).
Las ly, he mos commonly used ools o sha ing in o ma ion we e email (M =4.61, SD =0.79),
applica ions o cloud s o age and exchange o in o ma ion (M =4.29, SD =1.05), and mobile messaging
(M =4.27, SD =1.07). The ools s uden s used leas o en we e social bookma king (M =1.31, SD =0.79),
mic oblogging ne wo ks (M =1.89, SD =1.16), and p o essional ne wo ks (M =2.01, SD =1.23).
We calcula ed Pea son co ela ions be ween he o e all scale and he componen s. Table 2gi es
he coe icien s, which we e posi i e and high, anging be ween 0.57 and 0.87. Wi h ega d o in e nal
consis ency, C onbach alpha coe icien s we e sa is ac o y. Finally, i is wo h no ing ha he highes
sco ing componen was in o ma ion access (M =3.34; SD =0.62), ollowed by sha ing in o ma ion
(M =3.04; SD =0.59), and las ly con en gene a ion (M =2.97; SD =0.59). The mean in he o e all scale
was M =3.00 (SD =0.50).
Table 2. Co ela ion ma ix and desc ip i e s a is ics o he o e all scale and componen s.
1 2 3 4 Al a M SD Sk Rku
Access (1) 1 0.617 ** 0.569 ** 0.848 ** 0.73 3.34 0.62 −0.15 0.15
C ea ion (2) 0.617 ** 1 0.595 ** 0.870 ** 0.76 2.97 0.59 0.12 0.18
Sha ing (3) 0.569 ** 0.595 ** 1 0.802 ** 0.75 3.04 0.59 0.01 0.07
O e all scale (4) 0.848 ** 0.870 ** 0.802 ** 1 0.83 3.00 0.50 0.15 0.60
No e: ** The co ela ion is signi ican a he le el o 0.01 (bila e al). 1 =“access”; 2 =“c ea ion”; 3 =“sha ing”;
4=“o e all scale”; Al a =C onbach alpha coe icien ; M =mean; SD =s anda d de ia ion; Sk =skewness;
Rku =ku osis.
6.2. Analysis o Sex-Rela ed Di e ences in he Use o ICT
We used he S uden es o iden i y sex- ela ed di e ences in he use o ICT. We i s es ed
no mali y, using he Kolmogo o –Smi no es (p>0.05) o bo h g oups (men and women), and he
equali y o a iance using Le ene’s es (p alue >0.05). As Table 3shows, women had highe mean
sco es, wi h signi ican di e ences in he o e all scale and i s h ee componen s.
Table 3. Resul s o he S uden es wi h espec o sex.
Va iable “Sex” G oup S a is ics T Tes o Equi alence o Means
Sex Mean SD d Sig. (Bila e al)
Access M 3.31 0.61 2.469 1183 0.014
F 3.41 0.66
C ea ion M 2.98 0.62 2.967 1183 0.003
F 3.09 0.68
Sha ing M 3.01 0.64 3.745 1183 0.000
F 3.15 0.64
O e all scale M 3.00 0.54 3.441 1183 0.001
F 3.11 0.60
No e: SD =s anda d de ia ion; d =deg ees o eedom; Sig =signi icance.
6.3. Analysis o Di e ences Rela ed o he Va iable Educa ion in ICT
The majo i y o s uden s (80.9%) epo ed ha ing ca ied ou speci ic cou ses in ICT, while 19.1%
had no . O hose who had ecei ed ICT aining, 38% had done so as pa o hei deg ee cu iculum,
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180 7 o 11
while he o he 62% had done so in in o mal se ings. Only 13.4% epo ed ha ing ca ied ou a i ual
cou se, o mal o o he wise.
Fi s , we es ed no mali y using he Kolmogo o –Smi no es , gi ing a non-signi ican “p” le el
(p>0.05) o he wo g oups (wi h and wi hou ICT aining). We also pe o med Le ene’s es (p- alue
>0.05) o es he equali y o a iances. The esul s o he S uden es (Table 4) compa ing he means
be ween g oups showed ha s uden s who had p e iously been educa ed in ICT had highe sco es in
he o e all scale as well as in each o he componen s. This con i ms ha he e we e di e ences in he
use o each o he PLE componen s wi h ega d o he a iable educa ion in ICT.
Table 4. G oup s a is ics and esul s o S uden es wi h espec o he a iable educa ion in ICT.
Va iable “ICT Educa ion”
G oup S a is ics T Tes o Equali y o Means
ICT
Educa ion Mean SD d Sig. (Bila e al)
Access Yes 3.37 0.63 3.184 1180 0.001
No 3.21 0.57
C ea ion Yes 3.00 0.59 3.616 1180 0.000
No 2.84 0.56
Sha ing Yes 3.07 0.60 3.759 1180 0.000
No 2.91 0.55
O e all scale Yes 3.03 0.51 3.923 1180 0.000
No 2.88 0.46
No e: SD =s anda d de ia ion; d =deg ees o eedom; Sig =signi icance.
6.4. Analysis o Di e ences in he Use o ICT in Highe Educa ion in Rela ion o he Va iable
Academic Pe o mance
We pe o med a unidi ec ional mul i a ia e analysis o a iance be ween g oups o examine he
di e ences in s uden s’ academic pe o mance (independen a iable) in ega d o he ICT use scale,
using he componen s o ha scale as he dependen a iables. Be o e ca ying ou he MANOVA
o he academic pe o mance a iable, we examined he homogenei y o co a iance using Box’s
M es , he esul o which (Box M =247.9 F =12.3 p=0.000) showed ha he assump ion was no
me . Due o ha , we chose o use Pillai’s T ace o analyze he mul i a ia e signi icance o he main
e ec s, ollowing he ecommenda ions om [
42
]. The MANOVA showed a signi ican main e ec
o academic pe o mance: Pillai’s T ace =0.064, F (8,2346) =9.727, p=0.000,
η
2=0.032. Subsequen
uni a ia e ANOVA es s demons a ed ha s uden s who had no ailed any cou ses and who had
mean g ades abo e 9 sco ed signi ican ly highe in he use o ICT (F (2,1175) =29.65, p=0.000) han
hose who had no ailed any cou ses bu had mean g ades below 9, and hose who had ailed cou ses.
We ound he same o each o he componen s: accessing in o ma ion (F (2,1175) =6.506, p=0.002),
con en c ea ion (F (2,1175) =30.73, p=0.000), and sha ing in o ma ion (F (2,1175) =6.438, p=0.002).
As Table 5shows, we ound di e ences in bo h he o e all scale and each o he PLE componen s.
The esul s show g ea e use o ICT esou ces by s uden s who ha e mean g ades abo e 9 han ei he
o he o he wo g oups.
Table 5.
Desc ip i e s a is ics (mean and s anda d de ia ion) o use o ICT ools in ela ion o
academic pe o mance.
Mean G ade o e 9 (no ails) Mean G ade unde 9 (no ails) Failed A Leas One Cou se
M SD M SD M SD
Access 3.50 0.69 3.23 0.61 3.24 0.63
C ea ion 3.26 0.78 2.96 0.59 2.96 0.58
Sha ing 3.30 0.69 3.00 0.58 3.01 0.63
O e all scale 3.26 0.70 3.00 0.48 2.98 0.52
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180 8 o 11
7. Discussion and Conclusions
Bea ing in mind he changes in educa ional p ocesses om he inclusion o ICT [
1
,
2
], i is impo an
o analyze he PLEs o uni e si y s uden s—who will soon be joining he labo o ce— o unde s and he
con ibu ion o highe educa ion. In his ega d, de eloping PLEs can s imula e and s eng hen skills
ha mode n socie y needs [3,36], in addi ion o wha i can con ibu e o a ious a eas o socie y [4].
Ou esul s show how uni e si y s uden s use di e en ools in hei PLEs du ing he o mal
lea ning p ocess du ing highe educa ion. S uden s had mode a e sco es in he o e all scale, in line
wi h indica ions om some au ho s [
7
] abou he use o ICT in highe educa ion no necessa ily leading
o imp o emen s o he educa ional p ocess [
32
]. In his ega d, i is necessa y o he uni e si y o
encou age he de elopmen o PLEs ia designs ha include s a egies, ools, and eme ging heo ies [
8
],
and which also acili a e au onomous, li elong, and li e-wide lea ning [10,11].
Speci ically, we ound he highes sco es in he accessing in o ma ion componen , al hough hey
we e mode a e, in line wi h o he simila s udies [
21
,
22
]. The mos commonly-used ools we e gene al
sea ch engines, ad anced sea ch engines, and ideo channels, while he leas -commonly used we e
MOOCs, in o ma ion managemen applica ions, and ins i u ional a chi es. This is consis en wi h he
esul s o p e ious s udies [
20
]. The lack o awa eness and scan use o esou ces such as podcas s,
newsle e s, RSS eade s, o p o essional ne wo ks shows ha s uden s we e no making he mos
o he po en ial o ICT in sea ching o and accessing in o ma ion in highe educa ion. This is an
impo an aspec conside ing he as amoun o in o ma ion a ailable o s uden s, he many o ma s
ha align wi h di e en lea ning s yles [
19
], and he need o il e and manage i in o de o p ope ly
inco po a e i in o he lea ning p ocess [18].
Con en gene a ion p oduced he lowes sco es, as p e ious esea ch has also epo ed [
21
,
25
,
26
].
This may be de imen al o ac i i ies wi hin he PLE such as e lec ion, summa y, c ea i i y,
and o ganiza ion [
15
], and is some hing ha should be ein o ced in o mal educa ional se ings. Wi hin
con en gene a ion, he mos commonly-used esou ces we e ex p ocesso s, applica ions o p oducing
p esen a ions, and esou ces o collabo a i e wo king. Li le-used esou ces included digi al ask
managemen and p og ams o managemen and analysis o da a. Al hough PLEs a e cha ac e ized by
being lexible, dynamic, and indi idual, some au ho s [
23
,
24
] ha e sugges ed esou ces ha would
acili a e hei cons uc ion and ein o cemen . I is no able how s uden s only used web 2.0 esou ces
aimed a c ea ing collabo a i e con en , and we e much mo e likely o use desk op esou ces ha make
i ha de o sha e in o ma ion o in e ac wi h o he use s, which is in line wi h indings om o he
s udies [
25
]. This may be ein o ced by adi ional highe educa ion p ac ices in which ICT ha dly
ea u es [37] despi e he many possibili ies i o e s.
As wi h he o he componen s, we ound mode a e sco es in sha ing in o ma ion, some hing
which a ec s he social s uc u e o PLEs [27]. S uden s we e no making he mos o he s eng hs o
ICT o in e ac ion and exchange o con en , wi h he idea ha no one lea ns alone, and hey we e ailing
o ake ad an age o collabo a i e lea ning oppo uni ies [
5
,
15
]. The mos commonly-used esou ces
we e email manage s, and esou ces aimed a cloud s o age and in o ma ion exchange, and mobile
applica ions, which is simila o esul s om o he s udies [
30
,
31
]. The scan use o social bookma king,
mic oblogging, and p o essional ne wo ks may nega i ely a ec he c ea ion o PKNs [
28
] ou side he
uni e si y se ing. This may lead o s agna ion o s uden s’ au onomous lea ning in he di e en a eas
o pe o mance [13].
Ou analysis con i med all o ou hypo heses. In e ms o sex, he e we e signi ican di e ences
in he equency o use o ICT ools in each o he PLE componen s, wi h women making mo e use
o hem. This inding suppo s he esul s o o he simila s udies [
43
]. Howe e , i is impo an o
highligh wha is mo e con o e sial om ou analysis in he ace o a lack o conclusi e s udies,
and he con lic ing esul s in ha ega d.
Ou da a analysis con i med ha educa ion in ICT p oduced signi ican di e ences in s uden s’
PLEs. Mo e speci ically, s uden s who had ecei ed some aining in ICT sco ed highe in he o e all
PLE scale and in each o he componen s. The compe encies needed o e ec i ely use ICT a e changing
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 8180 9 o 11
as he ools p oli e a e [
36
], especially web 2.0 and he seman ic web 3.0 [
37
]. Gi en ha , and as long as
highe educa ion does no in eg a e open, lexible s a egies wi h s udy plans [
18
], i becomes necessa y
o p o ide aining h ough speci ic cou ses which add ess echnical, and pa icula ly pedagogical,
aspec s [37].
The e we e also signi ican di e ences in s uden s’ academic pe o mance acco ding o he
de elopmen o PLEs. S uden s who made mo e use o ICT in hei PLEs had highe mean g ades.
This is in line wi h indings om o he s udies [
34
,
35
] which also no e he impo ance o conscious
cons uc ion and de elopmen o PLEs, and ha hei po en ial lies, beyond he esou ces used, in a
comp ehensi e, pedagogical app oach o he idea [15,37].
I is wo h no ing ha o add ess some o he limi a ions o his s udy, i would be use ul o
b oaden he sample o o he uni e si ies and highe educa ion ins i u ions in Cos a Rica, and e en o
ex end he esea ch o o he coun ies, o allow compa isons o be made. I would also be in e es ing o
implemen a longi udinal s udy ha would allow us o see how s uden use o ICT ools changes o e
ime in o mal lea ning en i onmen s. In addi ion, complemen ing his s udy wi h a mo e quali a i e
s udy would allow us o iangula e da a, p oducing iche , mo e alid esul s.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, J.-A.G.-M., F.-C.R.-N.; I.R.-T., and S.L.-C.; o mal analysis, J.-A.G.-M.,
I.R.-T., and E.-J.F.-A.; me hodology, J.-A.G.-M. and S.L.-C.; alida ion, J.-A.G.-M., F.-C.R.-N., E.-J.F.-A., J.-A.G.-M.,
F.-C.R.-N., and E.-J.F.-A.; o mal analysis, J.-A.G.-M. and I.R.-T. All au ho s equally con ibu ed o he w i ing and
e iew o his a icle. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This a icle was p oduced wi hin he esea ch amewo k: “Ecolog
í
as de ap endizaje en la e a digi al:
nue as opo unidades pa a la o maci
ó
n del p o eso ado de educaci
ó
n secunda ia” (Lea ning ecologies in he
digi al age: new oppo uni ies o seconda y educa ion eache aining) (ECO4LEARN-SE), pa ially inanced by
he Minis y o Science, Inno a ion, and Uni e si ies (Re e ence RTI2018-095690-B-I00).
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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