Water and Climate Change, Two Key Objectives in the Agenda 2030: Assessment of Climate Literacy Levels and Social Representations in Academics from Three Climate Contexts

water Article Water and Climate Change, Two Key Objectives in the Agenda 2030: Assessment of Climate Literacy Levels and Social Representations in Academics from Three Climate Contexts Amor Escoz-Roldán1, JoséGutiérrez-Pérez 1,* and Pablo Ángel Meira-Cartea 2 1Department of Educational Methodology Research, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; [email protected] 2Department Pedagogy and Didactic, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 15705 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; [email protected] *Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 18 November 2019; Accepted: 24 December 2019; Published: 26 December 2019   Abstract: The relationship between climate change and water is an obvious and key issue within the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. This study aims to investigate the social representation created around this relationship in three different territorial contexts in order to evaluate the influence of the territory on the perception of the risk of climate change and its relationship with water. By means of a questionnaire completed by 1709 university students, the climatic literacy of the individual was evaluated in order to relate it to other dimensions on the relationship between climate change and water (information, training previous on climate change and pro-environmental attitudes) in their different dimensions in three different territorial contexts. Three hypotheses have been tested: (1) The denial of the CC is significantly associated with a representation that belittles the consequences of global warming and other extreme phenomena. (2) Territorial contexts with high average rainfall levels and low average annual temperatures tend to minimize the social representation of water risks associated with the CC. (3) There is significant interaction between the socio-cultural context and social representations on the causes, consequences and solutions to the problems of CC and water. The first two hypotheses have been rejected, while the third has been accepted. The research results show high climate literacy in the samples of selected university students. It is noted that students recognize a close relationship between the problem of water and the climate crisis. Likewise, they identify different types of causes, consequences, physical processes and solutions. Different climatological contexts do not show significant differences in the social representations that students show about climate change, while socio-educational variables such as available scientific information, or ideology orientation do show significant differences. Keywords: water; climate change; territorial context; Sustainable Development Goals; Agenda 2030; university students; climate literacy; social representation 1. Introduction Water, that simple molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, is one of the essential elements of the planet. Without water there is no life. Paradoxically, however, this particularly important fact does not seem to concern us, since until a decade ago water supply and sanitation was not considered an expressly recognized human right [ 1 ]: “All persons have the right to sufficient, safe, physically accessible, affordable and of acceptable quality water for personal and domestic use on a continuous basis”. Water 2020,12, 92; doi:10.3390/w12010092 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2020,12, 92 2 of 33 Water is a basic necessity for all living beings, essential in the configuration of environmental systems. It constitutes more than 80% of the body of most living beings, intervenes in their metabolic processes and is a fundamental part of the photosynthesis of plants, in addition to being the habitat of a wide variety of living beings. We depend on water to generate and maintain activities such as agriculture, fishing, energy production, industry, transport or tourism. Depending on their availability, we decide where to settle our population centres and how to occupy the territory; being a source of geopolitical conflicts when it is scarce [2]. According to the World Health Organization, some 5200 million people use safe and uncontaminated managed drinking water services, while nearly 30% of other people do not have direct drinking water services, so more than 1300 billion have access to an improved water source within 30 minutes (on a round trip), 263 million have an improved water source more than 30 minutes away, 423 million people draw water from unprotected wells and springs, and 159 million people collect untreated surface water from lakes, ponds, rivers or streams. Poor sanitation and pollution lead to the transmission of diseases such as cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, typhoid fever, polio, trachoma, intestinal worms, dengue or schistosomiasi, ... through exposure to infested water. Lack of water, sanitation and hygiene are the main causes of neglected tropical diseases that affect more than 1500 million people each year [3]. Whenwatercomesfrom safesources, this translatesintopositiveeconomicandsocialconsequences and a significant reduction in human disease and risk. However, water as a natural resource and an essential element for life and ecosystems on the planet is being severely affected by the consequences of climate change (CC). New scenarios of crisis and risk derived from the increase of the temperatures, the increase of the levels of evaporation, the torrential rains, floods, thaw, rise of the sea level, advance of the deforestation and desertification... force the investigators to dedicate more attention to this topics, focusing the problem from the complexity of their interactions, and not as isolated and independent aspects. The scarcity of research undertaken in the field of social sciences [ 4 ] justifies the study we present. The response of human societies to the climate crisis will not depend solely on the best available science. The ‘human factor’, in all its dimensions and expressions, is going to be fundamental in avoiding the worst-case scenarios of the future. It is necessary to increase the contribution of the Social Sciences to the knowledge of how people and human communities interpret, value, act and change—or not—in the face of the climate crisis. The incorporation of the social scientists’ perspective into the politics on the CC is feasible and necessary [5]. Working Group III of the IPCC has demanded socio-environmental research beyond the hard science agenda. The report identifies more than 20 topics for future research along these lines, including the fields of study of behavioural sciences, education and communication [ 6 ]; it also underlines the need to focus social research on reducing epistemic uncertainty about social perceptions and responses to the CC. There is significant evidence in the body of empirical literature concerning the influence of certain variables on the recognition of the CC as an established scientific phenomenon on which there is consensus in the research community [ 7 ]. Recently, psychosocial and educational aspects such as the influence of the perception of the seriousness of environmental problems, personal experiences in this regard, the proximity or remoteness of finished specific problems, the effectiveness of certain educational programs have begun to gain interest. In this study we focus on an evaluation of the social representations of citizens of southern Europe, who reside in three territorial contexts of the Iberian Peninsula, with different climatic and cultural conditions. We try to reveal the incidence of these factors, together with a series of other context variables (climate denialism, academic cultures, perception of the severity of risks, involvement in pro-environmental activities and associations, among others) and their influence on literacy on CC and its interaction with different dimensions related to water, its natural cycle, decisions on its management and sanitation, as well as the consequences for populations and ecosystems. Water 2020,12, 92 3 of 33 2. Water Crisis, CC and Objectives of Research 2.1. Water Crisis and CC The water crisis can be defined in different contexts, related to scarcity, insecurity, availability, unhealthiness, potabilization, demand, the threat of floods; contexts intimately related to each other and directly associated with the consequences of the CC: (1) First, we talk about scarcity and insecurity, as water availability per person worldwide has fallen by 55% since 1960, and demand is expected to grow by 50% by 2030 [ 8 ]. Considering the above population increase (9.7 million in 2050), it is estimated that, of these, 3900 million will live in river basins extremely affected by water stress, which means that the forecast for 2050 is that water demand will increase by 400% for industry and 130% for domestic use [ 9 ]. Human insecurity linked to water is exacerbated by drought, affecting more people than any other type of natural disaster. One example is the 411 million people affected by natural disasters in 2016, 94% of whom were caused by drought, with direct consequences for agriculture. There are also areas on the planet where water stress is greater due to the increase in the economy and population, which requires more land for food production and, therefore, greater difficulties in managing water resources properly and sustainably, which will be even more difficult due to the CC (temperature increases that will lead to greater evaporation of water). If in addition to this transboundary conflicts are added by the management of the water of a river by different countries with different interests, the problem is aggravated even more, making the availability of water less due to pollution, construction of dams, population demand, etc., which makes it very necessary to propose models of future socioeconomic scenarios to adapt sustainably to the increase in water demand and ensure food security which is intimately related to water and climate [10,11]. (2) Water-related disasters account for 70% of all deaths related to extreme weather events [ 12 ]. It is estimated that by 2050 between 150 and 200 million people may have to leave their areas of residence duetophenomenasuch asdesertification, the increaseinextremeweather events—floods have been the most frequent global natural disaster in the last two decades [ 13 ] or rising sea levels [ 14 ]. In addition, the population living on land prone to flooding, the consequences of climate change, deforestation, loss of wetlands and rising sea levels are expected to increase this year, increasing the number of people vulnerable to flood disasters by 2 billion [15]. (3) A third context in the water crisis is sanitation and its relationship to health. Although improvements in supply have been increasing, 663 million people did not have access to improved drinking water sources in 2015 [ 16 ]. Even so, these sources are not always safe: according to WHO, some 45 million people in Bangladesh drink water with arsenic concentrations higher than those permitted by WHO. On the other hand, when it comes to women and girls, sanitation services are even more important because they are intimately related to their health, which is put at risk when they are absent or unsafe. In addition, in the case of children, diarrhoeal diseases caused by poor sanitation cause one in nine deaths, with diarrhoea being the third leading cause of death in children under five worldwide despites being an easily preventable infection. In a 2015 survey of lowand middle-income countries, 38 per cent of health facilities did not have access to a source of safe drinking water, 35% had neither soap nor water, and 19% had no improved sanitation, exacerbating the problem [9]. (4) Another determinant of the water crisis is the current pace of development, as not enough is being invested in water supply, sanitation and hygiene: in order to achieve the water-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), three times more capital would be needed than the current investment [ 17 ]. The rampant increase in meat consumption is causing the consumption of water for livestock to soar: while to produce 1 kg of rice requires 3500 litres of water, to produce 1 kg of meat requires 15,000 litres, adding that methane emissions from livestock wastewater could increase by 50% and nitrous oxide emissions by 25% between 1990 and 2020 [ 18 ]. Overall, the food Water 2020,12, 92 4 of 33 industry in both lowand high-income countries contributes 54% and 40%, respectively, to the discharge of organic pollutants into water [ 19 ]. On the other hand, other types of human activities also degrade water resources; without going any further, two million tons of human waste are emptied into watercourses every day [ 20 ] and an estimated 15–18 million m 3 of freshwater resources are polluted by fossil fuels [21]. (5) Ecosystem degradation is another expression of the global water crisis. The 12.6 million global deathsattributedto theenvironmentin2012[ 22 ]areclearevidencethatenvironmentaldegradation is intimately linked to health. By 2050, the number of eutrophicated lakes is expected to increase by 20%, which means that by the same date one third of the world’s population will face risks from excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water associated with this phenomenon [ 23 ]. On the other hand, since 1900, 64% of the world’s wetlands have disappeared [ 24 ] and it is estimated that in the period 1970–2010 populations of freshwater species declined by about 76% [ 25 ]. In addition, one third of the world’s amphibians are at risk of extinction, as are 50% of native freshwater fish species [26]. (6) Another very important exampleofecosystem degradation is the alterationofpeatlands. Although they cover only 3% of the Earth’s surface, if they remain humid they can store approximately twice as much carbon as all the world’s forests combined. The loss of 15% of these ecosystems would cause a contribution equal to 5% of anthropogenic CO 2 emissions worldwide [ 27 ]. In the Nordic and Baltic states, 45% of peatlands have been drained, which is currently emitting approximately 80 megatons of CO2per year, accounting for 25% of these countries’ total CO2emissions. (7) Among the most degraded ecosystems are rivers and oceans. Due to the enormous amount of plastics, among other waste, that we dispose of in them. According to a report by the European Environment Agency, it is estimated that each year 10 million tonnes of waste are dumped into the sea, plastics being the most common type of waste because of the exponential increase in the production of these materials since 1950, going from 1.5 million tonnes per year to 280 million tonnes today. Of the 10 million tons of garbage that end up in the oceans, 8 million tons are plastics; a quarter of this amount comes from only ten rivers in the world and eight of those rivers are in Asia. The researchers, through a model that included data from studies on 57 rivers in different parts of the world, found that they pour between half a million and 2.75 million tons of plastic into the sea each year and the ten that transport 93% of these plastics are the rivers Yangts é , Amarillo, Hai, de las Perlas, Amur, Mekong, Indo and Ganges in Asia, and the Niger and Nile rivers in Africa. The Yangtze River alone discharges up to 1.5 million tons of plastic waste annually into the Yellow Sea [28]. (8) In addition to providing a high value ecosystem service, water is an indispensable element for the life of all living organisms on the planet and is also a vector for climate and weather regulation. The flow of clean, uncontaminated water ensures the sustainability of ecosystems and increases the likelihood of people’s health. This resource is not unlimited as one would expect from the perception that one often has of its cycle. That is why knowing the perception of water in all its spheres (health, hygiene, development, climate regulation, etc.) becomes especially important to act in a more incisive way through education and awareness, both in children and adults. (9) Coastalfloodhazardmodelling scenarios fromsea-levelriseby2050estimatethatabout300million people live in flood-prone coastal areas. The highest risk areas of the Iberian Peninsula are located in Doñana, Delta del Ebro, Manga del Mar Menor and coastal municipalities of Huelva and Cadiz [29]. 2.2. Objectives of Research • O #1 : To assess the degree of climate literacy around the relationship between water and climate change (extreme weather events, rising sea levels, desertification, etc.) in university students from three different climatological and cultural contexts of the Iberian Peninsula. Water 2020,12, 92 5 of 33 • O #2 : To assess whether the climate literacy of these students corresponds to pro-environmental attitudes and the information they claim to have on different aspects of the CC and its relationship with water. • O #3 : To compare the results in the three contexts analysed in order to determine which factor (territory, climate or common culture) influences the social representation of university students around the relationship between water and the CC. As indicated in the previous points, and in order to better understand the objectives of this research, is presented below the specific problem suffered by the Iberian Peninsula in relation to the water crisis due, among other aspects, to CC. 3. Background According to WWF’s October 2019 Water Scarcity and Droughts Report [ 30 ], the Iberian Peninsula has traditionally lived with scarce and highly variable water resources and will have to face increasingly severe extreme phenomena in the near future. Droughts are natural and recurrent phenomena in the Iberian Peninsula due to its predominantly Mediterranean climate, with a very variable rainfall regime and, on the other hand, water scarcity problems arise once water demand and supply are unbalanced. In the Iberian Peninsula, drought episodes have increased in duration and severity, and the uncertainties to prevent them are very high. As the water regime is very variable and with a marked dry season, the Iberian Peninsula has high variability of annual rainfall, and because of these conditions, most rivers are temporary and wetlands are fully adapted to suffer low water levels and even dry completely for many months as part of their ecological requirements. Furthermore, rivers depend to a large extent on their interactions with aquifers when they are connected, which is part of the natural response to the annual dry season and eventual droughts, which guarantees the health of the aquatic ecosystems of the Iberian Peninsula both of rivers and of wetlands and aquifers, and constitutes the basis of their state of conservation. However, both Portugal and Spain have a very high demand for water for different uses related to an unsustainable increase in intensive agriculture that has led to the modification and regulation with large dams of the vast majority of the rivers flowing in the Iberian Peninsula, in order to supply water to irrigators, which has led to the drying of much of the wetlands of both countries, in order to recover fertile land for agriculture. On the other hand, changes in land use and vegetation, due to urbanization and the expansion of intensive agriculture have significantly increased the risk of desertification and aridity in many areas characterized by high temperatures and low rainfall. In addition, in large parts of Spain and Portugal the natural and adapted characteristics of typical aquatic ecosystems have been destroyed to cope with dry seasons and periods of drought and many of the aquifers suffer one of the highest exploitation rates in Europe, which poses an additional threat to these “natural reserves” for aquatic ecosystems during these dry periods. 3.1. Territorial Contextualisation of the Study The territorial areas chosen for this study are three cities: Granada, Santiago de Compostela and Braga. All three are located in the Iberian Peninsula, which is located in southwestern Europe surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, joining the rest of the continent in the northeast. Almost the entire surface of the peninsula is occupied by Spain and Portugal. The peninsula is 582,918 km 2 , of which 493,515 km 2 belong to Spain, 88,944 km 2 to Portugal, 453 km 2 to Andorra and 6 km 2 to Gibraltar. For this study we will only consider Spain and Portugal. The geographical uniqueness of the Iberian Peninsula is due to its location and configuration since it is located in the Mediterranean area, in the extreme southwest of the European continent, between two continents (Europe and Africa) and between two seas (Atlantic and Mediterranean) [31]. Water 2020,12, 92 6 of 33 To the south, the peninsula is separated from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea, an area known as the Albor á n Sea, and the Atlantic Ocean, the Strait of Gibraltar being the boundary between them. The highest point is the Mulhac é n (Sierra Nevada, Granada) of 3478.6 m above sea level. The longest river is the Tagus, with a length of 1007 km, of which 731 km are in Spain and 275 km in Portugal. In general terms, the most widespread citizen perception of the Iberian Peninsula is that of a dry territory, with the exception of the northernmost regions. This social representation is a kind of empirical axiom, a truth that does not need to be demonstrated in the light of the landscape evidence: “one sees, lives, enters through the eyes... However, more than a scientific truth, it is an empirical perception, an experience based on two fundamental facts: the dryness of summer and the frequent irregularity of rainfall during the rest of the year on the one hand and, on the other, the desolate, dry, sub-desert visual landscape that our territory often offers” [ 32 ]. In strictly scientific terms, the reality is different. It is true that it rains little or rains less than it can evaporate, which led classical studies to identify a dry Spain (with a negative global water balance, with evapotranspiration exceeding precipitation levels) and a wet Spain (with a positive global balance) [ 33 ]. This view is also reductionist, since the Iberian Peninsula presents a great variety of climates due to its geographical position and orography. Being located at the southern limit of influence of the polar front, with its associated squalls, it presents features of the humid continental climate of the western part of Europe. In addition, being in the northern limit of action of the zones of high tropical pressures, which carry warm and dry air, there are also climatic rests associated with the desert areas of Saharan Africa. The north of the peninsula is more influenced by the cyclonic system of squalls, while the south is dominated by a more tropical climate. Due to the dynamics of the atmosphere, it is frequent that during the winter the humid fronts coming from the Atlantic sweep the peninsula, provoking intense rains. In summer, influenced by high tropical pressures, the Azores anticyclone intensifies, leading to hot and dry weather that has little effect on the Cantabrian Coast, which is more influenced by the Atlantic fronts, although to a lesser extent during the summer period. It can be said that the annual climatic cycle of the peninsula has two main seasons, summer and winter, as both spring and autumn are transition seasons. The climates of the Iberian Peninsula are conditioned by its abrupt relief, characterized by numerous mountainous systems that concentrate mainly in its periphery, isolating it from the marine influence except for the western zone. In this way, when the fronts of rains of the Atlantic penetrate in the peninsula, they cross it unloading the water until colliding with some of the mountainous systems, not being able to surpass them and creating areas of pluviometric shade, where the precipitation is smaller than in nearby places. This situation favours the appearance of arid territories in the south eastern part of the peninsula, as well as in other inland regions. In other cases, the local orography has the opposite effect, when the downwind slopes of the mountains collect all the rain carried by the fronts, increasing precipitation in certain areas. The Iberian Peninsula (Figure 1) can thus be said to be divided into three large zones on the basis of the Köppen classification (the Köppen system is based on the fact that natural vegetation has a clear relationship with climate, so the boundaries between one climate and another were established taking into account the distribution of vegetation. The parameters for determining the climate of an area are the average annual and monthly temperatures and rainfall, and the seasonality of the precipitation. It divides the world’s climates into five main groups: tropical, dry, temperate, continental and polar, identified by the first letter in capital letters. Each group is divided into subgroups, and each subgroup into climate types. Climate types are identified with a 2or 3-letter symbol [ 34 ]). The first has a semi-arid Mediterranean climate, i.e. steppe, with a semi-arid south-eastern zone, transition between the steppe and the desert. The second zone occupies a narrow coastal strip that begins between the mouths of the Tagus and Duero rivers, rises to the north and runs along the entire Cantabrian Cornice. Its climate would be of the maritime type of the west coast, with regions of sub humid subtype and others of humid subtype. The third region is smaller than the previous one, starting at the western end of the Cantabrian Water 2020,12, 92 7 of 33 Mountains and ending at the eastern end of the Pyrenees. It is characterized by a climate typical of areas located at high altitudes. In this study we focus on the first two areas. On the other hand, the entire Levante and the southern half of the peninsula correspond to a temperate climate with dry and hot summers. Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 34 Cantabrian Mountains and ending at the eastern end of the Pyrenees. It is characterized by a climate typical of areas located at high altitudes. In this study we focus on the first two areas. On the other hand, the entire Levante and the southern half of the peninsula correspond to a temperate climate with dry and hot summers. Figure 1. Köppen-Geiger Classification of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands [35]. The Atlantic zone occupies the peninsular regions in contact with the Atlantic Ocean, from which they receive a great influence and moderates their temperatures; directly affected by the fronts that come from the sea that give it a more humid climate. This area occupies the north of the peninsula, from the eastern end of the Pyrenees to Galicia, the west, covering the western strip of Portugal and much of the coastal areas of Andalusia to the east of the province of Granada. Another zone of Atlantic influence is found in the interior of Portugal, where the oceanic influence is still high but as it penetrates into the interior there are continental features of the climate that make it more extreme, with reduced rainfall and increasing average temperatures. The classic continental climate is located in both plateaus, in the Ebro valley and in areas of the eastern interior of Andalusia, with hot summers and cold winters. Rainfall is scarce, giving rise essentially to a climate that could be classified as semi-arid [36]. The following climogram Figures 2– 4 and Tables 1–3) summarise the climatological characteristics of each of the three territorial contexts of the study: Figure 1. Köppen-Geiger Classification of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands [35]. The Atlantic zone occupies the peninsular regions in contact with the Atlantic Ocean, from which they receive a great influence and moderates their temperatures; directly affected by the fronts that come from the sea that give it a more humid climate. This area occupies the north of the peninsula, from the eastern end of the Pyrenees to Galicia, the west, covering the western strip of Portugal and much of the coastal areas of Andalusia to the east of the province of Granada. Another zone of Atlantic influence is found in the interior of Portugal, where the oceanic influence is still high but as it penetrates into the interior there are continental features of the climate that make it more extreme, with reduced rainfall and increasing average temperatures. The classic continental climate is located in both plateaus, in the Ebro valley and in areas of the eastern interior of Andalusia, with hot summers and cold winters. Rainfall is scarce, giving rise essentially to a climate that could be classified as semi-arid [ 36 ]. The following climogram Figures 2–4 and Tables 1–3) summarise the climatological characteristics of each of the three territorial contexts of the study: Water 2020,12, 92 8 of 33 Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 34 Figure 2. Climatological information based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1971–2000 of the Territorial Context 1 [37]. Table 1. Description of Territorial Context 1. Territorial Context 1 (TC#1): Granada. Andalucía. Southern Spain: Warm and Temperate Climate The winter months are much rainier than the summer months. According to the Köppen classification the climate of this territory is classified as Mediterranean typical of warm summer (Csa). The average annual temperature is 15.5 °C, with average annual rainfall of 450 mm. The driest month is July, with 5 mm. Most of the precipitation in this territory falls in December, approximately 63 mm. The hottest month of the year is July with an average of 25.5 °C and January is the coldest month with average temperatures of 7.0 °C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 58 mm. Throughout the year, temperatures vary around 18.5 °C. Average environmental humidity level. Figure 3. Climatological information based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1971–2000 of the Territorial Context 2 [38]. Table 2. Description of Territorial Context 2. Territorial Context 2 (TC#2): Santiago de Compostela. Galicia. Northern Spain: Warm and Temperate Climate The vast majority of rain in this city falls in winter and is relatively scarce in summer. The climate classification of Köppen for this place is Mediterranean oceanic mild summer (Csb). The average temperature is 13.6 °C, the average annual rainfall is 1325 mm and the driest month is July, with 36 mm. In December, precipitation peaks, with an average of 191 mm/m3. The hottest month of the year is August with an average temperature of 20.3 °C. January is the coldest month of the year with an average temperature of 8.7 °C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 155 mm and the variation in annual temperature is around 11.6 °C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 155 mm and the variation in annual temperature is around 11.6 °C. Average environmental humidity level. Figure 2. Climatological information based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1971–2000 of the Territorial Context 1 [37]. Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 34 Figure 2. Climatological information based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1971–2000 of the Territorial Context 1 [37]. Table 1. Description of Territorial Context 1. Territorial Context 1 (TC#1): Granada. Andalucía. Southern Spain: Warm and Temperate Climate The winter months are much rainier than the summer months. According to the Köppen classification the climate of this territory is classified as Mediterranean typical of warm summer (Csa). The average annual temperature is 15.5 °C, with average annual rainfall of 450 mm. The driest month is July, with 5 mm. Most of the precipitation in this territory falls in December, approximately 63 mm. The hottest month of the year is July with an average of 25.5 °C and January is the coldest month with average temperatures of 7.0 °C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 58 mm. Throughout the year, temperatures vary around 18.5 °C. Average environmental humidity level. Figure 3. Climatological information based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1971–2000 of the Territorial Context 2 [38]. Table 2. Description of Territorial Context 2. Territorial Context 2 (TC#2): Santiago de Compostela. Galicia. Northern Spain: Warm and Temperate Climate The vast majority of rain in this city falls in winter and is relatively scarce in summer. The climate classification of Köppen for this place is Mediterranean oceanic mild summer (Csb). The average temperature is 13.6 °C, the average annual rainfall is 1325 mm and the driest month is July, with 36 mm. In December, precipitation peaks, with an average of 191 mm/m3. The hottest month of the year is August with an average temperature of 20.3 °C. January is the coldest month of the year with an average temperature of 8.7 °C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 155 mm and the variation in annual temperature is around 11.6 °C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 155 mm and the variation in annual temperature is around 11.6 °C. Average environmental humidity level. Figure 3. Climatological information based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1971–2000 of the Territorial Context 2 [38]. Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 34 Figure 4. Climatological information based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1971-2000 of the Territorial Context 3 [39]. Table 3. Description of Territorial Context 3. Territorial Context 3 (TC#3): Braga. North Portugal: Warm and temperate climate. There is more rainfall in winter than in summer and this location is included in the category of Mediterranean oceanic mild summer climate (Csb) in the Köppen classification. The average annual temperature is 14.2 °C and the average annual rainfall is approximately 1252 mm. The driest month is July, with 16 mm of rain. With an average of 170 mm, the rainiest month is December and July is considered the warmest month of the year with an average temperature of 20.3 °C. The rainiest month is December and July is considered the warmest month of the year with an average temperature of 20.3 °C. January has the lowest average temperature of the year, with 8.4 °C, and an estimated difference of 154 mm of precipitation between the driest and wettest months. During the year, average temperatures vary by 11.9 °C. The level of environmental humidity is average. 3.2. Social Representations, Climate Literacy and Water In 2015, the OECD produced a new PISA report that defines scientific literacy as “the ability to engage with science issues, and with the ideas of science, as a thoughtful citizen”. This definition presupposes that the scientific knowledge a person can attain will make him or her more likely to participate in reasoned discourses on science and that he or she will have the appropriate skills to be able to recognize, offer and evaluate explanations for a wide variety of natural and technological phenomena. On the other hand, it will be able to judge scientific questions by describing and evaluating the knowledge of this type available, as well as being able to interpret data in a variety of scientific representations, in order to ultimately draw appropriate conclusions [40]. According to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, climate literacy is part of science literacy because “science, math and technology have a profound impact on our individual lives and our culture. They play a role in almost all human efforts and affect the way we relate to each other and to the world around us... Science literacy enables us to make sense of real-world phenomena, informing people and making decisions and serves as the basis for a lifetime of learning” [41]. This conception of science literacy could be extrapolated to climate literacy, which would not cease to be science literacy. In a similar vein, the US Government's Global Change Research Program suggests that climate literacy should focus on an individual's understanding of the influence of a person on climate and the influence of climate on him or her and society at large. Thus, a climate literate person must understand the essential principles of the Earth and the climate system, know how to scientifically assess correct information about climate, communicate about climate and climate change in meaningful ways, and be able to be informed and make responsible decisions about actions that may affect it. The importance of this approach to literacy lies in its civic dimension: society needs citizens who understand the climate system and know how to apply that knowledge in their daily lives, as Figure 4. Climatological information based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1971–2000 of the Territorial Context 3 [39]. Water 2020,12, 92 9 of 33 Table 1. Description of Territorial Context 1. Territorial Context 1 (TC#1): Granada. Andalucía. Southern Spain: Warm and Temperate Climate The winter months are much rainier than the summer months. According to the Köppen classification the climate of this territory is classified as Mediterranean typical of warm summer (Csa). The average annual temperature is 15.5 ◦C, with average annual rainfall of 450 mm. The driest month is July, with 5 mm. Most of the precipitation in this territory falls in December, approximately 63 mm. The hottest month of the year is July with an average of 25.5 ◦C and January is the coldest month with average temperatures of 7.0 ◦C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 58 mm. Throughout the year, temperatures vary around 18.5 ◦ C. Average environmental humidity level. Table 2. Description of Territorial Context 2. Territorial Context 2 (TC#2): Santiago de Compostela. Galicia. Northern Spain: Warm and Temperate Climate The vast majority of rain in this city falls in winter and is relatively scarce in summer. The climate classification of Köppen for this place is Mediterranean oceanic mild summer (Csb). The average temperature is 13.6 ◦ C, the average annual rainfall is 1325 mm and the driest month is July, with 36 mm. In December, precipitation peaks, with an average of 191 mm/m 3 . The hottest month of the year is August with an average temperature of 20.3 ◦ C. January is the coldest month of the year with an average temperature of 8.7 ◦C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 155 mm and the variation in annual temperature is around 11.6 ◦C. The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the rainiest month is 155 mm and the variation in annual temperature is around 11.6 ◦C. Average environmental humidity level. Table 3. Description of Territorial Context 3. Territorial Context 3 (TC#3): Braga. North Portugal: Warm and temperate climate. There is more rainfall in winter than in summer and this location is included in the category of Mediterranean oceanic mild summer climate (Csb) in the Köppen classification. The average annual temperature is 14.2 ◦ C and the average annual rainfall is approximately 1252 mm. The driest month is July, with 16 mm of rain. With an average of 170 mm, the rainiest month is December and July is considered the warmest month of the year with an average temperature of 20.3 ◦ C. The rainiest month is December and July is considered the warmest month of the year with an average temperature of 20.3 ◦C. January has the lowest average temperature of the year, with 8.4 ◦C, and an estimated difference of 154 mm of precipitation between the driest and wettest months. During the year, average temperatures vary by 11.9 ◦C. The level of environmental humidity is average. 3.2. Social Representations, Climate Literacy and Water In 2015, the OECD produced a new PISA report that defines scientific literacy as “the ability to engage with science issues, and with the ideas of science, as a thoughtful citizen”. This definition presupposes that the scientific knowledge a person can attain will make him or her more likely to participate in reasoned discourses on science and that he or she will have the appropriate skills to be able to recognize, offer and evaluate explanations for a wide variety of natural and technological phenomena. On the other hand, it will be able to judge scientific questions by describing and evaluating the knowledge of this type available, as well as being able to interpret data in a variety of scientific representations, in order to ultimately draw appropriate conclusions [40]. According to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, climate literacy is part of science literacy because “science, math and technology have a profound impact on our individual lives and our culture. They play a role in almost all human efforts and affect the way we relate to each other and to the world around us... Science literacy enables us to make sense of real-world phenomena, informing people and making decisions and serves as the basis for a lifetime of learning” [41]. This conception of science literacy could be extrapolated to climate literacy, which would not cease to be science literacy. In a similar vein, the US Government’s Global Change Research Program suggests that climate literacy should focus on an individual’s understanding of the influence of a person on climate and the influence of climate on him or her and society at large. Thus, a climate literate person must understand the essential principles of the Earth and the climate system, know how to scientifically assess correct information about climate, communicate about climate and climate change in meaningful ways, and be able to be informed and make responsible decisions about actions that may affect it. Water 2020,12, 92 16 of 33 Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 34 Figure 6. General opinion questions on CC in the different contexts analysed. The correct response percentages, the sensation of information that the student thinks have with respect to different dimensions of CC and the degree of pro-environmental attitude of the same, are shown in the following Figures 7 and 8. Table 8 shows the significant differences between the dimensions of CC in general. As can be seen, there are differences (p < 0.05) in all the dimensions studied except in the dimension of solutions. Specifically, in the biophysical processes dimension, TC#3 is the one that points out differences between the other two contexts studied. In the consequences dimension, the differences are found, however, in TC #2 with the other contexts. For the other dimensions no significant differences are found. Below are the items, classified by dimensions, where statistically significant differences have been found between the contexts analysed (Table 9). As can be seen, in the dimension of biophysical processes related to CC there are significant differences in those questions related to the greenhouse effect and, specifically, question 1 has the greatest variability (F = 20.028), and TC#3 being the one that these differences are found. However, there are no differences in any context when dealing with questions related to the hole in the ozone layer or acid rain. Figure 6. General opinion questions on CC in the different contexts analysed. The correct response percentages, the sensation of information that the student thinks have with respect to different dimensions of CC and the degree of pro-environmental attitude of the same, are shown in the following Figures 7and 8. Table 8shows the significant differences between the dimensions of CC in general. As can be seen, there are differences (p<0.05) in all the dimensions studied except in the dimension of solutions. Specifically, in the biophysical processes dimension, TC #3 is the one that points out differences between the other two contexts studied. In the consequences dimension, the differences are found, however, in TC#2 with the other contexts. For the other dimensions no significant differences are found. Below are the items, classified by dimensions, where statistically significant differences have been found between the contexts analysed (Table 9). As can be seen, in the dimension of biophysical processes related to CC there are significant differences in those questions related to the greenhouse effect and, specifically, question 1 has the greatest variability (F =20.028), and TC #3 being the one that these differences are found. However, there are no differences in any context when dealing with questions related to the hole in the ozone layer or acid rain. In the case of the consequences dimension of CC, we observe that it is the dimension where more variability of differences exists between the three territorial contexts. When reference is made to the desertification of the Iberian Peninsula due to CC we find differences in the three contexts and with a high variability (F =47.564). On the other hand, there are also differences in this dimension between TC #1 and TC #2 and between TC #1 and TC #3 for questions 3, 9 and 14. For questions 2 and 10, the latter (question 10) with the greatest variability in this dimension (F =75,847), the differences are found between TC#1 and TC#3 and between TC#2 and TC#3. Table 8. Significant differences by items of dimensions of CC and TC. Dimension Sig. between TC F Sig. TC#1-TC#2 TC#1-TC#3 TC#2-TC#3 Biophysical processes related to CC 8.572 0.000 ** 0.838 0.008 ** 0.000 ** Consequences of CC 14.750 0.000 ** 0.000 ** 0.651 0.000 ** Causes of CC 3.916 0.020 * 0.990 0.053 0.053 Solutions to fight against CC 1.673 0.188 0.194 0.738 0.584 ** <0.01; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. Water 2020,12, 92 17 of 33 Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 34 Figure 7. Conceptual questions about CC. Figure 7. Conceptual questions about CC. Water 2020,12, 92 18 of 33 Water 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 34 Figure 8. Degree of information about CC and pro-environmental attitudes. Table 8. Significant differences by items of dimensions of CC and TC. Dimension Sig. between TC F Sig. TC#1-TC#2 TC#1-TC#3 TC#2-TC#3 Biophysical processes related to CC 8.572 0.000 ** 0.838 0.008 ** 0.000 ** Consequences of CC 14.750 0.000 ** 0.000 ** 0.651 0.000 ** Causes of CC 3.916 0.020 * 0.990 0.053 0.053 Solutions to fight against CC 1.673 0.188 0.194 0.738 0.584 ** <0.01; * < 0.05. Significant differences in bold. In the case of the consequences dimension of CC, we observe that it is the dimension where more variability of differences exists between the three territorial contexts. When reference is made to the desertification of the Iberian Peninsula due to CC we find differences in the three contexts and with a high variability (F = 47.564). On the other hand, there are also differences in this dimension between TC#1 and TC#2 and between TC#1 and TC#3 for questions 3, 9 and 14. For questions 2 and 10, the latter (question 10) with the greatest variability in this dimension (F = 75,847), the differences are found between TC#1 and TC#3 and between TC#2 and TC#3. Finally, in the dimension of causes of CC there are no significant differences and in the dimension of solutions to fight against CC it is again the TC#3 that differs from the rest in questions 5 and 13. Therefore, in general, it is observed that the TC#3 is that it differs to a greater extent from the rest of the contexts with 8 of 15 questions with significant differences, being only 4 questions that have differences between the TC#1 and TC#2. Next, the results obtained in the correct answers are related to the degree of information/pro-environmental attitudes that the student claims to have, that is, the existing relationship between the results of the two previous graphs and the significant differences found in said relationship. 42.8 46.2 35.3 49.8 38.4 77.5 73.9 48.4 51.3 35.1 52.6 38.1 75.9 77.2 74.8 76.5 53.9 78.8 43.2 79.5 81.8 0 102030405060708090100 To what extent do you feel informed about climate change in general? To what extent do you feel informed about the causes of climate change? To what extent do you feel informed about solution to fight against the climate change? To what extent do you feel informed about the consequences of climate change? Rate the climate change training you have received in your degree course Have you participated in any specific training activity related to climate change? Degree of pro-environmental attitudes. TC1 TC2 TC3 Figure 8. Degree of information about CC and pro-environmental attitudes. Table 9. Significant differences by items of dimensions of CC and TC and correct response %. Dimension Sig. between TC Correct Response % F Sig TC#1-TC#2 TC#1-TC#3 TC#2-TC#3 TC#1 TC#2 TC#3 Biophysical processes related to CC 1. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon 20.028 0.000 ** 0.991 0.000 ** 0.000 ** 42.2 45.3 29.1 4. The polar hole of the ozone causes the melting of the poles 1.363 0.256 0.852 0.274 0.530 13.5 11.4 9.5 6. Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change 0.794 0.452 0.989 0.527 0.577 33.1 33.7 32.5 8. The greenhouse effect puts life on Earth at risk 8.652 0.000 ** 0.987 0.004 ** 0.001 ** 24.9 26.1 34.1 15. The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity 8.652 0.000 ** 0.446 0.031 * 0.000 ** 28.1 26.7 35.2 Consequences of CC 2. A warmer planet will expand the area of incidence of tropical diseases 13.151 0.000 ** 0.434 0.000 ** 0.001 ** 85.3 86.3 93.5 3. The increase in temperatures will contribute to the occurrence of extreme atmospheric phenomena (cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc.) 5.429 0.004 ** 0.007 ** 0.039 * 0.873 89.9 95.8 93.4 9. The sea level is rising due to the expansion of water due to the rise in temperature 6.462 0.002 ** 0.020 * 0.003 ** 0.751 63.2 96.5 72.3 10. Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country 75.847 0.000 ** 0.332 0.000 ** 0.000 ** 57.4 52.8 25.9 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula 47.564 0.000 ** 0.006 ** 0.000 ** 0.000 ** 86.9 93.5 75.8 14. Many islands and coastal areas will be submerged by climate change 12.769 0.000 ** 0.000 ** 0.000 ** 0.977 92.7 95.8 98.3 Causes of CC 7. Increased meat consumption contributes to climate change 3.916 0.020 ** 0.990 0.053 0.053 35.7 35.6 28.7 Solutions to fight against CC 5. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change. 2.720 0.066 0.446 0.031 0.000 ** 68.3 74.6 68.1 11. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change. 4.934 0.007 ** 0.119 0.685 0.010 ** 22.6 19.4 23.2 13. Climate change would be reduced if we planted more trees. 6.268 0.002 ** 0.843 0.033 ** 0.003 ** 70.1 66.8 77.1 ** <0.01; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. Water 2020,12, 92 19 of 33 Finally, in the dimension of causes of CC there are no significant differences and in the dimension of solutions to fight against CC it is again the TC #3 that differs from the rest in questions 5 and 13. Therefore, in general, it is observed that the TC #3 is that it differs to a greater extent from the rest of the contexts with 8 of 15 questions with significant differences, being only 4 questions that have differences between the TC#1 and TC#2. Next, the results obtained in the correct answers are related to the degree of information/proenvironmental attitudes that the student claims to have, that is, the existing relationship between the results of the two previous graphs and the significant differences found in said relationship. 6.1. Degree of General Information on CC and Water As can be seen in Figure 8, the individuals who feel better informed about CC in general are those in the TC #3 with 74.8%, well above those belonging to TC #1 and TC #2 , with TC #2 declaring itself less informed with 50.4%, followed by TC #1 with 56.9%; that is, half of those surveyed in TC #1 and TC #2 consider themselves informed and the other not. As can be seen in Figure 7, despite the fact that the individuals in the TC #3 sample are the ones who believe they are most informed about CC in general, they answer eight of the 15 questions of the questionnaire erroneously, however, the respondents in TC #1 and TC #2 answer seven of 15 erroneously, but their sensation of information is lower, so that opinion is more in line with the results than that of the respondents in TC#3. With regard to the questions referring to the greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases (1, 5, 8, 11 and 15), it is noted that in none of the terrestrial contexts is it clear exactly what it is, since a rather low percentage of respondents respond correctly to these questions. Specifically, only 45.3% of respondents in TC #2 , 42.2% in TC #1 and 29.1% in TC #3 gave a good answer to the statement “The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon”. On the other hand, they do not answer well to the question “The greenhouse effect puts at risk life on Earth” with 34.1% of correct answers in TC #3 , 26.1% in TC #2 and 24.9% in TC #1 . In addition, with respect to the item “The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity”, only 35.2% of the individuals in the TC#3 are correct, followed by TC#1 with 28.1% and TC#2 with 26.7%. On the other hand, it is worth mentioning that, although in the three territorial contexts there is a majority good response to consider true the statement “If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change”, with practically identical percentages in TC #3 and TC #1 (68.1% and 68.3% respectively) and with 74.6% in TC #2 , the same does not happen with the statement “If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change”, being TC #2 those who obtain the lowest percentage of success, 19.4%, followed by TC #1 with 22.6% and TC #3 with 23.2%; this discrepancy may indicate that although they intuit that the solution is not only to stop emitting these gases, they do not recognize the fact that to stop doing so supposes a great mitigation of CC, so, it is possible to think that they do not have very clear in what exactly consists the biophysical process of the greenhouse effect, and the benefits of a reduction of emissions of this type of gases. As for those items that refer to problems that are usually related—in common culture—to climate change, but are neither a cause nor a consequence of the same, statements 4 and 6, “The hole in the ozone layer causes melting at the poles” and “Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change”, respectively, it can be noted that in no territorial context is the majority correct, being the first of them the one with the lowest percentage of correct answers: the TC #3 sample is the one that registers the lowest percentage with a 9.5%, followed by TC #2 , with 11.4%, and TC #1 , with 13.5%. Statement 7 receives a more equal percentage of correct answers between the three contexts, although it is still a low percentage, TC#3 32.5%, TC#1 33.1% and TC#2 33.7%. However, it should be noted that all items that refer to consequences of CC (items 2, 3, 9, 10, 12 and 14) are correctly answered by a very high percentage of students in all three contexts, except item 10, “Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country”, which is valued as a correct statement by 29.5% in TC #3 , and however, item 12, “Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula”, is correctly assessed in this context by 78.5% of the sample, which means that there Water 2020,12, 92 20 of 33 is some confusion in these issues since they are intimately related, so that, once again, the sensation of information does not correspond with the reality of the answers provided. On the other hand, item 7, “The increase in meat consumption contributes to climate change”, is another item that registers a very low percentage of correct answers, with 28.7% of correct answers in TC#3, and practically the same percentage in TC#1 with 35.7% and TC#2 with 35.6%. However, item 14, “Climate change would be reduced if we planted more trees”, is correctly valued by a high percentage in the three contexts, 77.1% in TC #3 , 70.1% in TC #1 and 66.8% in TC #2 ; but it should be noted that this issue can be included in the category of solutions to climate change, as well as statements referring to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, 5 and 11, the latter being erroneously valued by a majority, from which it can be deduced that there is also confusion in these terms. With respect to the significant differences for this same variable, “To what extent do you feel informed about CC in general?” as can be seen in Table 8, of the 15 items we have analyzed, there are differences between eight of them in TC#1 and between seven of them in both TC#2 and TC#3. Specifically, the items where the greatest statistically significant differences are recorded in CT #1 are item 7 (p<0.01), F (1, 505) =4.085, item 2 (p<0.01), F (1, 505) =6.696, item 13 (p<0.01), F (1, 505) =3.793. The remaining items that show statistically significant differences with (p<0.05) are items 1, 2, 11, 14 and 15, with F (1, 505) =3.251; F (1, 505) =3.746; F (1, 505) =3.061; F (1, 505) =4,628, and F (1, 505) =3.255, respectively. With respect to the CT #2 sample, the questions with the greatest significant differences are found in items 2 (p<0.01) F (1,644) =5.660, 5 (p<0.01) F (1, 644) =5.892, 7 (p<0.01) F (1, 644) =5.482, 12(p<0.01) F(1, 644) =4.908 and 13 (p<0.01) F(1, 644) =4.701. The items that follow with the greatest significant differences are 3 (p<0.05) F (1, 644) =2.984 and 14 (p<0.05) F(1, 644) =2.797. Finally, for the TC #3 sample, the items where the greatest differences are found are item 1 (p<0.01) F (1, 560) =6.388, item 2 (p<0.01) F (1, 560) =4.153, item 3 (p<0.01) F (1, 560) =4.470, item 7 (p<0.05) F (1, 560) =4.650 and 12 (p<0.01) F (1, 560) =7.712. They are followed by items 11 and 14 with (p<0.05) F(1, 560) =3.206 and 2.913, respectively. In general, it is observed that items 2, 7 and 12 (Table 10) accumulate the greatest statistically significant differences (p<0.01) in the three territorial contexts analyzed, with item 12 being the only one that results in significant differences in the three contexts. Table 10. To what extent do you feel informed about CC in general? ITEMS TC#1 TC#2 TC#3 Sig./F Sig./F Sig./F 1. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. 0.022 */3.251 0.061/2.264 0.000 **/6.388 2. A warmer planet will expand the area of incidence of tropical diseases. 0.033 */3.746 0.000 **/5.660 0.006 **/4.153 3. The increase in temperatures will contribute to the occurrence of extreme atmospheric phenomena (cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc.). 0.596/0.630 0.019 */2.984 0.004 **/4.470 4. The polar hole of the ozone causes the melting of the poles. 0.761/0.389 0.347/1.117 0.168/1.688 5. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change. 0.059/2.503 0.000 **/5.892 0.130/1.892 6. Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change. 0.373/1.042 0.170/1.608 0.634/0.571 7. Increased meat consumption contributes to climate change. 0.007 **/4.085 0.000 **/5.482 0.003 **/4.650 8. The greenhouse effect puts life on Earth at risk. 0.150/1.780 0.227/1.415 0.739/0.420 9. The sea level is rising due to the expansion of water due to the rise in temperature. 0.198/1.562 0.993/0.064 0.888/0.212 10. Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country. 0.096/2.129 0.803/0.408 0.654/0.541 11. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change. 0.028 */3.061 0.176/1.586 0.023 */3.206 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula. 0.000 **/6.696 0.001 **/4.908 0.000 **/7.712 13. Climate change would be reduced if we planted more trees. 0.010 **/3.793 0.001 **/4.701 0.184/1.619 14. Many islands and coastal areas will be submerged by climate change. 0.011 */4.628 0.025 */2.797 0.034 */2.913 15. The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity. 0.022 */3.255 0.054/2.341 0.084/2.225 ** <0.01; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. Water 2020,12, 92 21 of 33 6.2. Degree of Information on the Causes of CC and Its Relationship with Water When asked about the degree of information they believe they have regarding the causes of CC, it is observed, once again, that it is the students in the TC #3 sample who believe they are best informed in this respect (76.5%); however, as shown in Figure 7, despite having a sensation of fairly high information, the responses are incorrect in more than half of the items in the questionnaire, specifically in eight items out of 15 (Figure 7). In fact, the only statement in this category that corresponds to the dimension “causes of the CC” is item 7, which received a majority of incorrect answers in the three territorial contexts, being the one that obtains the lowest rate of correct answers in the TC #3 sample (28.7%); in such a way that the students in this context overestimate their degree of information on the causes of CC with respect to their sensation of information in this dimension. With respect to the TC #2 sample, it stands out that practically half of the students, 51.3%, consider themselves well informed about the causes, although item 7 is correctly valued only by 35.6% of the respondents. The students in the TC #1 sample value their level of information on the causes of CC below that of the other samples, with 46.2% considering themselves well informed; however, if this perception is related to the percentage of correct answers obtained, it is practically the same as in TC#2, 35.7%. When significant differences are analyzed (Table 11), they are TC #1 and TC #2 where they appear in seven items, by five items in TC#3. Table 11. To what extent do you feel informed about the causes of CC? ÍTEMS TC#1 TC#2 CT#3 Sig./F Sig./F Sig./F 1. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. 0.003 **/4.770 0.460/906 0.002 **/4.211 2. A warmer planet will expand the area of incidence of tropical diseases. 0.001 **/5.483 0.111/1.885 0.239/1.381 3. The increase in temperatures will contribute to the occurrence of extreme atmospheric phenomena (cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc.). 0.201/1.548 0.003 **/3.982 0.001 **/1.388 4. The polar hole of the ozone causes the melting of the poles. 0.830/0.294 0.009 **/3.394 0.237/1.688 5. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change. 0.582/0.651 0.049 */2.400 0.062/2.252 6. Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change. 0.781/0.361 0.970/0.133 0.850/0.341 7. Increased meat consumption contributes to climate change. 0.027 */3.082 0.004 **/3.938 0.056/2.318 8. The greenhouse effect puts life on Earth at risk. 0.120/1.955 0.092/2.009 0.191/0.1535 9. The sea level is rising due to the expansion of water due to the rise in temperature. 0.198/1.562 0.196/1.516 0.525/0.801 10. Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country. 0.413/0.956 0.661/0.602 0.909/0.251 11. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change. 0.025 */3.147 0.301/1.220 0.932/0.212 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula. 0.001 **/5.975 0.001 **/4.741 0.000 **/7.360 13. Climate change would be reduced if we planted more trees. 0.094/2.141 0.000/6.355 0.018 **/3.004 14. Many islands and coastal areas will be submerged by climate change. 0.002 **/50174 0.025 */2.797 0.026 **/2.792 15. The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity. 0.009 **/3.910 0.611/0.672 0.180/1.573 ** <0.01; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. Specifically in the TC #1 sample, the greatest differences (p<0.01) are recorded in item 1, F (1, 505) =4.770, item 2, F (1, 505) =5.483, item 12, F (1, 505) =5.975, item 14 F (1, 505) =5.174 and item 15 F (1, 505) =3.910. The remaining differences with (p<0.05) are found in items 7 F (1, 505) =3.082 and 11 F(1, 505) =3.147. In the TC #2 sample, the greatest differences (p<0.01) appear in item 3 F (1, 644) =3.982, 4 F (1, 644) =3.394, 7 F (1, 644) =3.938, 12 F (1, 644) =4.741 and 13 F (1, 644) =6.355. The only item with a difference (p<0.5) is 5 F(1, 644) =2.400, In the TC #3 sample, the greatest differences (p<0.01) appear in items 3 F (1, 560) =1.388 and 12 F (1, 560) =7.360. The remaining significant differences (p<0.05) appear in item 1 F (1, 560) =4.211, 13 F (1, 560) =3.004 and 14 F (1, 560) =2.792. In this block, it can be observed that the items with the greatest significant differences are 12 and 13, being 12, once again, where the greatest differences are reproduced in the three contexts. Water 2020,12, 92 22 of 33 6.3. Degree of Information about Solutions to Fight Against CC and Their Relationship with Water As for the feeling of being informed about the solutions to fight against CC, it can be observed that, once again, it is the students of TC #3 who perceive themselves as best informed (Figure 8); but, in this case, of the three items included in this dimension (items 5, 11 and 13), the answer is mostly correct in item 5 (68.1%) and intem 13 (77.1%); item 11 is answered correctly only by 23.2% of the sample (Figure 7). The TC #1 and TC #2 samples register similar percentages in their self-perception of the information available on the measures to combat CC, with 35.3% and 35.1%, respectively; as in the TC #3 sample, only item 11 is correctly valued by a very low percentage of students: 19.4% in TC #2 and 22.6% in TC#1. With respect to the significant differences between the responses to these items in the three contexts, it is noted that this block is the one that registers the least significant differences between the responses. Both in TC #1 and in TC #2 there are only significant differences in two items, being in TC #1 in items 1 and 2 (p<0.05) and F (1, 505) =3.115 and F (1, 505) =3.746, respectively. In the case of TC #2 , significant differences are found specifically in items 10 and 15, being for item 10 (p<0.05) F (1, 644) =2.730 and for item 15 (p<0.01) F (1, 644) =3.841. In the case of TC #3 , the greatest differences are found in items 3.12 and 13 with (p<0.01) and F (1, 560) =4.761, F (1, 560) =4.104 and F (1, 560) =4.420, respectively; and with (p<0.05) significant differences are found in items 6 F(1, 560) =2.445 and 7 F(1, 560) =2.446 (Table 12). Table 12. To what extent do you feel informed about solutions to fight against CC? ÍTEMS TC#1 TC#2 TC#3 Sig./F Sig./F Sig./F 1. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. 0.026 */3.115 0.081/2.089 0.182/1.567 2. A warmer planet will expand the area of incidence of tropical diseases. 0.033 **/3.746 0.241/1.375 0.071/2.167 3. The increase in temperatures will contribute to the occurrence of extreme atmospheric phenomena (cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc.). 0.681/0.502 0.280/1.271 0.001 */4.761 4. The polar hole of the ozone causes the melting of the poles. 0.443/0.896 0.394/1.025 0.233/1.399 5. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change. 0.891/0.208 0.073/2.149 0.817/0.388 6. Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change. 0.798/0.337 0.259/1.327 0.046 **/2.445 7. Increased meat consumption contributes to climate change. 0.368/1.056 0.218/1.443 0.046 **/2.446 8. The greenhouse effect puts life on Earth at risk. 0.063/1.955 0.208/1.474 0.429/0.960 9. The sea level is rising due to the expansion of water due to the rise in temperature. 0.843/276 0.379/1.053 0.670/0.590 10. Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country. 0.197/1.564 0.028 **/2.730 0.473/0.884 11. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change. 0.486/0.815 0.875/0.305 0.130/1.789 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula. 0.383/1.020 0.256/1.335 0.003 **/4.104 13. Climate change would be reduced if we planted more trees. 0.328/1.152 0.116/1.858 0.002 **/4.420 14. Many islands and coastal areas will be submerged by climate change. 0.358/4.628 0.502/0.836 0.144/1.719 15. The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity. 0.105/1.079 0.004 **/3.841 0.276/1.283 ** <0.01; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. 6.4. Degree of Information on the Consequences of the CC and Its Relationship with Water In this block, it is once again the TC #3 sample that gathers the students with the greatest self-perception of being well informed about the consequences of CC (Figure 8), with 78.8% expressing this way, followed by the TC #2 sample, with 52.6% and the TC #1 sample, with 49.8%. Following previous patterns, the TC #3 sample continues to be the one that responds mostly incorrectly to more respondents, specifically eight out of 15. The other samples do not differ much from this pattern, since they erroneously value seven out of 15 items, but the self-perception of their level of information regarding the consequences of CC is more in line with the number of well valued items. However, in all the items of this dimension (2, 3, 9, 10, 12 and 14), about the consequences of CC, the three contexts add up majority percentages of correct answers, except in item 10 in TC#3 (Figure 7). Water 2020,12, 92 23 of 33 In the case of statistically significant differences (Table 13), the context with the smallest differences between responses is the TC #1 : they are found with (p<0.01) in items 3, 12 and 13, with F (1, 505) =3.746, F(1, 505) =4.987 and F(1, 505) =3.793, respectively. Table 13. To what extent do you feel informed about the consequences of the CC? ÍTEMS TC#1 TC#2 TC#3 Sig./F Sig./F Sig./F 1. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. 0.057/2.525 0.002 **/4.292 0.002 **/4.414 2. A warmer planet will expand the area of incidence of tropical diseases. 0.033 */3.746 0.057/2.307 0.018 */3.000 3. The increase in temperatures will contribute to the occurrence of extreme atmospheric phenomena (cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc.). 0.005/4.363 0.200/1.501 0.000 **/6.743 4. The polar hole of the ozone causes the melting of the poles. 0.635/0.570 0.118/1.846 0.014 */3.156 5. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change. 0.506/0.780 0.020 **/2.954 0.117/1.855 6. Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change. 0.469/0.847 0.065/2.223 0.762/0.464 7. Increased meat consumption contributes to climate change. 0.030 **/3.002 0.007 */3.545 0.296/1.231 8. The greenhouse effect puts life on Earth at risk. 0.44/0.893 0.115/1.864 0.190/1.538 9. The sea level is rising due to the expansion of water due to the rise in temperature. 0.528/0.742 0.623/0.656 0.790/0.425 10. Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country. 0.200/1.552 0.356/1.098 0.677/0.580 11. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change. 0.473/0.838 0.661/0.602 0.397/1.019 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula. 0.002 **/4.987 0.000 **/5.570 0.000 **/6.179 13. Climate change would be reduced if we planted more trees. 0.010 **/3.793 0.001 **/4.563 0.072/2.161 14. Many islands and coastal areas will be submerged by climate change. 0.084/2.227 0.034 */2.623 0.025 */2.820 15. The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity. 0.137/1.854 0.029 */2.707 0.031 */2.683 ** <0.01; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. Differences with (p<0.05) appear in item 2, F (1, 505) =3.746, and in item 7 F (1, 505) =3.002. In TC #2 , the greatest differences (p<0.01) are recorded in items 1 F (1, 644) =4.292, 7 F (1, 644) =3.545, 12 F (1, 644) =5.570 and 13 F (1, 644) =4.563. With (p<0.05) 5 F (1, 644) =2.954, 14 F (1, 644) =2.623 and 15 F (1, 644) =2.707 appear in items 5 F (1, 644) =2.623 and 15 F (1, 644) =2.707. In the case of TC #3 , the greatest differences (p<0.01) are in items 1 F (1, 560) =4.414, 3 F (1, 650) =6.743 and 12 F (1, 560) =6.179. The differences (p<0.05) appear in items 2 F (1, 560) =3.0, 4 F (1 560) =3.156, 14 F (1, 650) =2.820 and 15 F (1, 650) =2.638. It can also be observed that item 12 repeats in the three contexts the greatest significant differences. 6.5. Assessment of the Degree of Information Received about CC in Your Degree For the question “Values the training received on CC”, the samples of the three contexts considered coincide mostly in not having received sufficient training on CC in their degree; in fact, they only consider that this has been the case for 28.2% in TC#1, 38.1% in TC#2 and 43.2% in TC#3 (Figure 5). The greatest significant differences (Table 14) (p<0.01) for this case, in TC #1 , are found in items 1 F (1, 505) =10.259, 6 F (1, 505) =3.620 and 15 F (1,505) =4.281. With (p<0.05) significant differences are recorded in items 2 F (1, 505) =3.746, 5 F (1, 505) =2.598, 9 F (1, 505) =2.709 and 12 F (1,505) =2.506. In the case of TC #2 , the greatest differences appear in items 1 F (1, 644) =4.111, 5 F (1, 644) =3.503, 7 F (1, 644) =3.808, 10 F (1, 644) =3.147 and 13 F (1, 644) =6.075. Other differences (p<0.05) are found in items 4 F (1, 644) =2.422 and 14 F (1, 644) =2.797. For this question, the sample of TC #3 registers a smaller number of significant differences between the answers, being item 15 the most outstanding with (p<0.01) F (1, 560) =3.030, and with (p<0.05) item 1 F(1, 560) =2.675 and item 8 F(1, 560) =2.809. In this case, item 1 is the only one that shows significant differences in the three contexts. Water 2020,12, 92 24 of 33 Table 14. Assesses the degree of information received on CC in your degree. ÍTEMS TC#1 TC#2 TC#3 Sig./F Sig./F Sig./F 1. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. 0.000 **/10.259 0.001 **/4.111 0.021 */2.675 2. A warmer planet will expand the area of incidence of tropical diseases. 0.033 */3.746 0.218/1.411 0.861/0.383 3. The increase in temperatures will contribute to the occurrence of extreme atmospheric phenomena (cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc.). 0.737/0.498 0.162/1.585 0.286/1.246 4. The polar hole of the ozone causes the melting of the poles. 0.753/0.477 0.034 */2.422 0.676/0.632 5. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change. 0.036 */2.598 0.004 **/3.503 0.682/0.682 6. Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change. 0.006 **/3.625 0.172/1.552 0.444/0.957 7. Increased meat consumption contributes to climate change. 0.067/2.211 0.00 */8.308 0.496/0.877 8. The greenhouse effect puts life on Earth at risk. 0.012*/3.237 0.969/0.182 0.016 */2.809 9. The sea level is rising due to the expansion of water due to the rise in temperature. 0.030 */2.709 0.428/0.982 0.433/0.973 10. Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country. 0.582/0.715 0.008 */3.147 0.182/1.520 11. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change. 0.596/0.694 0.549/0.801 0.413/1.006 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula. 0.041 */2.506 0.161/1.588 0.219/1.411 13. Climate change would be reduced if we planted more trees. 0.690/0.562 0.000 */6.075 0.353/1.111 14. Many islands and coastal areas will be submerged by climate change. 0.153/1.679 0.025 */2.797 0.526/0.834 15. The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity. 0.002 **/4.281 0.038/2.370 0.010 **/3.030 ** <0.01; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. 6.6. Assessment of the Degree of Pro-Environmental Attitude In this case, the sample with the greatest pro-environmental attitude is TC #3 , with 81.8%, followed by TC#2, with 77.2%, and TC#1 with 73.9% (Figure 8). The greatest significant differences (p<0.01) in this question (Table 15) are evident for TC #1 in items F (1, 505) =4.819, 10 F (1, 505) =3.740, 12 F (1, 505) =4.182 and 14 F (1, 505) =4.329. The differences (p<0.05) appear in items 2 F(1, 505) =3.746, 11 F(1, 505) =3.050 and 13 F(1, 505) =2.510. Table 15. Assess your degree of pro-environmental attitude. ÍTEMS TC#1 TC#2 TC#3 Sig./F Sig./F Sig./F 1. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. 0.085/2.056 0.444/0.957 0.029 */2.729 2. A warmer planet will expand the area of incidence of tropical diseases. 0.033/3.746 0.017 */2.768 0.006/3.607 3. The increase in temperatures will contribute to the occurrence of extreme atmospheric phenomena (cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc.). 0.553/0.759 0.000 **/5.369 0.020 */2.948 4. The polar hole of the ozone causes the melting of the poles. 0.120/1.838 0.109/1.810 0.646/0.624 5. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change. 0.367/1.077 0.312/1.192 0.742/0.491 6. Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change. 0.251/1.349 0.720/0.573 0.237/1.387 7. Increased meat consumption contributes to climate change. 0.001 **/4.819 0.11 */3.019 0.081/2.090 8. The greenhouse effect puts life on Earth at risk. 0.862/0.324 0.796/0.474 0.094/1.991 9. The sea level is rising due to the expansion of water due to the rise in temperature. 0.715/0.528 0.235/1.365 0.087/2.042 10. Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country. 0.006 **/3.704 0.116/1.774 0.769/0.454 11. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change. 0.017 */3.050 0.090/1.911 0.736/0.500 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula. 0.002 **/4.182 0.000 **/6.098 0.000 **/7.638 13. Climate change would be reduced if we planted more trees. 0.041 */2.510 0.000 **/4.493 0.008 **/3.506 14. Many islands and coastal areas will be submerged by climate change. 0.002/4.329 0.000/4.989 0.023/2.857 15. The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity. 0.231/1.406 0.075/2.014 0.006/3.615 ** <0.01; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. Water 2020,12, 92 25 of 33 In the TC #2 sample, the greatest differences (p<0.01) are recorded in items 3 F (1, 644) =5.369, 7 F (1, 644) =3.019, 12 F (1, 644) =6.098, 13 F (1, 644) =4.493 and 14 F (1, 640) =4.989. The differences (p<0.05) appear in items 2 F(1, 644) =2.768 and 7 F(1, 644) =3.019. In the TC #3 sample, the greatest significant differences (p<0.01) are recorded in items 2 F (1, 560) =3.607, 12 F (1, 560) =7.638, 13 F (1, 560) =3.506 and 15 F (1, 560) =3.615. Differences (p<0.05) appear in items 1 F (1, 560) =2.729, 3 F (1, 560) =2.948 and 14 F (1, 560) =3.506. Again, it is item 12 that shows statistically significant differences in the three contexts. 6.7. Participation in CC-Related Activities Finally, as can be seen in Figure 8, the vast majority of those surveyed have participated in some specific training activity related to CC, with TC #3 students recording the highest percentage, with 79.5%, followed by TC #1 , with 77.5%, and TC2, with 75.9%. In the case of the significant differences (Table 16), in the TC #1 sample there are only two items with significant differences, 7, with the greatest difference, (p<0.01) F(1, 505) =13.977 and item 2 (p<0.05) F(1, 505) =3.746. Table 16. Have you participated in any specific training activity related to the CC? ÍTEMS TC#1 TC#2 TC#3 Sig./F Sig./F Sig./F 1. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon. 0.222/1.497 0.199/1.617 0.041 */3.224 2. A warmer planet will expand the area of incidence of tropical diseases. 0.033 */3.746 0.569/0.564 0.001 **/7.332 3. The increase in temperatures will contribute to the occurrence of extreme atmospheric phenomena (cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc.). 0.142/2.160 0.021 */3.888 0.027 */3.635 4. The polar hole of the ozone causes the melting of the poles. 0.451/0.568 0.771/0.261 0.841/0.174 5. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will not be affected by climate change. 0.585/0.298 0.536/0.625 0.254/1.375 6. Acid rain is one of the causes of climate change. 0.239/1.390 0.128/2.064 0.572/0.560 7. Increased meat consumption contributes to climate change. 0.000 **/13.977 0.04 **/5.621 0.015 */4.207 8. The greenhouse effect puts life on Earth at risk. 0.419/0.654 0.476/0.744 0.957/0.044 9. The sea level is rising due to the expansion of water due to the rise in temperature. 0.135/2.244 0.296/1.220 0.001 **/6.879 10. Climate change will decrease rainfall in my country. 0.052/3.808 0.411/0.891 0.461/0.775 11. If we stop emitting greenhouse gases we will be less vulnerable to climate change. 0.688/0.161 0.434/0.837 0.158/1.851 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula. 0.094/2.822 0.033 */3.426 0.014 */4.311 12. Climate change will exacerbate desertification problems in the Iberian Peninsula. 0.095/2.804 0.123/2.102 0.221/1.512 14. Many islands and coastal areas will be submerged by climate change. 0.141/2.172 0.196/1.635 0.331/1.109 15. The greenhouse effect is caused by human activity. 0.334/0.936 0.138/1.984 0.030 */3.531 ** <0.001; * <0.05. Significant differences in bold. In the TC #2 sample there are differences (p<0.01) also in item 7 F (1, 644) =5.62 and, with differences (p<0.05), items 3 F(1, 644) =3.888 and 12 F(1, 644) =3.426. However, more differences are evident in the TC #3 sample than in the others. The largest (p<0.01) are found in item 2 F (1, 560) =7.332 and 9 F (1, 560) =6.879. Significant differences (p<0.05) appear in item 1 F (1, 560) =3.224, 3 F (1, 560) =3.635, 7 F (1, 560) =4.207, 12 F (1, 560) =4.311 and 15 F (1, 560) =3.531. Item 7 shows significant differences in any context. 7. Discussion Based on the three hypotheses presented in this work, the results obtained are indicated: H #1 . Denying the existence of CC as a scientific phenomenon significantly affects the downward representation of the consequences of Global Warming and other extreme phenomena. 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