Ci a ion: Ál a ez de la G anja, Ma ía,
and F ancisco Dube Ga cía. 2024.
Seman ic Fields and Cas ilianiza ion
in Galician: A Compa a i e S udy
wi h he Loanwo d Typology P ojec .
Languages 9: 244. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/languages9070244
Academic Edi o s: XoséLuís Reguei a
and Elisa Fe nández Rei
Recei ed: 6 Ap il 2024
Re ised: 29 June 2024
Accep ed: 2 July 2024
Published: 9 July 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
languages
A icle
Seman ic Fields and Cas ilianiza ion in Galician: A Compa a i e
S udy wi h he Loanwo d Typology P ojec
Ma íaÁl a ez de la G anja and F ancisco Dube Ga cía *
Ins i u o da Lingua Galega, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela, 15782 San iago de Compos ela, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : This s udy examines he co espondence be ween he bo owabili y indices om he
Loanwoa d Typology (LWT) p ojec and Cas ilianiza ion indices om he A las Lingüís ico Galego (ALGa)
ac oss se en seman ic ields. To his end, we iden i ied all Cas ilianisms in he ALGa and conduc ed a
quan i a i e analysis o compa e hese indices. Resul s ob ained indica e a misma ch be ween he
ankings o he LWT p ojec and he ALGa. Fo example, he ield ‘The body’ has he highes le el o
Cas ilianiza ion acco ding o he ALGa bu he lowes bo owed sco e in he LWT p ojec . Mo eo e ,
Cas ilianiza ion le els in he ALGa show g ea e dispe sion han bo owabili y le els om he LWT
p ojec . In ac , in each seman ic ield, many concep s (52.2%) ha e low le els o Cas ilianiza ion,
be ween 0% and 10%, and only a ew concep s ha e high le els. A mo e de ailed analysis o h ee
seman ic ields (‘The body’, ‘Ag icul u e and ege a ion’, and ‘The physical wo ld’) sugges s ha
explana ions based solely on seman ic c i e ia (such as he exis ence o an unal e able cen al lexicon)
a e insu icien ; o he ac o s such as p es ige, u baniza ion, cul u al mode ni y, equency o wo d
usage, and pe haps o he in alinguis ic ac o s should be aken in o accoun .
Keywo ds: language con ac ; loanwo ds; seman ic ields; Galician; Cas ilian Spanish
1. In oduc ion
In a s udy on he linguis ic in luence o Cas ilian Spanish on Galician,
1
when discussing
lexical Cas ilianisms, Dube Ga cía(2005, p. 289) concluded he ollowing:
Aunque es común escucha que exis en campos de la ida que p esen an un
léxico más cas ellanizado que o os (el léxico e e ido al mundo de la Iglesia o
de la escuela es a ía más cas ellanizado que el e e ido al mundo del abajo en
el campo), pe sonalmen e juzgo di ícil, si no imposible, señala qué equisi os
puede cumpli una palab a gallega pa a pode se sus i uida po una cas ellana
equi alen e. Como ya he indicado, es e ipo de in e e encia incluso c ea di e -
encias dialec ales y sociolec ales: hay dialec os en que se ha in oducido hue o o
hueso mien as que se ha man enido a ó; y dialec os que conse an o o uóso pe o
que han admi ido abuelo. Supongo que son p ecisas más in es igaciones y más
p o undas pa a pode encon a un sen ido o un pa ón.
This wo k aims o be a con ibu ion in his ega d. To his end, i de e mines he le el
o co espondence be ween bo owabili y indices o a selec ed g oup o seman ic ields
and concep s om he Wo ld Loanwo d Da abase (WOLD) o he Loanwo d Typology p ojec
(LWT;Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a,2009b)
2
and he Cas ilianiza ion indices ob ained o
he co esponding concep s in he A las Lingüís ico Galego (ALGa;Ga cía and San ama ina
1990).
3
We also in end o compa e he deg ee o Cas ilianiza ion in he Galician language
ac oss di e en seman ic ields. The e o e, his wo k en iches he e lec ion on linguis ic
con ac wi h a quan i a i e analysis o linguis ic da a.
The LWT p ojec includes 41 languages, bu no Galician, making compa isons im-
possible. This p e en s us om e i ying o wha ex en Galician’s pa e ns o lexical
Languages 2024,9, 244. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/languages9070244 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/languages
Languages 2024,9, 244 2 o 23
bo owing align wi h common linguis ic beha io s o a e idiosync a ic. Un il now, no
compa a i e s udy o his kind has been conduc ed on Galician, and he p ocesses o
ans e i unde wen , speci ically hose de i ed om Spanish con ac , ha e usually been
ea ed as symp oms o abno mal beha io . No ably, only a ew s udies, such as hose by
Neg o Rome o (2013) and Sousa and Dube Ga cía(2020), ha e quan i a i ely analyzed
he ex en o lexical Cas ilianiza ion ac oss Galician-speaking egions. Fu he mo e, no
esea ch has ye in es iga ed he suscep ibili y o speci ic seman ic ields o Spanish lexical
ans e s. Ou s udy aims o add ess his signi ican gap by analyzing how Galician in e -
ac s wi h Cas ilian in luences and compa ing hese pa e ns o hose documen ed in he
LWT p ojec ’s languages. This compa a i e analysis is essen ial o disce n whe he Galician
exhibi s ypical o anomalous bo owing beha io s and o e alua e he ela i e equency
o i s loanwo ds. To e ec i ely measu e he deg ee o Cas ilianiza ion in Galician, a b oad,
balanced, and ep esen a i e da a sou ce is needed. The ALGa s ands ou as he only wo k
ha mee s his equi emen . I p o ides a da ase ob ained uni o mly, ha is, using he
same me hodology, ga he ed a he same his o ical momen , and om in o man s o simila
social s a us. This consis ency allows o compa isons o po en ial e i o ial di e ences
in Cas ilianiza ion. Fo his eason, we wo k wi h da a om his a las, ep esen ing he
deg ee o Cas ilianiza ion ha could be ound in he popula language in he 1970s, be o e
he implemen a ion o Galician in educa ion and he c ea ion and dissemina ion o he s an-
da d a ie y (Sec ion 2). I should be no ed, howe e , ha some ecen s udies (Rod íguez
Lo enzo 2022, p. 272 .) show ha he deg ee o Cas ilianiza ion in popula a ie ies has
ended o inc ease o e ime in such a way ha mo e up- o-da e da a would likely show
highe indices o Cas ilian in luence.
The analysis o ALGa da a indica es ha , in mos cases, Cas ilianiza ion in Galician
does no ypically in ol e he absolu e eplacemen o Galician wo ds by Cas ilian ones.
Mo e commonly, bo h linguis ic o ms coexis wi hin he same a ea o wi h hei dis ibu ion
a ying by loca ion. This esul s in a ying pe cen ages o Cas ilianiza ion ac oss di e en
concep s, as we will discuss in mo e de ail in he me hodology sec ion (Sec ion 3). Hence,
by compa ing he bo owed sco es o di e en concep s in he LWT p ojec wi h he deg ee
o Cas ilianiza ion ound in Galician o hose same meanings, we can iden i y di e gen
and con e gen ends wi hin he da a ound in he se o 41 languages s udied in he
a o emen ioned p ojec .
To achie e he indica ed objec i es, we will i s p esen he con ac si ua ion be ween
Galician and Cas ilian (Sec ion 2); hen, we will explain he me hodology and sou ces o
he da a used o ca y ou he compa ison (Sec ion 3), he esul s ob ained (Sec ion 4), and a
discussion (Sec ion 5); inally, we p esen some conclusions (Sec ion 6).
2. The Con ac Si ua ion be ween Galician and Spanish
Language con ac be ween Galician and Spanish is a long-s anding phenomenon, as
demons a ed by, o example, Mon eagudo and San ama ina (1993), Mon eagudo (1999), o
Ma iño Paz (2008). This con ac is e en e iden in he ea lies w i en ex s in Galician om
he mid-13 h cen u y, whe e he e a e signs o possible Cas ilianisms (Boullón Ag elo and
Mon eagudo 2009). As is well known (Mon eagudo and San ama ina 1993;Mon eagudo
1999;Ma iño Paz 2008), a se ies o poli ical changes ha ook place be ween he mid-14 h
and la e 15 h cen u ies led o a g adual inc ease in he p esence o Cas ilian in Galicia, as
well as he loss o con ex s o use o Galician, which ceased o be employed in li e a y,
cul u al, eligious, and adminis a i e domains, and was p ac ically no longe w i en.
This p ocess o Cas ilianiza ion had wo ela ed aspec s: an inc ease in he numbe o
speake s o Spanish due o language shi p ocesses and a consequen inc ease in he
p esence o linguis ic ans e s om Cas ilian o Galician. Howe e , un il he 18 h cen u y,
Cas ilianiza ion p ima ily a ec ed he highe s a a o socie y since he wide popula ion
con inued o use only Galician. O e ime, Spanish became associa ed wi h powe and
p es ige, while Galician was linked o he mos disad an aged social classes and unde wen
a g owing p ocess o s igma iza ion. The expansion o educa ion om he 18 h cen u y
Languages 2024,9, 244 3 o 23
onwa ds, wi h Cas ilian as he sole language o ins uc ion and s udy, u he ein o ced
his dicho omy, p omo ing no only a language shi bu also a ious linguis ic ans e
p ocesses. C ucially, as Galician was ma ginalized om p es igious unc ions, i o en did
no di ec ly ecei e many o he lexical inno a ions om lea ned sou ces (La in, classical
G eek, F ench, e c.), ecei ing many such elemen s only h ough Cas ilian. Mon eagudo
(2003, p. 201) e e s o his phenomenon whe e Cas ilian media ed he lexical enewal o
Galician as in e posi ion:
Desde o século XV po ía da eg a o galego non ecibiu inmedia amen e la-
inismos, anglicismos ou i alianismos, mais sócas elanismos, is o é, ocábulos
p e iamen e penei ados polo idioma in e pos o e adap ados a el, aínda que es es
ásúa ez esul asen se no cas elán, la inismos, anglicismos ou i alianismos
de o ixe.
In he 19 h and 20 h cen u ies, de-Galicianiza ion became e iden among he new
u ban classes, he middle class, and he educa ed popula ion. By he mid-20 h cen u y, as
social mobili y and he in luence o mass media inc eased, Spanish became popula ized and
ex ended o all social s a a. Today, Cas ilian is known and used by mos o he popula ion,
ei he as a i s o second language.
4
Thus, as no ed by Dube Ga cía(2005, p. 272), he
expansion o he use o Cas ilian as a spoken language and as a mo he ongue in Galicia
is a mode n phenomenon, which has led o a signi ican p esence o Cas ilian ans e s in
Galician, on accoun o he inc eased deg ee o con ac be ween he wo languages. The
numbe o lexical ans e s is pa icula ly dominan in he wo king classes, o which he
ALGa speake s belong.
Galician was no in oduced as a subjec in ea ly childhood, p ima y, and seconda y
educa ion un il he school yea 1979–1980, ha is, a e he dic a o ship o Gene al F anco, in
a pe iod when he social dis ance be ween he wo languages was e en mo e ein o ced. In
he 1980s, a no ma i e code o o hog aphy, mo phology, and lexicon was de eloped wi h
he aim o es ablishing a s anda d a ie y (Ramallo and Rei-Do al 2015). This a ie y was
hen employed no only in educa ion bu also in adminis a ion, he media, and poli ical
discou se. Howe e , a he ime he ALGa su eys we e conduc ed, his a ie y had no ye
been es ablished, and he e o e le no ace on he in o man s. Fo his eason, he ALGa
ep esen s he common Galician as i was spoken in he 1970s.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. The Loanwo d Typology P ojec
The Loanwo d Typology p ojec , coo dina ed and de eloped by Ma in Haspelma h and
U i Tadmo be ween 2004 and 2008, consis s o a o al o 41 languages. The p ojec analyzed
1460 meanings (c . he LWT meaning lis ) ac oss 24 seman ic ields, selec ed based on hei
genealogical, geog aphical, ypological, and sociolinguis ic di e si y (Haspelma h and
Tadmo 2009a, p. 3). Each o he con ibu o s esponsible o he 41 languages was equi ed
o p o ide he lexical coun e pa s o he di e en concep s,
5
indica ing whe he such
o ms we e o we e no bo owings and p o iding, in case hey we e, he wo d o o igin,
i s meaning, he language o p o enance, as well as o he da a abou he ci cums ances o
he ans e p ocess. They could also indi idually add o he concep s, bu hese we e no
conside ed in he s a is ical calcula ions.
In he LWT p ojec , a wo d, compound, o ph aseological exp ession is conside ed a
bo owing in a gi en language when i has been aken om ano he (including a subs a e
language) a any poin in i s his o y. This de ini ion conside s ha p o o-languages a e
phases o he same language (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, p. 12). I should be no ed
ha only es ablished bo owings inco po a ed in o he lexicon o he ecipien language
a e included, hus excluding nonce bo owings (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, p. 12).
Fu he mo e, he LWT p ojec only conside s di ec lexical bo owings, excluding o he
ypes o linguis ic ans e s such as seman ic and s uc u al calques (Haspelma h and
Tadmo 2009a, p. 14).
Languages 2024,9, 244 4 o 23
In he LWT p ojec , he esea che s in ol ed had o choose among i e op ions when
quali ying he exp essions associa ed wi h each concep : “no e idence o bo owing” (0),
“ e y li le e idence o bo owing” (0.25), “pe haps bo owed” (0.5), “p obably bo owed”
(0.75), and “clea ly bo owed” (1). Each o hese op ions was assigned he nume ical alues
indica ed in pa en heses. Based on hese alues, he bo owed sco e was calcula ed o each
concep , which he e o e anged om 0 o 1 and could be exp essed as a pe cen age.
6
The
a e age bo owing a e o he se o 1460 concep s was 24.2% (Tadmo 2009, p. 55). The
main indings o he LWT p ojec can be consul ed in Tadmo (2009) and on he WOLD
websi e (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009b).
3.2. The A las Lingüís ico Galego
The ALGa p ojec was ini ia ed a he Ins i u o da Lingua Galega in 1974 unde he
di ec ion o Cons an ino Ga cía and An ón San ama ina. Su eys we e conduc ed by h ee
esea che s (Rosa io Ál a ez, F ancisco Fe nández Rei, and Manuel González González)
be ween 1974 and 1977 a 167 poin s (152 locali ies in Galicia, 7 in As u ias, and 8 in he
p o inces o León and Zamo a). The ques ionnai e con ained 2711 ques ions co e ing 148
phone ic, 240 mo phological, 139 syn ac ic, and 2184 lexical aspec s, dis ibu ed among
17 hema ic a eas.
7
The majo i y o in o man s adhe ed o he NORM pa e n: speake s
om u al a eas wi h a low le el o educa ion who had li ed mos o hei li es in hei
bi hplace, coinciding wi h he su ey poin (Sousa 2017, pp. 322–25). I is, he e o e, a
adi ional linguis ic a las whose da a co espond o o al e nacula a ie ies. The language
used in he in e iews by he esea che s (who we e na i e luen speake s) was always
and only Galician.
Al hough he ALGa is cu en ly in he p ocess o being edi ed, mos o he da a a e
a ailable in a es ic ed access da abase o p ojec eam membe s. So a , se en o he
planned wel e olumes ha e been published. These include Ve bal Mo phology (1990),
Non-Ve bal Mo phology (1995), Phone ics (1999), Lexicon: Wea he and Ch onological Time (2003),
Lexicon: The Human Being (I) (2005), Lexicon: Ea h, Plan s, and T ees (2015), and Lexicon: The
Human Being (II) (2020). The olumes ha e been published in p in , al hough a he ime
o w i ing his wo k, a digi al esou ce is being de eloped ha will allow access o he
in o ma ion con ained in hem h ough a eely accessible websi e.
3.3. Selec ion o Seman ic Fields and Concep s om he LWT P ojec
Fi s , we ca ied ou a selec ion om he 24 seman ic ields used in he LWT p ojec .
This selec ion was d i en by ou in e es in examining how hema ic a eas migh in lu-
ence loan p ocesses, acknowledging ha no all meanings om he LWT p ojec could
be included due o he cons ain s o his pape ’s scope (Sec ion 3.6). To manage scope
and complexi y, we decided o ocus exclusi ely on he analysis o nouns,
8
which ha e
he highes p esence in he LWT p ojec (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, p. 8). Fo his
eason, we chose seman ic ields wi h a minimum o 50 concep s wi h nominal exp ession,
excluding he ield ‘Mode n Wo ld’, as mos o he meanings con ained he ein ha e no
en y in he ALGa. Consequen ly, we wo ked wi h concep s ealized h ough nouns om
se en seman ic ields: ‘The physical wo ld’, ‘Kinship’, ‘Animals’, ‘The body’, ‘Food and
d ink’, ‘Clo hing and g ooming’, and ‘Ag icul u e and ege a ion’.9
3.4. Co espondence be ween LWT P ojec Concep s and ALGa Ques ions
Fo each o he concep s iden i ied om he LWT p ojec a e he men ioned il e ing
p ocess, we sea ched o co espondence en ies in he ALGa su ey ques ions. Thus, o
example, he concep 3.817 ‘ he an ’ om he LWT p ojec co esponds o ques ion 1377
“Fo miga” ‘an ’ om he ALGa; o concep 1.72 ‘ he wind’ ma ches wi h ques ion 585 “Ven o,
ai e” ‘wind’.
10
Howe e , i should be no ed ha we did no equi e o al iden i ica ion
be ween he concep om he LWT p ojec and he one om he ALGa o include hem
in ou analysis. Thus, while he meaning ‘ he wea he ’ is no lis ed in he Galician da a
sou ce, he e is ques ion 634 “Bo empo” ‘good wea he ’ in ALGa, which p edominan ly
Languages 2024,9, 244 5 o 23
includes he concep ‘wea he ’ in esponses such as bo empo,bon empo, and buen iempo.
Acco dingly, we included and analyzed he esponses o his ALGa ques ion, conside ing
he exp ession o he noun and no he adjec i e.11
We ha e p io i ized ALGa ques ions ocused on he lexical domain, bu i he concep
om he LWT p ojec is no co e ed by hem, we eso o ques ions abou phone ic o
g amma ical aspec s. Fo example, al hough he concep ‘ he woman’ is no di ec ly lis ed
in he ALGa, ques ion 469, which in es iga es he Galician ansla ion o he Spanish ph ase
“La muje se ha uel o a casa” ‘ he woman has e u ned home’ o g amma ical s udy,
p o ided us wi h he necessa y da a. We use he Galician equi alen s o muje ‘woman’ in
he esponses o his ques ion o analyze he deg ee o Cas ilianiza ion o he concep ‘ he
woman’. Simila ly, he concep s ‘ he milk’ and ‘ he nu ’ a e asked in he phone ic ques ions
28 and 143, espec i ely, om which we ex ac he esponses.
I should also be no ed ha we occasionally spli a concep om he LWT p ojec i i
co esponded o mo e han one ques ion in he ALGa. Fo example, o he meaning ‘ he
sp ing o well’, explained wi h he gloss ‘na u al (sp ing) o a i icial (well) sou ce o wa e ’
in he LWT p ojec , we assigned wo ALGa ques ions: 729 “Manancial, on enla” ‘na u al
sou ce’ and 899 “Fon e” ‘a i icial sou ce’.
12
Con e sely, in a ew cases, we me ged mul iple
concep s om he LWT p ojec because hey co esponded o a single concep in Galician.
This is he case o ‘ he a he -in-law (o a man)’ and ‘ he a he -in-law (o a woman)’: he
esponses a e aken om ques ion 2365 “Sog o” ‘ a he -in-law’, as he dis inc ion be ween
he wo meanings is no lexicalized in Galician.
Howe e , no all concep s wi h nominal exp ession om he se en selec ed seman ic
ields we e subjec o analysis, as some had o be disca ded. In Sec ion 3.6, we will explain
he easons o exclusion, bu i s , in Sec ion 3.5, we will desc ibe he ea men gi en o
he concep s ha we e conside ed in he inal analysis.
3.5. Analysis o he Responses Linked o Each Concep
3.5.1. Calcula ion and Anno a ion o Responses in Ou Da abase
Fo each o he ALGa ques ions co esponding o he concep s om he LWT p ojec
ha we e selec ed, we calcula ed, on one hand, he numbe and pe cen age o esponses
ha did no esul om a p ocess o bo owing om Cas ilian, and on he o he hand, he
numbe and pe cen age o esponses ha en e ed Galician om Spanish. The da a om
his las ca ego y we e compa ed wi h he bo owed sco e o he concep in he LWT p ojec .
A his poin , i is impo an o emphasize ha only Cas ilian bo owings we e coun ed
(Sec ion 3.5.2) while he LWT p ojec conside s bo owings om any language (including,
o example, subs a e languages).
We ob ained esponses o each ques ion om an in e nal applica ion used in he ALGa
p ojec , which eco ds he o ms p o ided by he in o man s o he di e en ques ions o
he a las. I should be no ed ha such esponses migh no exac ly ma ch he o ms shown
in he maps published in he a ious olumes, as hese esul om la e edi ing wo k and
migh also combine esponses om a ious ques ions (o e en om o he sou ces).
In mos cases, Galician wo ds and bo owings coexis . Fo example, in ques ion 578
“Lúa” ‘ he moon’, he Galician esponses lúaand llúaa e eco ded alongside he Spanish
luna, as shown in Table 1. Howe e , he e a e cases whe e only Galician wo ds a e eco ded,
such as in ques ion 1057 “Fa iña” ‘ he lou ’, and o he s, less common, whe e 100% o he
wo ds came om Cas ilian, as in ques ion 1888 “Mis o” ‘ he ma ch’.

Languages 2024,9, 244 6 o 23
Table 1. Responses o ques ion 578 “Lúa” ‘ he moon’ in he ALGa.
Responses om he ALGa Numbe o Responses
Lúa76
Llúa2
Luna 126
To al 204
Bo owing sco e 61.8%
Addi ionally, we o en encoun e di e en synonyms, quasi-synonyms, o wo ds wi h
simila meanings as esponses o he same ques ion in he ALGa, whe he o Galician o
Spanish o igin. Fo example, in esponses o ques ion 1975, ega ding he concep ‘ he
b eak as ’, bo h he adap a ions o he Cas ilian wo d desayuno and he Galician o ms
almo zo,pa a, and mañáa e eco ded, as shown in Table 2. Simila ly, o he concep
‘ he cen ipede’ (ques ion 1380 “Milpe nas, cempés”), he e a e, among many o he o ms,
cempés,ciempiés,cempe nas,cob a de cen pa as, apaca allas, e c.
Table 2. Responses o ques ion 1975 “Almo zo” ‘ he b eak as ’ in he ALGa.
Responses om he ALGa Numbe o Responses
almo zo 144
desaúno 17
pa a 11
desalluno 8
desaiuno 7
mañá1
To al 188
Bo owing sco e 17%
Following he same c i e ion as o he LWT p ojec , whe e mul iple lexical coun-
e pa s a e allowed o a single meaning in each language,
13
we compu ed all hese
i ems. We dis inguished be ween o ms ha en e ed om Spanish and hose ha did
no , en e ing hese da a in a sp eadshee ha o med ou da abase, accessible a h ps:
//zenodo.o g/ eco ds/12583583 (accessed on 28 June 2024). In he i s ou columns (see
Table 3), we p o ide in o ma ion ela ed o he LWT p ojec as ound in he WOLD. Column
A speci ies he seman ic ield associa ed wi h he concep ; column B lis s he WOLD code
o ha concep ; column C gi es he concep ’s name in English as lis ed in he WOLD; and
column D shows he bo owed sco e, which is he a e age p obabili y ha his concep is
exp essed h ough a loanwo d in he se o languages ha p o ided da a o ha meaning
in he LWT p ojec , p esen ed as a pe cen age o acili a e compa ison wi h he da a o
Galician ( ield M in Table 4).
Table 3. In o ma ion ex ac ed om WOLD en e ed in o ou da abase.
A B C D
WOLD
Food and d ink 5.42 The b eak as 26%
Food and d ink 5.55 The lou 35%
Languages 2024,9, 244 7 o 23
Table 4. In o ma ion ex ac ed om ALGa en e ed in o ou da abase.
E F G H I J K L M N
ALGa
Almo zo
1975 188 almo zo (144),
pa a (11), mañá(1) 156 83%
desaúno (17),
desalluno (8),
desaiuno (7)
32 17%
Fa iña 1057 168
a iña (155),
a ina (4), a ía (3),
óleo (3), mes u a (1),
milla as (1),
emillas (1)
168 100% -- 0 0%
Fa ina is conside ed a
non-Spanish-o igin
esponse because i
was collec ed a he
poin s o Eas e n
Galician indica ed in
Ál a ez de la
G anja/Dube (2024),
Sec ion 3.5.3
Columns E–N in Table 4, which is a con inua ion o Table 3, p o ide da a om he
ALGa. Column E lis s he name and column F he numbe o he ques ion in he a las
da abase. Column G indica es he o al numbe o esponses om he ALGa conside ed o
ha concep (Sec ion 3.5.2); among hese, Column H de ails he speci ic esponses ha did
no en e om Cas ilian, no ing (in pa en heses) he numbe o occu ences o each o m.
Column I shows he o al numbe o esponses no ans e ed om Spanish, and column J
he pe cen age hey ep esen o he o al. Columns K, L, and M p o ide analogous da a
o esponses ha a e loanwo ds ha en e ed om Cas ilian. Finally, column N includes
obse a ions.
I should be no ed ha , as can be seen in column G in Table 4, he numbe o o al
esponses a ailable may a y om concep o concep . This a ia ion can be a ibu ed
o se e al ac o s: he po en ial emo al o some esponses as ou lined in Sec ion 3.5.2,
he absence o esponses a some o he su eyed poin s o ce ain meanings, o he
a iabili y a a single poin whe e di e en esponses migh be eco ded depending on
he concep — anging om Galician wo ds and Cas ilianisms o synonyms and e ms o
a ying speci ici y.
In ou da abase, each o he se en seman ic ields is labeled wi h he name o he
seman ic ield ollowed by “_analyzed”. To he igh o each o hese shee s is ano he ,
documen ing he concep s excluded o he easons s a ed in Sec ion 3.6, now appending
“_excluded” o he seman ic ield name.
3.5.2. C i e ia o Selec ion and P esen a ion o Responses
No all en ies lis ed in he ALGa we e included in ou da abase. Below, we explain
he a ious c i e ia applied o selec ing esponses.
Fi s ly, we conside ed he esponses p o ided in 166 ou o he 167 su ey poin s, as
we excluded hose co esponding o he municipali y o Benuza, Le-5, whe e Leonese is
spoken (K üge 1965, p. 271).
Secondly, we excluded esponses in e p e ed as ee combina ions o a head and a
modi ie a he han as lexicalized uni s. I should be no ed ha such in e p e a ion is no
always clea -cu . Fo example, o ques ion 715 “Rega o, ielo” ‘ he i e o s eam’, we
excluded esponses like ío pequeno ‘small i e ’; o o ques ion 733 “Te eo pan anoso,
boedo” ‘ he swamp’, we excluded o ms like e eno pan anoso o e a pan anosa ‘swampy
land’. This c i e ion aligns wi h he one es ablished in he LWT p ojec :
Ph asal exp essions we e only o be gi en i hey we e ixed and con en ionalized.
Con ibu o s we e speci ically asked no o p o ide desc ip ions o explana ions
o he meaning as coun e pa s. Fo example, o LWT 4.393 ( he ea he ) a
language may ha e had ‘hai o bi d’ as he bes equi alen , bu i his was no
Languages 2024,9, 244 8 o 23
a ixed exp ession, i could no be used as he language’s coun e pa , and he
en y should ha e been le un illed (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, p. 11).
Thi dly, we excluded o ms ha he ALGa no es explici ly indica ed as being used
only in oponymy, such as Fe encedo in ques ion 723 “Abanquei o, b eixa, uxidoi a”
‘ he wa e all’.
Fou hly, some esponses o e lexical o ms ha clea ly di e ge om he in es iga ed
concep . Fo example, in ques ion 1810 “Abella” ‘ he bee’, one o he esponses is a espa
‘wasp’, and in ques ion 1 “Aguia” ‘ he eagle’, esponses included azo ‘goshawk’, ga za
‘he on’, o ga ilán‘spa ow hawk’. We disca ded such esponses when we easonably
belie ed ha hey did no co espond o he concep in ques ion. Howe e , gi en he
dialec al na u e o he ALGa, deciding whe he o exclude o include a e m can be chal-
lenging, as lexical a ia ion is common. Fo ins ance, a e m o ‘bean’ migh deno e ‘len il’
o ‘chickpea’ in di e en dialec s. In any case, gi en ha we a e dealing wi h unique o
minimally ep esen a i e esponses, hey ba ely al e he esul s.
Finally, on accoun o ou in e es in exclusi ely s udying nouns, esponses ha a e no
nouns, nominal compounds, o noun ph ases a e excluded om he analysis. Fo example,
o he concep ‘ he wa e all’, esponses like uxi a auga ‘ o oa he wa e ’ a e excluded;
o he concep ‘ he swamp’, adjec i es like pan anoso ‘swampy’ o angoso ‘muddy’ a e le
ou . Excep ions a e made o cases whe e he noun can be ex ac ed om he eco ded
exp ession. Fo example, in he concep ‘ he wa e all’, he esponse ace cachón‘ o make
wa e all’ is coun ed as an ins ance o cachón‘wa e all’.
Apa om hese cases, we do no seek absolu e conco dance be ween he concep and
he esponse, ollowing he app oach es ablished in he LWT p ojec :
Thus, in ou p ojec he e was o en less han comple e iden i y be ween LWT
meanings (labeled in English) and hei coun e pa s in he a ious p ojec lan-
guages. The seman ic scope o he coun e pa s could be b oade o na owe
han ha o he LWT meaning, o a mo e complex seman ic ela ionship be ween
hem could ob ain (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, p. 9).
Fo example, o he concep ‘ he ea ing’ unde ques ion 2329 “Penden es” in he
ALGa, we include a os o a e es ‘hoop ea ings’, e en hough hey deno e speci ic ypes
o ea ings.
When mul iple esponses a e collec ed a he same poin sha ing he same oo , e en
i hey p esen phone ic o mo phological di e ences (such as coi o and cui o collec ed in
Vimianzo o coi o and cou acha collec ed in Po o in ques ion 53 “Coi o” ‘ he lea he ’), we
coun hem as a single esponse, and in ield H (Table 4), we only include he i s o m
p o ided by he in o man s (in his case, coi o in bo h ins ances).
14
Howe e , excep ions a e
made o cases whe e lea ned and inhe i ed o ms o he same oo coexis a he same poin .
Fo example, we coun ed wo di e en esponses, esplanada and llanada, o ques ion 752
“Chaila, chai a” ‘ he plain’ in Rodei o. In cases o synonymous exp essions wi h he same
head, such as pano and pano da na iz in As Pon es de Ga cía Rod íguez o pano do bolsillo
and pano dos mocos in Ce ceda, om ques ion 2331 “Pano de man” ‘ he handke chie / ag’,
we coun only one esponse.
This c i e ion applies unless he a ian s a e Galician wo ds and Cas ilian loanwo ds,
in which case bo h a e coun ed sepa a ely, such as cou o and cue o in ques ion 53 “Coi o” ‘ he
lea he ’ om Sal a e a do Miño, whe e he o me is Galician, and he la e is Cas ilian.
Simila ly, i he esponses collec ed a he same poin ha e di e en oo s, as is he case
wi h he Galician wo ds coi o and pelello in Boal in he same ques ion, hey a e coun ed
sepa a ely, and all a e eco ded in ou da abase wi hou dis inguishing be ween i s and
subsequen esponses.
Fu he mo e, in he case o se e al esponses collec ed a he same poin , whe e one is
a gene ic e m and he o he is a sub-speci ica ion o he e a e di e en sub-speci ica ions
o he same concep , we coun a single esponse whene e hey sha e a oo in he head, he
gene al designa o o he que ied meaning. This happens, o example, wi h he esponses
laga o,laga iño, and laga o da agua collec ed in Moaña in ques ion 1392 “Laga o” ‘ he
Languages 2024,9, 244 9 o 23
liza d’, whe e only he i s esponse laga iño is no ed and coun ed. The same c i e ion
is applied o esponses like paloma da casa,paloma do mon e, and paloma ula collec ed in
Ribei a in ques ion 1806 “Pomba” ‘ he do e’: a single loan case is coun ed, and only paloma
da casa, he i s esponse, is no ed and coun ed. Con e sely, i he esponses o e ed a he
same poin ha e di e en oo s in he head, as is he case in En imo wi h pomba and paloma
b a a, we coun and eco d all dis inc o ms.
3.5.3. Ca ego izing Responses as Spanish T ans e s
Iden i ying bo owings om Cas ilian is a mo e complex ask han migh ini ially
appea , and no all decisions made in his ega d allow o absolu e ce ain y. In any case,
as we indica ed, he da a, including ou classi ica ion, a e a ailable a h ps://zenodo.o g/
eco ds/12583583 (accessed on 28 June 2024) and can be accessed and modi ied by o he
esea che s.
The LWT p ojec has al eady add essed di icul ies in iden i ying loanwo ds, equi ing
he language coo dina o s o choose among i e op ions when quali ying wo ds as ans e s,
each o which was assigned a ce ain sco e (Sec ion 3.1): “clea ly bo owed” (1), “p obably
bo owed” (0.75), “pe haps bo owed” (0.5), “ e y li le e idence o bo owing” (0.25),
and “no e idence o bo owing” (0). Howe e , in ou analysis, since we o en deal wi h a
la ge numbe o en ies o each esponse, we do no wo k wi h his con inuum because
i would o e ly complica e his s udy and because he wo ds ha pose insu moun able
doub s a e ela i ely ew and usually in equen .
15
Thus, he wo ds collec ed in he ALGa
mus be classi ied necessa ily in o he g oup o o ms ans e ed om Cas ilian o in o he
g oup o hose ha a e no , al hough in some cases, as we indica ed be o e, he e may be
doub s in his ega d ( o example, aceña ‘wa e mill’). The e o e, we ca ego ize all en ies
s ic ly in o wo g oups: hose ha a e ans e s om Cas ilian, equi alen o he WOLD’s
“clea ly bo owed” (coun ed as 1 poin ), and hose ha a e no , aligning wi h “no e idence
o bo owing” (coun ed as 0 poin s).
I mus be emphasized once again ha his wo k ocuses exclusi ely on quan i ying
he in luence o Spanish con ac on Galician, which could be called e ical in luence. Im-
po an ly, loanwo ds om As u -Leonese, such as coldo ‘ he elbow’ and a ina ‘ he lou ’
eco ded in eas e n Galician, a e coun ed alongside Galician o ms ( o he iden i ica ion o
As u -Leonese wo ds, he Dicciona io Gene al de la Lengua As u iana, (Ga cía A ias 2024), was
decisi e). These loanwo ds, e lec i e o a dialec con inuum a he han he imposi ion o
a mo e p es igious language like Spanish, a e p edominan ly obse ed in eas e n Galicia
and no gene alized ac oss he Galician-speaking e i o y, unlike Cas ilianisms. Fo ms ha
e ain he La in in e ocalic -L-, he pala aliza ion o in e ocalic -LL- and he As u -Leonese
diph hongiza ion o
˘
E/
˘
Oin As u ias, as well as in he poin s o León Le-1 (Candín), Le-2
(Vila anca do Bie zo), and Le-4 (Ca acedelo), a e pa icula ly con en ious. Fu he mo e,
we do no conside he e en ion o he in e ocalic -L- in poin s o Lugo like A Fonsag ada
(L-16), Neguei a de Muñiz (L-19), and Na ia de Sua na (L-23) as indica i e o Cas ilian
in luence. Con e sely, in he es o he poin s, we in e p e wo ds wi h hese ai s as
Cas ilianisms. I ollows, hen, ha when classi ying he da a, we ake in o accoun he
in e nal isoglosses o Galician, such ha o ms conside ed ans e s in some poin s a e
no in o he s: o example, nine cases o ela ‘loom’ a e classi ied as Cas ilianisms, while
ano he nine collec ed in As u ias, in Le-4, and L-19, a e no .
The his o ical ma ginaliza ion o Galician dis anced i om ele a ed sphe es, whe e
he in e posi ion o Cas ilian (Sec ion 2) u he p e en ed di ec con ac o Galician wi h
o he languages. As a esul , some loanwo ds om geog aphically dis anced languages,
such as he I alianism pan ano ‘swamp’ o he Gallicism pan alón‘ ouse s, pan s’, a e
conside ed o ha e eached Galician h ough Cas ilian. Fo his eason, hey a e coun ed as
di ec bo owings om Spanish. This aligns wi h he c i e ia es ablished in he LWT p ojec ,
whe e he immedia e sou ce o loanwo ds is speci ied (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, p.
16). The same applies o a ew lea ned o ms eco ded in he ALGa (such as mandíbula ‘jaw’
o pómulo ‘cheekbone’), which p obably also eached Galician h ough Cas ilian, as his was
Languages 2024,9, 244 16 o 23
be ween a high numbe o esponses and a high index o Cas ilianisms: he dual esponses
may be a ibu ed o he p esence o Cas ilianisms coexis ing wi h Galician o ms o he
coexis ence o synonyms wi hin Galician i sel .
All hese indices sugges ha Galician speake s did no seem o hold pu is ideas o
aboos agains he lexical Cas ilianiza ion o hei language a he ime he ALGa su ey was
conduc ed. They also e lec he in ensi y o con ac . And inally, he high index o lexical
Cas ilianiza ion is also a consequence o cul u al and linguis ic simila i ies. In he con ex o
he LWT p ojec , languages wi h di e en ypological and sociocul u al backg ounds may
be in con ac ; in he case o he ALGa, he languages in con ac a e no only linguis ically
close, bu also cha ac e is ic o p ac ically iden ical cul u es and socie ies. This si ua ion
g ea ly acili a es he pene a ion o Cas ilianisms in o Galician.
Due o space cons ain s, we canno p o ide a mo e de ailed analysis o he se en
selec ed seman ic ields selec ed o his s udy. In he ollowing pages, we will ocus on he
h ee ields ha o e he mos dispa a e o leas p edic able esul s compa ed o he WOLD
da a. These ields a e ‘The body’ and ‘The physical wo ld’, which, con a y o expec a ions,
ha e a highe bo owabili y index in he ALGa han in he LWT p ojec , and ‘Ag icul u e
and ege a ion’, which a e ‘The body’, p esen s he highes pe cen age di e ences wi h
espec o he WOLD da a.
5.2. The Body
Among he se en seman ic ields selec ed o s udy, ‘The body’ has he lowes bo -
owed sco e in he LWT p ojec , a 12.5%. I is also one o he ields wi h he lowes
bo owabili y index ac oss all 24 ields examined in his p ojec , wi h only ‘Sense pe cep-
ion’, ‘Spa ial ela ions’, and ‘Miscellaneous unc ion wo ds’ ha ing a lowe bo owed sco e.
Tadmo (2009, p. 65) a ibu es he low p esence o loanwo ds in his ield o i s uni e sali y
and he lack o a need o bo ow e ms om ano he language:
The seman ic ields a he o he ex eme, comp ising hose leas amenable o
bo owing, a e no less in e es ing. They consis o concep s ha a e uni e sal and
sha ed by mos human socie ies. P ac ically e e y language can be expec ed o
ha e indigenous wo ds o such concep s, and he e o e has no need o bo ow
hem. These ields consis o Sense pe cep ion, Spa ial ela ions, The body, and
Kinship, which ha e a bo owing a e o jus 10–15%.
The exis ence o a basic ocabula y is a common assump ion in linguis ics, hough
no wi hou con o e sy. I is asse ed ha “ he e exis s a basic o co e ocabula y which
is uni e sal and ela i ely cul u e- ee, and hus is less subjec o eplacemen han o he
kinds o ocabula y” (Campbell 2020, p. 423; see also Ma as 2009, p. 166). In line wi h his
idea, he LWT p ojec leade s compiled he Leipzig–Jaka a lis o basic ocabula y, i.e., he
ocabula y less suscep ible o be exp essed h ough bo owing (Tadmo 2009, p. 68 .). To
his end, hey ook in o accoun no only he unbo owed sco e o he di e en concep s
bu also he ep esen a ion sco e (numbe o languages in he LWT sample ha had a leas
one coun e pa o his meaning), he simplici y sco e ( he a e age simplici y o all wo ds
o his meaning, based on whe he he exp essions a e analyzable, non-analyzable, o
seman ically analyzable), and he age sco e ( he a e age age o all wo ds o his meaning).
A lowe bo owabili y index, a g ea e p esence in languages, g ea e simplici y, and olde
age con ibu e o he classi ica ion o ocabula y as basic. In his lis o 100 i ems (Tadmo
2009, pp. 69–71), 25 elemen s co esponding o he seman ic ield ‘The body’ appea :
Body pa s cons i u e he mos p ominen g oup. I ems om he seman ic ield
The body make up only abou a en h o all he i ems on he 1460-i em LWT
meaning lis , bu ully a qua e o he i ems on he Leipzig–Jaka a lis o basic
ocabula y. Mos i ems ep esen ex e nal o gans expec ed o be known o any
no mal speake in any socie y: mou h, ea , nose, eye, a m/hand, leg/ oo , and
many o he s. (Tadmo 2009, p. 71)

Languages 2024,9, 244 17 o 23
In he same line, Ca ling e al. (2019, p. 2) conside ha body pa s a e pa o he basic
lexicon o a language. As such, all languages should ha e wo ds o body pa - ela ed
concep s and would no need o ake hem om o he s. Speci ically, hey a e conside ed
“no ions inhe en o he en i onmen , which a e no mally no changed by cul u al ac i i y”,
so hey should ha e “a lowe bo owabili y” han o he no ions “which imply adap a ion
and change.”
Con a y o hese p edic ions, in he ALGa da a, ‘The body’ has he highes numbe
o ans e s om Spanish (29.2%). I is ollowed by ‘Food and d ink’ (29.1%, which was
expec ed o be among hose ha accep mo e loanwo ds, by i ue o i s ela ionship wi h
cul u al changes, Ca ling e al. 2019, p. 2). In 26 o he 41 body- ela ed concep s in he ALGa,
he pe cen age o loanwo ds om Spanish is highe han he bo owed sco e o he WOLD.
Fu he mo e, ou analysis o ‘The body’ in he ALGa e eals ha i e ou o he hi een
concep s lis ed in he Leipzig–Jaka a lis ha e a bo owed sco e exceeding 25%.
25
In ou
o hese cases, he bo owed sco e su passes 50%, and no ably, he concep o ‘ he blood’
shows a 100% Cas ilianiza ion a e ac oss all sampled dialec s. Table 9lis s hese hi een
concep s om he Leipzig–Jaka a lis , de ailing he pe cen age o Cas ilianiza ion in he
ALGa and he bo owed sco e in he WOLD, o de ed om he highes o he lowes deg ee
o bo owing in Galician.
Table 9. Concep s om he seman ic ield ‘The body’ selec ed in ou s udy and p esen in he
Leipzig–Jaka a lis o basic ocabula y.
Concep Bo owed Sco e ALGa Bo owed Sco e WOLD
he blood 100.0% 10%
he knee 84.4% 9%
he high 59.7% 9%
he skin o hide 58.3% 11%
he nose 28.1% 3%
he na el 15.7% 12%
he neck 4.8% 10%
he li e 1.2% 13%
he eye 0.6% 10%
he oo 0.0% 14%
he oo h 0.0% 12%
he hand 0.0% 15%
he ea 0.0% 10%
While he da a om ou s udy show some de ia ions, hese a e no en i ely unp ece-
den ed: “Basic ocabula y is in gene al esis an o bo owing [
. . .
]. O cou se, basic
ocabula y can also be bo owed— hough his happens less equen ly so ha i s ole as
a sa egua d agains bo owing is no ool-p oo ” (Campbell 2020, p. 329). Indeed, 7 ou
o he 41 languages s udied in he LWT p ojec ha e a bo owed sco e highe han he
deg ee o Cas ilianiza ion obse ed in Galician in his ield: Selice Romani (57.2%), Gu indji
(42.4%), Romanian (39.2%), Sa amaccan (35.2%), Thai (30.4%), Ta i iy Be be (29.5%), and
Japanese (29.2%).
The ques ion ha a ises nex is why Galician p esen s hese high indices o Cas ilian-
iza ion in he seman ic ield ‘The body’. Among he easons o in oducing loanwo ds in o
a language, wo s and ou : necessi y, when speake s lack exp ession o a new concep and
hus need o ill a lexical gap; and p es ige, when speake s adop an unnecessa y loanwo d
om he language used by he socially mo e powe ul communi y o gain app o al and
social s a us (Ca ling e al. 2019, p. 1; Ma as 2009, pp. 149–53). I is impo an o ecognize
Languages 2024,9, 244 18 o 23
ha , in he 1970s, Cas ilian was he p es igious language in he Galician-speaking e i o y
(Mon eagudo 1999). Consequen ly, Cas ilian se ed a dono language o loanwo ds o
Galician, bo h on accoun o necessi y and p es ige. Unde he necessi y ca ego y, since Gali-
cian was no used in high- unc ioning socie al oles (Sec ion 2), lexical inno a ion p ima ily
occu ed h ough bo owing om Cas ilian, he closes language, a he han h ough he
c ea ion o new na i e e ms. Rega ding p es ige, he dynamic ypically ollows ha “a less
p es igious language bo ows om a mo e p es igious one” (Ca ling e al. 2019, p. 29).
Rela ed o p es ige and he social alue o o ms, o he p agma ic ac o s play a ole in
shaping lexical choice, as indica ed by Pa illo (2021)o Ma as (2009): aboo, euphemism,
egis e , conno a ions o wo ds ela ed o sex o geni al o gans. In ela ion o all hese ac o s,
i can be no ed ha some imes he Galician name o a body pa becomes specialized
o animals, while he loanwo d is dedica ed o a human body pa (Neg o Rome o 2013,
p. 229). This is he case wi h ‘ he kidney’ o ‘ he back’, o example, whe e he Galician
o m il is used o designa e he kidneys o animals and he Cas ilianism iñónis used o
humans. Simila ly, he Galician wo d lombo e e s o he back o animals and he Cas ilian
wo d espalda is used o humans. Howe e , we canno o ge ha in he ALGa ques ionnai e,
many o hese esponses we e collec ed indisc imina ely o body pa s o humans and
animals. I would be in e es ing o know wha would happen i hey we e asked sepa a ely
o each.
The p es ige ac o alone is no su icien o explain why, o example, ‘ he high’ o
‘ he skin’ a e Cas ilianized, bu ‘ he oo ’, ‘ he hand’, ‘ he eye’, o ‘ he ea ’ a e no (al hough
hei bo owabili y indices a e equal o o abo e 10% in he LWT p ojec ). I also does no
accoun o he Cas ilianism pelexo ‘skin o an animal’ eplacing he Galician o m pelello
(58.3%), conside ing ha he concep , which has only an 11% bo owabili y index in he
WOLD, e e s o animals.
The equency o use o a concep is indeed a commonly ci ed ac o ha can impac
he likelihood o i s denomina ion being bo owed (Pagel e al. 2007;Ca ling e al. 2019;
Pa illo 2021). High usage le els seem o hinde lexical subs i u ion. Fo example, he
denomina ions o ‘ he hand’, ‘ he oo ’, ‘ he oo h’, and ‘ he ea ’ a e no Cas ilianized, bu
‘ he mola ’, ‘ he elbow’, ‘ he eyeb ow’, and ‘ he eyelid’ a e. Howe e , usage equency
does no seem o explain he Cas ilianiza ion o ‘ he blood’. The p esence o synonyms
can also play a ole in acili a ing he en y o loanwo ds. Acco ding o Pa illo (2021,
p. 389), synonyms cons i u e an open doo o loanwo ds (see also Vejdemo and Hö be g
2016). Ca ling e al. (2019) and Pa illo (2021) also men ion he exis ence o o he ac o s
ha we canno explo e he e, such as wo d leng h, widesp ead use in ph aseology, o he
exis ence o me onymic o me apho ical ex ensions. Conside he Galician wo d ollo ‘eye’
o ‘a en ion’; ollo da pechadu a ‘keyhole’; ollo da agulla ‘eye o he needle’, e c.).
Thus, e e y hing seems o indica e ha while p es ige is p obably a he oo o all
loanwo ds aking place in his ield, he e a e likely se e al explana o y ac o s ha in e ac
o de e mine why only some concep s a e eplaced o displaced by Cas ilian loanwo ds.
Finally, we mus add ha , in p inciple and in gene al, Galician and Cas ilian sha e a simila
epe oi e o concep s ela ed o body pa s, which acili a es ans e ence. This sha ed
concep ual amewo k means ha bo h languages segmen and ca ego ize body pa s in
compa able ways—a s a k con as o languages like Russian, whe e a single e m migh
encompass wha in Galician and Cas ilian a e wo dis inc concep s (e.g., he Russian wo d
o ‘ oo ’ and ‘leg’ is he same).
5.3. Ag icul u e and Vege a ion
Acco ding o Ca ling e al. (2019, p. 18), his seman ic ield should be mo e open o
loanwo ds because i belongs o he cul u al amewo k, an a ea ha changes o e ime
and is suscep ible o ex e nal in luences due o he in oduc ion o new c ops, echniques,
ools, uses o o ms o owne ship, e c. These concep s a e, unlike hose ela ed o body
pa s, p one o “adap a ion and change”, making hei lexical e olu ion mo e a ma e o
necessi y han p es ige. Howe e , p ecisely o his eason, his pa o he lexicon “is mo e
Languages 2024,9, 244 19 o 23
complex o in es iga e”, since changing socio-his o ical condi ions mus be conside ed.
Fo example, he e may be se e al c ea i e s a egies o naming new eali ies o he han
bo owing as languages can epu pose exis ing wo ds o c ea e new exp essions o desc ibe
no el concep s. In Galician, his has been he case, o example, wi h ‘co n’: when his
ce eal en e ed Galicia, i ecei ed wo dialec al naming s a egies (Ál a ez 2002). In he
i s dialec al s a egy, he wo d millo, i s ly used o e e o ‘mille ’, came o be used o
he new concep o ‘co n’; as a esul , he name o he old ‘mille ’ changed om millo (now
‘co n’) o millo miúdo ‘mille ’, li e ally ‘small mille ’. In he second, he o m maíz‘co n’ was
aken, impo ed om Ame indian languages h ough Cas ilian.
The e o e, concep s ha a e mo e in e wined wi h cul u al ac i i ies, such as g azing,
li es ock a ming, and ag icul u e, a e mo e suscep ible o bo owing due o hei depen-
dence on speci ic cul u al in e ac ions. Howe e , we see ha in he case o Galician in
ela ion o Cas ilian, his end does no seem o be ul illed, as he ield ‘Ag icul u e and
ege a ion’ is one o he mos conse a i e and admi s a ela i ely low le el o Cas ilian
loanwo ds (16.9%), despi e he impo ance o empo a y immig a ion o Galician peasan s
o Cas illa in he Mode n Age. In ac , 25 ou o he 30 concep s analyzed in he ALGa om
his ield ha e bo owing indices below hose obse ed in he WOLD (28.8%). Many o he
concep s wi h ze o bo owing e e o na u al en i ies, such as ‘ he oak’ (29% loan in he
WOLD), ‘ he g ass’ (17% in he WOLD), ‘ he hay’ (15% in he WOLD), o ‘ he lea ’ (10% in
he WOLD). Howe e , a cul u al objec , such as ‘ he sickle’, has 0.4% in he ALGa and 52%
in he WOLD; also, ‘ he h eshing- loo ’ has 0% in he ALGa and 18% in he WOLD.
In any case, he concep s in his ield can be classi ied acco ding o Ca ling e al. (2019,
p. 6) based on he “in ensi y o cul u al in ol emen and labo ”. Fo hem, he likelihood o
bo owing inc eases acco ding o he “inc eased labo in ensi y”. Thus, hey conside h ee
possibili ies: “(1) Indoo , ga den and small-scale a ming zone, (2) La ge a ming zone, and
(3) Technology and indus y zone”. Acco ding o his amewo k, a a ming cul u e akes
ewe loanwo ds han an indus ial cul u e, and small-scale a ming akes ewe loanwo ds
han la ge-scale a ming. Rega ding he se lemen sphe e, wo ds used wi hin he amily o
he indoo en i onmen ake ewe loanwo ds han hose used in he ou doo en i onmen :
“I appea s ha cogni i e p oximi y, amilia i y, ou ine, in imacy, and equency a e all
ea u es ha may compe e wi h social mo i a ions o bo ow wo d- o ms” (Ma as 2009,
p. 171).
The ag icul u al con ex in Galicia du ing he ime o he ALGa su eys, cha ac e ized
by subsis ence a ming and sel -consump ion a he han ma ke -o ien ed ag icul u e
(Villa es 2016), undoub edly in luenced he linguis ic landscape; o a leas , ha was he
way o li e ep esen ed by he NORMs selec ed as in o man s (Sec ion 3.2). This indoo ,
ga den, and small-scale a ming sys em seems o ha e p omo ed linguis ic conse a ism in
Galician da a, bo h in he ield o ege a ion (such as plan names) and in ha o cul u al
en i ies (such as ools). And ye i is s ill di icul o explain why ‘ he hoe’ has a loanwo d
index o 10% in he ALGa and 29% in he WOLD, o why ‘ he pi ch o k’ has 28% in he
ALGa and 41% in he WOLD, o , con e sely, why ‘ he ha es ’ has 44% in he ALGa and
only 27% in he WOLD. Once again, o he explana o y ac o s seem necessa y.
5.4. The Physical Wo ld
As p e iously no ed, he ield ‘The physical wo ld’ p esen s a bo owing sco e o
24.5% in he ALGa da a, wi h a s anda d de ia ion o 27.8%. In con as , he LWT p ojec
da a p esen a bo owing index o 20.4% wi h a s anda d de ia ion o 11.9%. The e o e,
he e a e highe bo owing a es in he ALGa and g ea e dispe sion.
In his ield, he highes a e o Cas ilianiza ion is ound in he concep ‘ he ma ch’,
wi h 100%. This is no su p ising conside ing ha i is a ela i ely ecen cul u al objec
and no a na u al en i y. I is, he e o e, a Cas ilianism bo n ou o necessi y. I is illus a i e
ha in Po uguese i is called ós o o, h ough a La inism (which he ALGa does no eco d).
Howe e , unnecessa y Cas ilianisms e e ing o na u al, non-cul u al objec s abound
in he ALGa da a: o he exp ession ‘ he dus ’ he e is an 88% Cas ilianiza ion a e, com-
Languages 2024,9, 244 20 o 23
pa ed o 23% in he WOLD da a. Simila ly, he concep ‘ he moon’ is Cas ilianized a 62%
e sus 28% in he WOLD. The ‘ og’ and ‘ he hill’ also show highe Cas ilianiza ion a es in
he ALGa a 35% and 26%, espec i ely, compa ed o 14% and 17% in he WOLD. In con as ,
‘ he snow’ and ‘ he wea he ’ ha e minimal Cas ilian in luence in he ALGa, bo h a 1%,
despi e highe a es in he WOLD o 24% and 36%, espec i ely. Much o his lexicon e e s
o common na u al elemen s and a e closely ela ed on a seman ical le el: ‘ he i e’ has
only 1% o Cas ilianiza ion, ‘ he ash’, 5%, while ‘ he lame’ has 38%. ‘The sky’ is a 6%, bu
‘ he s a ’ is a 59%. Su p isingly, ‘ he alley’—ano he na u al bu ou doo elemen —has
a 55% Cas ilianiza ion a e, which migh be mo e unde s andable gi en i s exposu e o
ex e nal in luences.
I seems e iden ha he en y o many o hese loanwo ds is explained by p es ige,
and in some cases, ac o s like equency o use: he concep ‘ he lame’ can be exp essed
in Galician h ough chama,lapa,laba ada,la ada
. . .
, while ‘ he i e’ is only exp essed by
lume.
26
The p esence o so many synonyms o ‘ he lame’ could indica e an openness o
he concep o ecei ing loans (Sec ion 5.2). In any case, once again, i seems necessa y o
eso o di e en explana o y ac o s, linked o speci ic exp essions, and no o he gene al
con en o he ield.
6. Conclusions
The main objec i e o his s udy was o assess he le el o co espondence be ween
he bo owabili y indices a ibu ed o a selec ion o concep s om he LWT p ojec and
he indices ob ained o hose same concep s in he ALGa da a. We also aimed o compa e
he deg ee o Cas ilianiza ion in he Galician language ac oss he di e en seman ic ields
s udied. A e b ie ly desc ibing he sociohis o ical si ua ion o Galician, he p ojec s we
elied on, and he me hodology, we p esen ed and discussed he main esul s.
One o he indings e eals ela i ely high a es o Cas ilianiza ion in he ALGa da a.
This demons a es he s eng h o he con ac be ween Galician and Cas ilian, he highe
social p es ige o Spanish, he cul u al simila i ies among he a ious speech communi ies,
and he p oximi y o he linguis ic a ie ies.
Al hough he di e ence in he bo owing index be ween he o e all a e ages ob ained
in he WOLD and he ALGa is only 0.8 poin s, a de ailed analysis showed ha he ankings
o loanwo ds in he LWT p ojec do no align pe ec ly wi h hose o he ALGa. This
a ia ion is o be expec ed conside ing ha each speech communi y expe iences and is
in luenced by di e en his o ical and linguis ic ci cums ances.
In he ALGa, he s anda d de ia ion o he means o he Cas ilianiza ion indices o
each concep is highe han in he LWT p ojec . This indica es ha he ange o a ia ion
in he alues a e highe in Galician; in ac , in each seman ic ield, many concep s (52.2%)
ha e low Cas ilianiza ion indices, be ween 0% and 10%, and only a ew concep s ha e high
indices. F om his, we can conclude ha he e a e no uni e sal seman ic ac o s (seman ic
ields) ha de ini i ely condi ion he Cas ilianiza ion indices.
The mo e de ailed analysis o h ee seman ic ields (‘The body’, ‘Ag icul u e and
ege a ion’, and ‘The physical wo ld’), which yielded somewha unp edic able esul s,
shows ha he in luen ial ac o s a e he p es ige o Cas ilian, he deg ee o u baniza ion,
mode ni y wi hin he cul u al uni e se o he seman ic ield, and pe haps he equency
o wo d usage: in gene al, wi h some excep ions, concep s ha a e used mo e equen ly
seem o be mo e esis an o bo owing. In any case, he eade should conside ha he
kind o in o man s su eyed in he ALGa a e NORMS. The sociolinguis ic e olu ion o he
egion since he mid-se en ies o he las cen u y has su ely in luenced he deg ee o lexical
Cas ilianiza ion in Galician.
Mo eo e , o he in alinguis ic ac o s ha , acco ding o some schola s, may in luence
he ecep ion o loanwo ds emain o be explo ed: wo d leng h, phonological simila i y,
conno a i e alues, he exis ence o synonyms, e c. Fu he s udies a e needed ha employ
indi idualized, quan i a i e, and quali a i e analysis o concep s and hei exp essions o
shed some ligh on hese ac s.
Languages 2024,9, 244 21 o 23
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, me hodology, alida ion, o mal analysis, in es iga ion,
w i ing—o iginal d a , w i ing— e iew and edi ing, isualiza ion: M.Á.d.l.G. and F.D.G. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was unded by he Minis e io de Cul u a (Go e nmen o Spain).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The o iginal con ibu ions p esen ed in he s udy a e included in he
a icle. Fu he inqui ies can be di ec ed o he co esponding au ho /s.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
No es
1F om now on, and wi h he aim o simpli ica ion, we will use he e ms Spanish o Cas ilian in e changeably.
2
Bo owabili y can be de ined as “The ela i e likelihood ha wo ds wi h pa icula meanings would be bo owed” (Haspelma h
and Tadmo 2009a, p. 1).
3
See, espec i ely, h ps://wold.clld.o g/ (accessed on 28 June 2024) and h ps://ilg.usc.es/gl/p oxec os/a las-linguis ico-galego-
alga (accessed on 28 June 2024).
4
Acco ding o he Mapa Sociolingüís ico de Galicia ( he s udy empo ally closes o he su eys o he ALGa ha p o ides in o ma ion
on he linguis ic acquisi ion and usage in Galicia), in 1992, 62.4% o people had Galician as hei ini ial language; 25.6% had
Spanish; 11.4% had bo h languages; and 0.6% we e in o he si ua ions (Fe nández Rod íguez and Rod íguez Nei a 1994, p. 39).
Rega ding he habi ual language, in 1992, 38.7% spoke only Galician; 29.9% spoke mo e Galician han Spanish; 10.6% spoke only
Spanish; and 20.8% spoke mo e Spanish han Galician (Fe nández Rod íguez and Rod íguez Nei a 1995, p. 49). A compa ison
wi h he da a om he la es su ey by he Ins i u o Galego de Es a ís ica (2019), conduc ed in 2018, shows a signi ican se back in
he in e gene a ional ansmission o Galician and a conside able inc ease in he use o Spanish: 42.19% o he Galician popula ion
indica es ha Galician is hei ini ial language; 31.72% indica e Spanish; 23.68% indica e bo h; and 2.41% indica e o he si ua ions.
Rega ding he habi ual language, 30.33% say hey always speak Galician; 21.55% speak mo e Galician han Spanish; 23.14% speak
mo e Spanish han Galician; 24.71% always speak in Spanish; and 0.77% indica e o he si ua ions.
5
A chi, Bezh a, Ceq Wong, Du ch, English, Gawwada, Gu indji, Hausa, Hawaiian, Hup, Imbabu a Quechua, Indonesian, I aqw,
Japanese, Kali’na, Kanu i, Ke , Kildin Saami, Lowe So bian, Malagasy, Manange, Manda in Chinese, Mapudungun, Old High
Ge man, O oqen, O omi, Q‘eqchi’, Romanian, Sakha, Sa amaccan, Selice Romani, Seychelles C eole, Swahili, Takia, Thai, Ta i iy
Be be , Vie namese, Whi e Hmong, Yaqui, Wichí, and Zinacan án Tzo zil (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, pp. 3–4).
6
Tadmo (2009, p. 66) alks abou “unbo owed sco e” and he nume ical assignmen is e e sed ( om 1 o “no e idence o
bo owing” o 0 o “clea ly bo owed”). Howe e , we use he “bo owed sco e” lis ed in he WOLD.
7
1. The ime and wea he , 2. Topog aphical acciden s, 3. Ag icul u e, 4. Wine, oil, lou , b ead, wool and linen, 5. Plan s, 6. Insec s,
bi ds, wild animals, 7. Fishing and hun ing, 8. Pas o al li e, 9. Domes ic animals, 10. The home. Domes ic occupa ions, 11. The
human body. Mo emen s and ac ions, 12. D ess and oo wea , 13. The amily. Human li e, 14. The spi i ual wo ld, 15. Games
and amusemen s, 16. T ades, 17. Weigh s and measu es (Ga cía e al. 1977, p. 14).
8Some esea ch es ablishes a ela ionship be ween he bo owabili y index and g amma ical ca ego y (Haspelma h 2009, p. 35).
9
We lea e ou he concep s added indi idually by hose esponsible o some languages o he LWT p ojec , which, as indica ed in
Sec ion 3.1, we e no conside ed in he s a is ical calcula ions o his p ojec .
10
The concep s o he LWT p ojec a e w i en be ween single quo a ion ma ks and wi h an a icle, as hey appea in WOLD,
while he seman ic ields a e also w i en be ween single quo a ion ma ks, bu wi h an ini ial capi al le e , also acco ding o
WOLD’s p esen a ion. To keep hem di e en ia ed, he ques ions om ALGa a e p esen ed wi hou an a icle and be ween double
quo a ion ma ks, while ou English glosses o Galician wo ds a e w i en be ween single quo a ion ma ks, wi h a lowe case ini ial
le e and wi hou an a icle.
11
Ques ion 635 “Mal empo” ‘bad wea he ’ is also included in he ALGa, bu we chose “Bo empo” because i has a sligh ly highe
numbe o esponses. In any case, he pe cen age o Cas ilianiza ion is simila in he esponses o bo h ques ions.
12
We excluded ques ion 897 o he ALGa “Pozo” ‘well’ because i s exp ession is mos ly iden ical in Galician and Spanish (see
Sec ion 3.6 o mo e in o ma ion on his issue).
13
“The Wo ld Loanwo d Da abase add esses his p oblem by allowing se e al (indeed, an unlimi ed numbe o ) coun e pa s pe
meaning” (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, p. 9).
14 The anking o esponses is es ablished in he ALGa h ough le e s (A, B, C. . .).
15
As we will discuss in Sec ion 3.6, in a ew highly ambiguous cases whe e he classi ica ion o a o m as a loanwo d signi ican ly
in luenced he esul s, we op ed o exclude he concep s om he analysis.

Languages 2024,9, 244 22 o 23
16
“Bo owing a wo d o en en ails a ce ain modi ica ion o he sou ce wo d, equi ed o he in eg a ion o he wo d in o he
ecipien language” (Haspelma h and Tadmo 2009a, p. 16).
17
Excep as a possible ealiza ion o he phenomenon known as “gheada” (Fe nández Rei 1990, pp. 163–89), Galician does no ha e
he oiceless ela ica i e sound [x], ep esen ed by <j> in conejo ‘ abbi ’. Howe e , he e a e many cogna es whe e he Cas ilian
[x] co esponds o he Galician [
S
], ep esen ed by <x> (gen e/xen e,cojo/coxo, e c.). Fo his eason, in some ins ances, conejo has
been adap ed in Galician as conexo.
18
Since i coexis s a his poin wi h mu ciélago and also wi h mu ciégalo, esponse A, only he la e o m is compu ed and eco ded
in ou da abase.
19
“Excluded om he class o loanwo ds a e neologisms (=p oduc i ely c ea ed lexemes) which consis pa ly o en i ely o o eign
ma e ial, because hey a e c ea ed in he ecipien language, and no ans e ed om a dono language” (Haspelma h and
Tadmo 2009a, p. 13).
20
The concep s ha do no ha e a nominal cha ac e we e also included in he shee s labeled as “_excluded” accompanied by hei
pa o speech ag.
21 Phone ic phenomena such as gheada o seseo (Fe nández Rei 1990), which do no ha e lexical es ic ions, a e se aside.
22
The mos common exp ession in Spanish is de e mined h ough co po a in hose cases whe e he e a e bo h di e en and
coinciden synonyms wi h Galician.
23
The da a o all WOLD concep s p esen ed in he second column we e ex ac ed om he websi e i sel , selec ing only hose
meanings ma ked as “T ue”. These we e he only ones conside ed o s a is ical calcula ions in his p ojec . No e, howe e , ha
he o e all esul s p o ided on he p ojec websi e include all concep s, bo h hose ma ked wi h “T ue” and “False”, and he e o e
do no ma ch wi h ou indings. Con e sely, he da a we p o ide does ma ch wi h hose p esen ed in Table 6o Tadmo (2009,
p. 64), wi h mino di e ences likely due o decimal adjus men s.
24
In 44 cases, he pe cen age is 0%, and in h ee cases, i is 0.4%. These a e added oge he since only he whole numbe is conside ed
o analysis.
25
Twel e concep s om he seman ic ield ‘The body’ lis ed in his in en o y we e no analyzed in ou s udy due o hei absence
om he ALGa o because hey coincide wi h Spanish.
26 In he ALGa, ogo/ ougo is eco ded, bu only in six loca ions.
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