Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
A ailable online 5 Ap il 2024
1364-0321/© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-
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Assessing he u u e p ospec s o eme ging echnologies o shipping and
a ia ion bio uels: A c i ical e iew
Ana A ias
a
,
*
, Ch ysan hi-Elisabe h Nika
b
, Vasileia Vasilaki
b
, Gume sindo Feijoo
a
,
Ma ia Te esa Mo ei a
a
, E ina Ka sou
b
a
CRETUS, Depa men o Chemical Enginee ing, School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, 15782, San iago de Compos ela, Spain
b
Depa men o Ci il & En i onmen al Enginee ing, Uxb idge Campus, Ins i u e o En i onmen , Heal h and Socie ies, B unel Uni e si y London, Middlesex, Uxb idge,
UB8 3PH, UK
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Bio uels
Sus ainabili y
P ospec i e LCA
Ce i ica ion
Ene gy ansi ion
ABSTRACT
The e is an u gen need o swi ch om ossil o bio-based uels in he anspo sec o , pa icula ly in shipping
and a ia ion. The g ow h o he wo ld’s popula ion has esul ed in a signi ican impac on passenge anspo ,
wi h a no iceable inc ease in g eenhouse gas emissions, deple ion o ossil esou ces and associa ed isks in all
h ee pilla s o sus ainabili y. In his con ex , new policies, s anda ds and a ge s ha e been de eloped o educe
his en i onmen al damage, which is mainly caused by he use o ossil uels. The e o e, he al e na i e o using
bio uels seems o be he mos app op ia e solu ion, o he ex en ha impo an a ge s ha e been se and speci ic
di ec i es ha e been de eloped o he in eg a ion o bio uels in he ma i ime and a ia ion sec o s. Howe e , o
demons a e ha swi ching o bio uels is indeed bene icial, i is necessa y o e alua e new bio uel scena ios om
a li e-cycle pe spec i e, wi h pa icula emphasis on analyses ha p o ide in o ma ion beyond he p esen , such
as p ospec i e li e-cycle assessmen s. To his end, he ocus o his e iew is on he cu en ends in he p o-
duc ion o bio uels o he ma ine and a ia ion sec o s, aking in o accoun he main a ge s se , he exis ing
egula ions and di ec i es on he subjec , and an analysis o he ype o echnologies used o hei p oduc ion. I
also add esses bio uel Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) scena ios and u u e LCA app oaches, and how hese analyses
should be ca ied ou o be e ec i e. Finally, key policies, s anda ds and ce i ica ions a e analyzed. The ends
and bo lenecks discussed in his e iew conce ning he ac ual and u u e de elopmen o he bio uels sec o
could be used by policy make s and s akeholde s o iden i y e o s ha a o he in eg a ion o bio uels in o he
alue chain. Fu he mo e, i could be concluded ha he e alua ion o he guidelines o eseen in he de elop-
men o compe i i e scena ios based on eme ging echnologies, as well as he adop ion o policies and es ic ions
on he use o uels, a e key condi ions o es ablish he oadmap o he widesp ead implemen a ion o bio uels.
1. In oduc ion
The g ow h o popula ion is di ec ly a ec ing o e he anspo
sec o . The in ensi y and he “ oad anspo ” is causing impo an issues
o e he en i onmen , gi en he emissions, and o communi ies’ heal h,
as a mo e pollu an ambien is being aced. Rega ding ai pollu an s, jus
ocusing on anspo sec o , i is esponsible o he 45% o he emissions
o ni ogen oxides. 2% o sul u oxides emissions, 13% o pa icula
ma e , 8.7% o non-me hane ola ile o ganic compounds and 1.2% o
NH
3
emissions, acco ding o he Eu opean En i onmen Agency. Be-
sides, in 2021 a o al o 0.84 G and 0.71 G o CO
2
has been emi ed by
shipping and a ia ion sec o s, espec i ely, acco ding o he
In e na ional Ene gy Agency. These emissions a e mos ly he esul o
he use o ossil-based uels, ha en ails, no only he elease o ha m ul
compounds in he use-phase, bu also in he p oduc ion one. Gi en his,
he e is a need on p o iding mo e e icien and less ha m ul p ima y
esou ces o espond o he demands o popula ion wi h espec o
passenge anspo daily ou ines and a els, and he use o bio-based
uels could imply impo an bene i s, as hose a e less ha m ul and could
also be mo e e icien .
In his ega d, he use o bio-based uels, which en ails less en i-
onmen al damage h oughou i s li e cycle, should be p omo e. Besides,
he combina ion o eco-e icien ajec o ies oge he wi h he use o
bio uels could add alue in he pu sui o mo e sus ainable anspo
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A. A ias).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ se
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. se .2024.114427
Recei ed 23 Janua y 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 21 Ma ch 2024; Accep ed 2 Ap il 2024
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
2
[1]. In his con ex , he main a ge s o anspo sec o a e he ones
epo ed by he Eu opean Union (EU) S a egy, Eu opean G een Deal,
EU Emissions T ading Sys em, In e na ional s a egies (In e na ional
Ma ine O ganiza ion’s (IMO)) and ReFuelEU Ini ia i e, and included
below.
1. Reduce ca bon in ensi y by a leas 40% using low-ca bon uels by
2030, and 70% by 2050, using ze o-ca bon uels (IMO s a egy).
2. Es ablish con ol mechanisms o CO
2
emissions in e ms o moni-
o ing, epo ing and e i ica ion (Regula ion (EU) 2015/757 o he
Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council on he moni o ing, epo ing
and e i ica ion o ca bon dioxide emissions om ma i ime
anspo ).
3. Encou age ma ke -based ca bon measu es, such as a CO
2
ax
(ReFuelEU Ini ia i e, ‘Fi o 55’ package”).
4. In absolu e e ms and wi h a ime ho izon, 50% educ ion o o al
annual GHG emissions by 2050 (Eu opean G een Deal, EU S a egy,
EU Emissions T ading Sys em) [2,3].
These a ge s a e he main d i ing o ce o he de elopmen o new
eme ging echnologies o bio uel p oduc ion. Reducing he ca bon
oo p in in he anspo sec o owa ds o achie e ze o-ca bon emis-
sions equi es he adop ion o sus ainable echnologies and he use o
enewable esou ces [4,5]. The echnology mus e ol e om low
Technology Readiness Le el (TRL) alues o high alues in o de o
p o e he echnological easibili y o he p ocess on a la ge scale, which
will p o ide insigh in o u u e po en ial, s abili y, isk and ma ke
pene a ion.
The use o p ospec i e me hodologies is conside ed a sui able ool o
de elop he assessmen o he ca bon impac om a b oad pe spec i e
[6,7]. Conside ing he need o p o ide a o wa d-looking pe spec i e,
assessmen s should ake in o accoun changes in he en i onmen in
which he echnology will be applied a leas 50 yea s om now, ying
o en ision he mos accu a e u u e scena io ha he eme ging ech-
nology will ace [8,9]. The use o p ospec i e assessmen s equi e he
use o expe knowledge, p ojec ed es ima ions and da abases [10–12].
To his end, i is necessa y o know he exis ing si ua ion conside ed as a
e e ence scena io, o p opose possible imp o emen s bu also he main
bo lenecks ha hinde he ansi ion o bio uel p oduc ion.
In his ega d, he main goal o his c i ical e iew is o e alua e he
echnology and he me hodologies being de eloped in he ield o bio-
uel p oduc ion, as well as he iden i ica ion o s anda ds and ce i ica-
ions schemes on he use o bio uels in anspo ac i i ies. On he o he
hand, he po en ial and ma ke pene a ion o bio uels, he use o p o-
spec i e li e cycle assessmen (LCA), social li e cycle assessmen (S-LCA)
and echno-economic assessmen (TEA) as app op ia e en i onmen al,
social and echno-economic impac assessmen a e also e alua ed.
2. Regula ions on bio uels in he anspo sec o
The EU has adop ed he Renewable Ene gy Di ec i e (REDII
2021–2030) as he co e o achie ing he deca boniza ion o anspo
sec o , including he limi a ion on he use o ene gy c ops o he sub-
sequen bio uel p oduc ion, he encou agemen o he de elopmen o
ad anced bio uels and he de ense on he main enance o bio-based
na u al esou ces below he ea h limi s, o a oid i s deple ion and i s
en i onmen al e ec s [13–16]. The commi men o he alo iza ion o
ag icul u al, li es ock and o es y esidues, he use o algae, non- ood
aw ma e ials, as well as o he non-useable was e s eams, such as
was e cooking oil, a e he main app oaches o ocus on bio uel p o-
duc ion al e na i es.
This Di ec i e also in oduces he main c i e ia ha he bio uels may
comply in o de o ensu e ha i s p oduc ion and use is encompassed
wi hin he bounda ies o sus ainabili y de elopmen ha , in gene al
e ms, e e s o he ac ha hose bio uels does no en ail an en i on-
men al load compa able o highe han ha o ossil-based uels. In his
way, go e nmen s, s akeholde s, policy make s and de elopmen o -
ganiza ions a e be ing on a p oac i e and an icipa o y ac ion, wi h he
aim o a oiding he en i onmen al damage caused by he massi e and
uncon olled use o ossil esou ces o he p oduc ion o uels.
In his con ex , o he o ganiza ions ha e de eloped a se ies o
guidelines, documen a ion and ce i ica ion schemes ocused on he
bio uel sec o , wi h he objec i e o suppo ing hei de elopmen om a
pe spec i e ha p omo es sus ainable p oduc ion and use. One o he
mos ecognized is he guidance bio uel ce i ica ion documen c ea ed
by he In e na ional Sus ainabili y & Ca bon Ce i ica ion (ISCC),
mainly ocused on wood-based bio uels [17]. I is conside ed a e i i-
ca ion o compliance wi h social, en i onmen al and aceabili y c i e ia
o bio uels in acco dance wi h he a ge s de ined by he Eu opean
egula ions o anspo uels. This documen compiles sus ainabili y
equi emen s [18,19], GHG emissions es ima ion [20] and aceabili y
o bio uels alue chain [21].
As i could be seen on Fig. 1, he e a e wo anspo a ion sec o s
(a ia ion and ma i ime) ha , bo h a p esen and in he es ima ed p o-
jec ions, ha e he highe po en ial impac on he le els o emissions and
en i onmen al damage de i ed om he use o ossil uels, because o
his, a la ge numbe o egula ions ha e been de eloped o hese sec-
o s. The Ame ican Socie y o Tes ing and Ma e ials (ASTM) D7566 has
app o ed he use o Sus ainable A ia ion Fuels (SAF) in je engines o
passenge and eigh anspo , gi en hei good pe o mance and
educed en i onmen al loads compa ed o adi ional ossil uels [22],
bu wi h some es ic ions. The use o bio uels in he uel blends is
subjec ed o he ASTM s anda d, in o de o ensu e he echnical and
sa e y condi ions in ligh s. Using bio uels o ai c a , deca boniza ion
o he a ia ion sec o could be achie ed, bu s ill ce ain ba ie s could
be de ec ed when implemen ing bio-based uels in he a ia ion sec o .
Some o hem includes highe cos in compa ison o ossil uels, lack o
guidelines o ce i ica ion p ocess and o policy amewo k and
go e nmen al unding o implemen a ion [23–25]. Replacing 90% o
con en ional a ia ion uels wi h bio uels is expec ed o educe emissions
by 53% by 2050 [26,27].
The Ai T anspo Ac ion G oup has published he Waypoin 2050
epo , wi h he pu pose o achie ing ne -ze o emissions by 2050 in he
a ia ion sec o , ollowing he guidelines se o achie e he goals o he
Eu opean G een Deal and he SDGs [28,29].
The Fi Fo 55-package o he Eu opean G een Deal is a ecen Eu-
opean Commission ac ion plan (July 2021). The p oposal aims o c ea e
a Eu opean manda e o he supply and implemen a ion o SAF a mos
EU ai po s, encou aging he use o bio uels o ai anspo a ion. The
main eason o he de elopmen o his ini ia i e is o achie e he EU
clima e a ge s o he educ ion o emissions and dependence on ossil
esou ces. The main goal is ha he pe cen age o SAF in he ai ans-
po depa ing om EU ai po s would inc ease g adually, eaching he
a ge o 63% by 2050.
Acco ding o ICAO (In e na ional Ci il A ia ion O ganiza ion), 57
ai po s dis ibu e SAF wo ldwide, ep esen ing mo e han 440 000
comme cial ligh s. A ound 24 policies ha e been adop ed o a e being
de eloped by in e na ional o ganiza ions and pu chase ag eemen s ha e
been signed o some 34.9 billion li e s o SAF [30]. Mo eo e , he
Ca bon O se ing and Reduc ion Scheme o In e na ional A ia ion
(CORSIA) is a scheme ha a o s he in eg a ion o bio uels in his
anspo sec o . The scheme p omo es he educ ion o ca bon dioxide
emissions h ough he imp o emen o a ia ion echnologies and ope -
a ional condi ions, as well as he de elopmen o na ional and/o
egional egula o y ini ia i es [31].
On he o he hand, in o de o encou age he use o ad anced ship-
ping bio- uels in a la ge-scale ma ke alue chain, and o egula e i s
p ices, he Eu opean Commission has in oduced he “Inducemen P ice
o he P omo ion o Renewable uels” [32]. The goal o his p oposal is
o make he use o ad anced bio uels o a ma ke supply chain possible
o shipping sec o h ough p ice egula ion. The assessmen s conduc ed
o link he ela ionship be ween p ice and bio uel e ec i eness ha e
A. A ias e al.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
3
been de eloped using 100% bio uels o a anspo dis ance o a leas
21 600 nau ical miles. Wi h an economic app oach, he Poseidon P in-
ciples ha e also been de eloped, wi h he objec i e o ca ying ou a
me hodology o in eg a e he en i onmen al isk wi hin he inancial
and in es men decision o he shipping sec o [33].
Fo example, he Eu opean In es men Bank has succeeded in
de eloping a G een Shipping Gua an ee (GSG) P og am, wi h he aim o
accele a ing in es men s in mo e sus ainable and g een echnologies o
shipping companies [34,35]. One o he goals in echnology imp o e-
men is o achie e ene gy e iciency in shipping ac i i ies. In his
con ex , he SEEMP (Sheep Ene gy E iciency Managemen Plan), a
mechanism de eloped by he In e na ional Ma i ime O ganiza ion, in-
oduces a se o guidelines o he de elopmen o ship ene gy e i-
ciency, encompassing calcula ion me hods o measu ing ene gy
e iciency (Annex 7) [36], ca bon in ensi y and co ec ion ac o s (An-
nexes 14 and 17) [37,38], ca bon-based indica o s (Annex 15) [39], and
ca bon in ensi y classi ica ion o ships (Annex 16) [40], among o he s.
All o he abo e policies, s anda ds, a ge s, e c. a e a e lec ion o he
necessi y o he sec o o mee he equi emen s and objec i es es ab-
lished o bio uels. An u gen accele a ion o he comme cializa ion o
bio uels wi h a high le el o quali y is a mus o be achie ed. In his
ega d, he implemen a ion o app op ia e policy de ini ions and as-
sessmen s could be conside ed a key ole in he bio uel p oduc ion
sec o . In ac , he e a e cu en ly policies abou his, b ie ly desc ibed
below.
−10-Yea F amewo k o P og ams on Sus ainable Consump ion and P o-
duc ion (SCP) Pa e ns: a global ini ia i e o inc ease in e na ional
coope a ion o enhance SCP.
- OECD: Sus ainable Ma e ials Managemen and G een Claims: a policy o
os e g een and sus ainable g ow h a bo h economic and de-
mog aphic le els.
- UNIDO/UNEP P og am on Resou ce-E icien Cleane P oduc ion: based
on he ecogni ion o me hodologies and p ocedu es ha b ing
bene i s o adequa ely add ess global challenges on s abilizing and
imp o ing sus ainable en i onmen al, social and economic p ac-
ices, among o he s [41].
3. Wha a e he ac ual pe spec i es on he use and
comme cializa ion o shipping and je bio uels?
The de elopmen o mo e sus ainable uels o shipping and je
anspo s he main e o s and challenges a e di ided in Re . [42].
1. Technical managemen (i.e. imp o emen o he echnologies o be
mo e e icien ).
2. Ope a ional condi ions (i.e. combus ion empe a u e).
3. Enhance he use o mo e en i onmen ally- iendly uels (i.e. ad o-
ca e o a oiding he ossil-based uels).
4. Al e na i e powe sou ces (i.e. using enewable sou ces).
5. Es ablishmen o ca bon cap u e and s o age echniques on ship and
a ia ion boa ds.
In his con ex , all he s a egic de elopmen on he shipping and
a ia ion sec o should be in line wi h he objec i es o educing ca bon
emission in bo h sho , medium and long e m (Fig. 2) [43,44]. Bu
huge e o s a e needed o achie e a ze o-ca bon emission o bo h
anspo sec o because, gi en he es ima ions o he In e na ional En-
e gy Agency, a ia ion sec o equi es abou 220 M on/yea o bio uel oil
equi alen s o ully deca bonized, while o he case o shipping sec o ,
is a li le bi highe , amoun ing o 240 M on/yea o oil equi alen s [45].
Acco ding o Solaki i e al. (2022), he ma ine uels could be di ided
in ou main ca ego ies: non-sus ainable con en ional uels, LNG/LPG
and non- enewable hyd ogen, sus ainable bu unde de elopmen bio-
uels and enewable/ad anced bio uels and e- uels [45]. In his ega d,
he main cha ac e is ics o he al e na i e ma ine al e na i e uels a e
depic ed on Table 1. On he o he hand, i should be aking in o accoun
ha he ma ine anspo a ion sec o could go o u he al e na i e
Fig. 1. Con ibu ion on anspo sec o s on (a) GHG emissions, (b) ai pollu an s and (c) p og ession on CO
2
eq. emissions and p ojec ions pe sec o . Da abase:
Eu opean En i onmen al Agency, Eu os a .
A. A ias e al.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
4
uels o eplace he ossil-based ones in compa ison o a ia ion sec o , as
he engines and in as uc u es o ships a e mo e adequa e o use
lowe -quali y uels [46]. Bu , indeed, o bo h sec o s, he main chal-
lenges o be add essed a e he educ ion on he p oduc ion cos s, he
need o a highe echnological ma u e and he inc ease on he a ail-
abili y o in as uc u e o he al e na i e uels use and dis ibu ion [47,
48].
Gi en he assessmen o he mos esea ched and de eloped al e -
na i es o ma i ime uels, should be men ioned which a e he ideal
cha ac e is ics ha should ha e in o de o be e ec i e o he engines
and in as uc u es. The epo de eloped by G ay e al. (2021) ha e
iden i ied he ollowing: high ene gy densi y ( o a oid he high s o age
olumes), low emissions le els, educed p oduc ion and use cos s ( o be
a ac i e o eplace he con en ional ones), scalabili y ( o be used o
bo h sho and long anspo dis ances) and compa ibili y wi h ac ual
in as uc u e [52].
In his con ex , he epo de eloped by Xing e al. (2021) ha e
analyze di e en issues ela ed wi h he adequacy o he al e na i e
ma ine uels, classi ying hem in p io i y le els and s eng hs o i s
applica ion [59]. The use o me hanol, hyd ogen and ammonia as
ma i ime uels a e he mos adequa e o m he poin o iew o en i-
onmen al impac s, howe e he di e ences on engines and on he ca-
paci y o ene gy p oduc ion should be aking in o accoun . While
me hanol could be used o all ypes o anspo , ammonia is no ye
a ailable o be used o deep sea ou es, while comp essed H
2
is only
e ec i e o domes ic shipping. In o de o a oid hese disad an ages, i
has been epo ed ha a possible solu ion is he use o p opulsion
echnological sys ems, which should be adap ed in unc ion on he
anspo dis ance.
Rega ding he a ia ion sec o , he equi emen s o he de elopmen
o al e na i e uels a e s ic e in compa ison o ha o ma i ime
anspo , as highe quali y is equi ed, wi h unique uel p ope ies
equi ed o be compiled. In his ega d, o example, biodiesel could no
be used as je uel, gi en i s educed ene gy densi y and high eezing
poin [60]. To his end, he main al e na i e o deca bonizing he
a ia ion sec o is wi h he use o SAF (Sus ainable A ia ion Fuels),
de ined as al e na i e uels wi h simila p ope ies o ha o con en-
ional ones bu wi h educed en i onmen al oo p in , hus being mo e
sus ainable. The ad an age o he use o SAF elies on he ac ha a e
classi ied as “d op-in” uels, meaning ha hey could be used in he
planes wi hou needs o modi ying he engines o in as uc u es [61]. In
his ega d, he main companies manu ac u ing SAF a e depic ed on
Table 2, including he ype o eeds ock, he p oduc ion p ocess me h-
odology used by each o hem, he p oduc ion capaci y and he appli-
ca ions. While on Table 3 some examples o ai lines using SAF a e
depic ed.
As o shipping uels, G ay e al. (2021) ha e also iden i ied he
ideali ies o je -al e na i e- uels, being he ollowing he mos
ou s anding: high ene gy densi y, high speci ic ene gy ( o enhance he
e iciency), high lash poin ( o be sa e), low emissions le els, low is-
cosi ies and eezing poin s ( o ensu e he uel quali y a educed em-
pe a u es), high he mal s abili y and good lub ica ion p ope ies [52].
3.1. Some ad ances on he use o bio- uels
W¨
a sil¨
a, a ma ine engine manu ac u e , cons uc ed a bio-me hanol
based engine o a e y o he company S ena Ge manica, he i s o he
wo ld. This engine is based on a cylind ic engine in which he bio-
me hanol is injec ed and igni ed using an unsigni ican amoun o
ossil-based uel [52]. On he o he hand, ega ding di ec ly he
bio-me hanol, one o he bigges p oduc ion acili ies is loca ed in
Canada, Ene kem pla , being able o p oducing a o al o 38 ML/yea
using as eeds ock, municipal solid was e. Ano he company is BioMCN,
wi h a lowe capaci y, 15 /yea , and using an al e na i e aw ma e ial,
biogas. To his end, i could be obse ed ha he deg ee o de elopmen
o bio-me hanol p oduc ion could be encoun e ed be ween a TRL6 o 8.
Fig. 2. Goals o educing he GHGs om shipping and a ia ion indus ies.
A. A ias e al.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
5
The main p oblem o i s u he TRL is he bio-based eeds ocks used o
i s p oduc ion, i s managemen and p ocess s ages equi ed o he inal
bio-me hanol p oduc ion, a leas o now, ha e a limi , ha is a
maximum capaci y o 1300–2600 /day.
Some echnological companies ha e also de eloped in e es ing
p ocess schemes o he p oduc ion o al e na i e ma ine and je sus-
ainable uels: Honeywell Co., an Ame ican company, uses ege able oils
and a s o ob ain g een diesel and Haldo TopsØe has cons uc ed a
hyd o ea ing-based echnology o p oduce g een diesel using aw
g ease aw ma e ials. On he o he hand, o he companies such as
SkyNGR, P ojec Sola is o Pe ob as ha e adop ed co-p ocessing
echnologies in which he ma ine and je bio- uels a e blended wi h
pe oleum-based adi ional uels. The a ionale behind his is he
a emp o achie e a mo e sus ainable uel gi e he educed sul u
con en ha a mixing wi h a bio-based uel could p o ide, hus also
educing he ca bon- ela ed emissions [55].
4. Wha is he cu en s age o bio uel p oduc ion and
comme cializa ion?
Acco ding o he In e na ional Ene gy Agency (IEA), in 2020 he
demand o bio uels amoun s o 146.72 billion li e s o bio uels and his
Table 1
Main al e na i e uels de eloped o eplace ossil-based ma i ime uels.
Fuel
al e na i e
Emissions compa ed o
con en ional
Ad an ages Disad an ages O he issues Fu u e challenges Re e ence
Ammonia Reduced le el emissions
o CO
2
, SO
x
and PM
Cleane ene gy
C-neu al uel
Clean ene gy ca ie
Be e s o e condi ions
han bio-H
2
(highe T)
Could be used in in e nal
combus ion engines and
uel cells
Highe le el o NO
x
emissions
5- imes mo e s o age olume
han con en ional diesel
Low hea ing alue
Shipping in as uc u e and
bunke ing is no adequa e
o using ammonia as uel
Di icul s o age
Incomple e submission
leads o NO
x
emissions
De elop e icien
igni ion engines gi en
i s low au o-igni ion
[44,45,
49–51]
H
2
Reduced le el emissions
o CO
2
, SO
x
and PM
A ailable in abundance,
highe e iciencies in uel
cells han ossil-based
uels
Found in compound o m, i s
ene gy po en ial is los when i
is e ined, di icul s o age, uel
cells a e expensi e, high
lammabili y en ailing
po en ial isks
Fuel cells equi e low
main enance
Reduce he cos o uel
cell de ices o enhance
he use o as H
2
bio uel
[45,50]
Me hanol High le el o NO
x
,
medium le el o CO
2
A ailabili y, no as
expensi e as o he
bio uels, engine
simplici y, able o adap
exis ing engines
Low ene gy con en , low
densi y and high iscosi y han
con en ional uels,
11 chips on se ices uses
me hanol as uel, a ious
eeds ocks could be used o
i s p oduc ion, including
was e esou ces
Mos used o m o ma ine
uel, wi h 160 k ons
consumed annually
Engine and uel supply
in as uc u es
adap a ion
[44,45,
51,52]
Bio-LNG
a
Lowe emission o CO
2,
lowe sul u con en and
limi ed SO
2
emissions
Modi ica ion o engine
and uel supply s uc u e
Lowe cos han o he biomass-
based uels, low ene gy
densi y, highe s o age olume
The engines could be
modi ied o educe he
emissions o NO
x,
mos
likely op ions o comply
IMO
egula ions
Need o educe he
limi a ion o he
a ailabili y o
bunke ing acili ies
[45,48,
50,51]
HVO
b
Reduced emissions o NO
x
and CO
2
Sligh modi ica ion o
p opulsion sys ems and
engines, high ene gy
densi y
I s p oduc ion could en ail
de o es a ion ( eeds ock) and is
a expensi e al e na i e uel
High quali y uel Expec ed g ow h in he
nex yea s
[45,53,
54]
FAME
c
Highe ca bon oo p in
han o he al e na i e
uels
Sligh modi ica ion o
p opulsion sys ems and
engines
Blend wi h con en ional uel o
be e ec i e, low ene gy
con en , low densi y and high
iscosi y han con en ional
uels, high cos
I could lead o il e
clogging and educed uel
low a medium
empe a u es
Reduce i s p oduc ion
complexi y o emo ing
he glyce ol con en
[45,55,
56]
e- uels Reduced emissions and
could be conside ed as
“ca bon cap u e sys ems”
as a e p oduced by
combining CO
2
/N
2
and
hyd ogen
Compa ible wi h ac ual
engines, ungible wi h
con en ional uel,
adequa e ene gy densi y
Low ene gy con e sion
e iciencies, high p oduc ion
cos s in compa ison wi h
con en ional and biomass-
based uels
Sa e y uels, awa e on he
eeds ock a ailabili y o i s
p oduc ion
Inc ease he echnology
eadiness le el o i s
u he de elopmen
[51,57]
Bio-
e hanol
Local emissions o CO
2
and NO
x
could be
inc eased, depending on
he engine used
Biodeg adable, lowe
p oduc ion p ices han
o he al e na i e uels
I can be co osi e o he
engine ma e ials
Bio-e hanol uel cells a e a
iable op ion o i s
implemen a ion
Need o adap o i s use
on lowe engines:
inc ease ce ane numbe
and lub ica ing powe
[51]
HDPO
d
Able o educe he CO
2
emissions in mo e han
50%
La ge a ailabili y o
biomass eeds ock o i s
p oduc ion, high ene gy
densi y
High p oduc ion cos s Technology is no ma u e
ye
Engines and new
echnologies a e unde
cons uc ion
[53,58]
DME
e
Clean combus ion wi h
educed emissions
Hea ing alue simila o
diesel, compa ible wi h
diesel engines
Lowe densi y han
con en ional uels, low
iscosi y and lub ici y
Simila p ope ies as
p opane, so in as uc u es
o i s dis ibu ion and use
a e ye a ailable.
Analyze he possibili y
o blending o inc ease
i s iscosi y and
lub ici y
[46]
a
LNG: liqui ied na u al gas.
b
HVO: hyd o ea ed ege able oil.
c
FAME: a y acid me hyl es e .
d
HDPO: Hyd o ea ed Py olysis Oil.
e
DME: Dime hyl e he .
IMO: In e na ional Ma i ime O ganiza ion.
A. A ias e al.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
6
alue inc eased o 155.43 billion li e s in 2021 [62]. Bio-based uels will
be g adually in oduced in a ia ion o ou bound ligh s, conside ing
i s a 2% subs i u ion o ossil-based uel in 2025, and inc easing he
pe cen age by 5% (2030), 20% (2035), 32% (2040), 38% (2045) and
63% (2050) [63]. In his sense, a Eu opean le el, he o al numbe o
acili ies p oducing bio uels om di e en eeds ocks is 339: 80.2% o
hem a e al eady on a comme cial scale, 16.2% on a pilo /demons a-
ion scale and 3.5% a e unde R&D. Fig. 3 shows he o al numbe o
acili ies pe coun y and ype o eeds ock (ag icul u al {o ange label},
o es y {da k g een}, g asses and sho - o a ion coppice {ligh g een},
was e esidues {b own} and ma ine eeds ocks {blue}).
Fig. 4 p o ides a mo e holis ic iew on he cu en de elopmen o
bio uel supply chains. Mos o he supply chain is uled by ossil-based
uels (93% sha e), he use o diesel and gasoline is dominan wi h pe -
cen age 60% and 24%, espec i ely. Conce ning he bio uels, biodiesel
is he one ha s ands ou , ollowed by HVO (Hyd o ea ed Vege able
Oil) and bioe hanol, wi h 20% and 13% sha e, espec i ely.
Ano he impo an aspec ega ding he bio uel alue chain is abou
whe e a e hose acili ies loca ed o i s p oduc ion, in which he use o
ma ginal a eas is inc easingly. The p oduc ion o bioene gy, pa icula
bio-based uels, in ma ginal a eas p o ides bo h oppo uni ies and
challenges in e ms o sus ainabili y [64]. Those a eas a e ypically
cha ac e ized o be low ag icul u al p oduc i e, hus o e ing a iable
al e na i e o he g owing o ene gy c ops, hus a oiding he compe-
i ion and po en ial impac s o e ood secu i y, one o he a ge s o he
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals” [65,66]. Biobased uels ob ained by he
ha es ing o ma ginal a eas could con ibu e o he di e si ica ion o
he ene gy esou ces and o he educ ion on he deple ion o ossil uels
and on he impac s o e he en i onmen , as hose a e lowe massi ied
[67]. Howe e , in o de o ensu e sus ainabili y, ca e ul analysis o he
use o ma ginal a eas should be de eloped. Fi s ly, he selec ion o he
ype o c op used o bio uels p oduc ion, hose selec ed should ha e
highe ene gy yields, low chemical and e iliza ion equi emen s and
minimal nega i e en i onmen al impac s [68,69]. Besides, he land
managemen is also essen ial o ensu e i s long- e m iabili y o bio-
uels p oduc ion, o which c op o a ion, ag o o es y o soil conse -
a ion echniques could be e ec i e [65]. Secondly, also economic and
social ac o s should be assessed, local communi ies o hose ma ginal
a eas should be in ol ed in he decision-making p og ess in o de o
ensu e a ai dis ibu ion o he bene i s om he p oduc ion o bio uels.
On he o he hand, he use o his ma ginal a eas should also c ea e
employmen oppo uni ies and should p omo e u al de elopmen and
economic g ow h [70,71]. As a gene al conclusion, i could be s a ed
ha he p oduc ion o bio uels using ma ginal a eas has he po en ial o
p omo e mo e sus ainable ac ions and o ensu e ood secu i y in a highe
le el, bu o achie e his, he add ess o en i onmen al, social and
economic ac o s is essen ial in o de o p o ide a posi i e impac o
bio uels p ojec s in hese egions.
5. Which a e he ypes o bio uels being assessed?
95% o biodiesel ( i s -gene a ion bio uel) is p oduced om edible
oil-c ops as eeds ock. Food compe i ion, la ge c op a eas and wa e
consump ion a e he main ba ie s [72]. The use o ood c ops o p o-
duce bio uels such as bioe hanol leads o highe GHG emissions
compa ed o bioe hanol ob ained om lignocellulosic eeds ocks [73].
Bio uels ob ained om non- ood eeds ocks a e known as
second-gene a ion bio uels, which encompass he use o ene gy c ops,
was e s eams om c ops and ag icul u al ac i i ies, wood-de i ed
was e esou ces and disca ded cooking oil [73,74]. Second-gene a ion
bio uels a e conside ed cleane uels han i s -gene a ion bio uels
because o hei lowe en i onmen al impac and highe ene gy e i-
ciency, as well as cheape eeds ock supply [75]. Howe e , highe in-
es men is equi ed due o he need o eme ging echnologies [76,77].
Finally, hi d-gene a ion bio uels om he use o algae a e conside ed
he mos p omising o he u u e. Thei p oduc ion p ocess is a an ea ly
s age o de elopmen ; ad an ages include cheape p oduc ion p ocesses
han o he bio uels, high eeds ock a ailabili y and ema kable p o-
duc i i y, as algae -based eeds ocks can p oduce 15–3000 imes mo e
oil o biodiesel p oduc ion compa ed o i s and second gene a ion
bio uels [78–80].
Despi e he di e ences in i s , second and hi d gene a ion bio uels,
e idence o lowe en i onmen al impac s compa ed o hose o ossil
o igin has been epo ed (94 g CO
2
eq/MJ o pe ol and diesel,
Table 2
Some examples o companies p oducing SAF.
Company Feeds ock Technology P oduc ion annual
capaci y (million
gallons)
Some applica ion
Nes e 100% enewable was e and
esidues (i.e cooking oil, a s and
g eases)
NEXBTL™ echnology, based on HEFA-
echnology (hyd odeoxygena ion,
isome iza ion and dis illa ion)
515 Comme cial ai lines KLM, Lu hansa, Del a and
Ame ican Ai lines a e using Nes e SAF. Is a ailable in
12 ai po s in he US and in 3 in Eu ope
Ge o Inc. Inedible co n eeds ock Alcohol- o-je p ocess using bio-e hanol and
bio-isobu anol, p oduced using co n.
55, inc easing o
100 in a i e-yea
e m
Ag eemen wi h Del a Ai Lines o supplying 75
million gallons o SAF yea ly o he nex se en yea s
Wo ld
Ene gy
Inedible oils and was e HEFA- echnology 230 pe yea Ope a ing wi h Uni ed Ai lines
SkyNRG Ag icul u al esidues HEFA- echnology 33 40 ai lines wo ldwide a e using SkyNGR SAF, and his
company has in es ed in a s a up “Synke o” o
p oducing e- uel using g een hyd ogen and enewable
ene gy
Phillips 66 Was e oils HEFA- echnology 290 I supplies SAF o B i ish Ai ways
Lanzaje Lignocellulosic (mainly was e
wood and biomass)
E hanol- o-je echnology 100 Pa ne ship o he “Ma quis Indus ial Complex” he
i s ca bon-neu al indus ial a ea om wi h SAF is
supplied o Chicago O’Ha e and Midway in e na ional
ai po s
Fulc um
Bioene gy
Land ill was e Gasi ica ion/Fische -T opsch 7 The i s US ai line ha has in es ed in a SAF company
uses Fulc um SAF. I has also ag eemen s o ope a e
wi h UK ai lines in he u u e
Red Rock
Bio uels
Wood-based esidues (i.e. slash
piles om o es clean-up usually
bu ned in win e )
Gasi ica ion/Fische -T opsch 6 Is a company included in he Cellulosic Fuel Pu chase
and Sale Ag eemen gi en i s capaci y o p oducing
enewable diesel and SAF
Shell Cooking oil, municipal was e and
woody biomass
Fische -T opsch 2 by 2025 Spanish Ryanai ai lines ha e signed an ag eemen
wi h Shell as SAF supplie . Also Lu hansa, wi h a alue
amoun ing o 1.8 M ons in he pe iod 2024–2030
A. A ias e al.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
7
acco ding o REDII) [76,81,82]. To his end, esea ch and inno a ion in
sus ainable echnologies mus be he main ocus o a en ion in u u e
de elopmen .
6. Technological pa hways o p oduce bio uels
The echnologies used classi ied as he mochemical p ocesses a e
hyd o he mal lique ac ion, gasi ica ion, as py olysis [83]. Gasi-
ica ion is based on pa ial oxida ion gene a ing solid and gaseous uels,
while py olysis equi es absence o oxygen (no oxida ion) and p oduces
solid, liquid and gaseous uels. Fas py olysis p o ides highe yields o
liquid bio uels, and is cha ac e ized by sho e esidence ime and as
hea ing a es [84]. Hyd o he mal lique ac ion shows signi ican po-
en ial in bio uel p oduc ion, gi en he ease and e iciency o he p ocess
(low eac ion ime, applicabili y o di e en eeds ocks, high yields),
p oducing a bioc ude wi h low oxygen con en and highe s abili y o be
Table 3
Some examples o ai lines using SAF.
Company P ospec s Companies
p o iding
SAF
App oxima e/
a ailable
quan i ies
O he in o
Ai F ance By 2030
inco po a ing
a leas 10% o
SAF, o
achie e 63%
in 2050
Nes e and
DG Fuels
1.6 M ons o
SAF om
2023 o 2036
Fi s ligh
using SAF
launched in
2011
Ai Canada Resea ching
on hyd ogen,
elec ic and
hyb id ai c a
echnologies
Nes e – Fou
comme cial
ligh s using
SAF has been
ope a ed las
yea
B i ish
Ai ways
By 2030
inco po a ing
a leas 10% o
SAF
Phillips 66
& Lanzaje
Mul i-yea
ag eemen
Co-pa ne o
Speedbi d
p ojec , aiming
o inc ease SAF
p oduc ion in
UK using
alcohol- o-je
echnolgies
Finnai Hal he ne
emissions by
he end o
2025 and C-
neu ali y by
2045
Ge o 7 million
gallons/yea
o 5-yea s
s a ing om
2027
Ag eemen
wi h o he
companies,
such as Nes e,
as SAF supplie s
Lu hansa Hal he C-
emissions by
2030
OMV,
Shell.
800 housand
ons om
2023 o 2030
wi h OMV and
1.8 M ons
wi h Shell
be ween 2024
and 2030
Pionee on
es ing SAF
emissions in
egula ligh s
Malaysia
Ai lines
By 2030
inco po a ing
a leas 10% o
SAF, o
achie e C-
neu ali y in
2050
Nes e – Fi s passenge
ligh using
Nes e’s SAF
blended wi h
je uel in 2022
TAP Ai
Po ugal
By 2030
inco po a ing
a leas 10% o
SAF, o
achie e 63%
in 2050
Nes e – The 1s ligh
using 39% o
SAF launched
in 2022
Swiss Hal he C-
emissions by
2030
Nes e – Suppo on
Synhelion
company, ha
aims o p o ide
SAF using sola
ene gy sou ces
Uni ed
Ai lines
Reduce he
GHG emission
a 100% by
2050
Nes e 52.5 million
gallons o e
he nex 3-
yea s
Fi s US ai line
in es ing on
SAF
Qa a
Ai ways
Replace 10%
o
con en ional
je - uel wi h
SAF by 2030
Ge o 25 million US
gallons in he
nex 6-yea s
Fi s ai line in
he Middle Eas
ha has
achie ed he
highes le el o
he IATA
acc edi a ion
Ibe ia
Ai lines
By 2030
inco po a ing
a leas 10% o
SAF
Ge o 6 million
gallons
Fi s ligh wi h
SAF in 2011
and using
bio uel
p oduced om
esiduals in
2021.
Table 3 (con inued)
Company P ospec s Companies
p o iding
SAF
App oxima e/
a ailable
quan i ies
O he in o
Ryanai
Ai lines
By 2030
inco po a ing
a leas 12.5%
o SAF
Shell 120 million
gallons
be ween 2025
and 2030
Ag eemen o
cons uc
supply SAF
in as uc u es
in mo e han
200 ai po s
No wegian
Ai lines
45% less CO
2
emissions by
2030
Nes e – The ai c a s o
No wegian a e
capable on ank
up o 50% SAF
Vueling
Ai lines
By 2030
inco po a ing
a leas 10% o
SAF
Cepsa,
Repsol S.A.
800 housand
ones o SAF
by 2030 wi h
Cepsa,
This ai line has
educed i s
emissions in 60-
on CO
2
eq in
h ee mon hs
wi h he use o
SAF
Vi gin
A lan ic
Replace 10%
o
con en ional
je - uel wi h
SAF by 2030
Ge o 70 million US
gallons o e
he nex 7
yea s
Expec ed o be
he 1s ne ze o
ansa lan ic
ligh in 2030
om he UK
Fig. 3. Eu opean acili ies p oducing bio uels ca ego ized by coun y and ype
o eeds ock. Adap ed om Da a-Modelling pla o m o esou ce economics
(Eu opean Commission).
A. A ias e al.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
8
used as uel [85–87]. One o he main bo lenecks in he implemen a ion
o bio uel p oduc ion using a hyd o he mal p ocess, based on a gasi i-
ca ion and Fische –T opsch syn hesis, a e he in es men and ope a-
ional cos s [88], in addi ion o he ene gy equi emen s [89].
Hyd o ea men is applied on a comme cial scale o bioje p o-
duc ion, which can be classi ied as HEFA (hyd o ea ed es e s o a y
acids) o HVO. Acco ding o he ASTM D7566 s anda d, he p ocess
scheme known as HEFA-SPK (syn he ic pa a inic ke osene) p oduces
mo e han 5 billion li e s o HEFA bio uel wo ldwide [90]. This p ocess
has wo hyd o-p ocessing s ages in which a combina ion o deoxygen-
a ion and deca boxyla ion eac ions o lipid-based eeds ocks akes
place [91–93]. The main bo leneck o comme cializa ion o he
HEPA-SPK bioje uel is he selling p ice, which could amoun o
825–2000 $/ on, in compa ison o ha o ossil-based je uel: 329 $/ on
[94]. Howe e , he ad an age o using HEFA-SPK bioje uels mainly
elies on he educ ion o he ca bon in ensi y in GHG emissions: 13.9 g
CO
2
eq./MJ when using was e cooking oil as eeds ock, 17.2 g CO
2
eq./MJ o co n oil and 22.5 g CO
2
eq./MJ using allow [90].
Acco ding o Gao e al. (2022) he biochemical al e na i e o
bio uel p oduc ion includes i e main s ages: anae obic diges ion o
lignocellulosic biomass, cleaning o he biogas p oduced in he diges ion
s age ( o he emo al o wa e , sul u and ni ogen compounds), ol-
lowed by he p oduc ion o syngas wi h a e o ming uni , wi h subse-
quen emission o lue gases, which pass h ough he Fishe -T op eac o
o ob ain a mixed p oduc ha is sepa a ed in o biodiesel, ligh gases
ecycled o he e o ming s ages and wa e [95,96].
The p oduc ion o hi d-gene a ion bio uels om mic oalgae e-
qui es a p e ea men s ep ollowed by a hyd olysis s ep, which can be
chemical (unde acidic condi ions) o biological (using enzymes),
ende ing suga eco e y yields o up o 90% (Hemala ha e al., 2019;
De-Fa ias-Sil a e al., 2018).
Al hough bio-based echnologies o bio uel p oduc ion demons a e
po en ial easibili y in e ms o p oduc ion yield, i is o eseeable ha in
a u u e scena io he in eg a ion o bio uel p oduc ion in o con en ional
uel acili ies will be he mos iable al e na i e. This has been he
app oach ollowed by Ke abchi e al. (2019), a hyb id e ine y using
willow and algae esidues as eeds ock o ABE (Ace one-Bu anol-
E hanol) e men a ion. The bu anol unde goes a py olysis s age, in
which bio-oil is ob ained, and hen a gasi ica ion p ocess o he gaseous
s eam is ca ied ou o he p oduc ion o syngas. A e pu i ica ion o
he syngas o emo e sul u and ni ogen compounds (mainly H
2
S and
NH
3
), he bio uel is ob ained om he Fische –T opsch eac ion [97].
The alcohol- o-je echnology is also amed as a e men a ion p o-
cedu e, using lignocellulosic biomass, c ops and suga -based eeds ocks
o p oduce bioe hanol, and also o he alcohols, bu in a smalle p o-
po ion. The liquid s eam is hen dehyd a ed, oligome ized and hy-
d ogena ed o ob ain he inal bio uel, which is usually applied in he
uel blend [98].
Table 4 summa izes he main Eu opean indus ial acili ies ha
p oduce bio uel using di e en p oduc ion schemes. I also p o ides
in o ma ion on he TRL, he main eeds ocks used and he p oduc ion
capaci y o he acili ies. This p o ides an o e iew o he echnological
ma u i y o bio uel p oduc ion in Eu ope, as well as he deg ee o
de elopmen and comme cializa ion o bio uels.
7. Assessmen o he sus ainabili y o bio uel echnologies and
alue chains
The in eg a ion and e alua ion o sus ainabili y aspec s (economic
iabili y, social equi y and en i onmen al p o ec ion) mus be aken in o
accoun in he bio uel p oduc ion s a egy. In his ega d, he use o Li e
Cycle Assessmen (LCA) me hodology is conside ed as a long-s anding
me hodology o assess he en i onmen al loads o p ocesses and/o
p oduc s wi hin hei li e cycle. I is based on ISO 14040:2006 s anda d
and i has been used as a me hodology o assess he en i onmen al
impac loads in bio uel p oduc ion, as shown on Table 5, ha p o ides
examples o he mos ecen sus ainabili y epo s on bio uels. In o de
o ge hose, SCOPUS da abase has been used, conside ing as sea ching
keywo ds “LCA”, “sus ainabili y” and “bio uels”, and also educing he
ime ame o he mos ecen yea s, om 2010 o he p esen . The se-
lec ion o he a icles has been made acco ding o he in o ma ion gi en
( ype o bio uel, in en o y analysis, en i onmen al p o iles, among
o he s), he ype o echnology (mos ly conside ing eme ging echnol-
ogies o he p oduc ion o bio uels) and he LCA calcula ion me hod
used o he assessmen , achie ing he o al a icles p esen ed on Table 5
a e wa ds a c i ical analysis o hem based on he abs ac , me hods and
main conclusions. On he o he hand, only he a icles on English lan-
guage ha e been selec ed.”
The main d awback encoun e ed when assessing he a icles e-
po ed on Table 5 is based on he ac ha mos o hem a e ba ely based
on he e alua ion o he en i onmen al loads conside ing di e en
eeds ocks o he p oduc ion o bio uels using di e en echnologies,
bu he e is a lack on he de elopmen o echno-economic assessmen s
o e alua e he deg ee o p o i abili y o he echnology and p ocess
scheme being assessed. When alking abou he p ospe i y and u u e
amewo k o bio uels, ensu ing ha a e bene icial unde an economic
pe spec i e is a key ac o o i s in eg a ion on he alue chain. On he
o he hand, nei he a compa ison wi h con en ional uels is being
de eloped in mos o he cases, wi h he excep ion o [110], in which
epo i has been concluded ha he p oduc ion o liquid bio uels using
pine sawdus by gasi ica ion echnology is no as p oduc i e o be
compe i i e wi h he comme cial p ices. On he o he hand, o he au-
ho s ha e no iced ha one way o inc easing he compe i i eness o
bio uels on he alue chain is by he use o enewable ene gy, as i is one
o he main cos s and also cons ain s when alking abou sus ainabili y
[111,112].
En i onmen al and economic assessmen s in he de elopmen o
echnology p o ide addi ional c i e ia in he decision-making p ocess.
Fi s ly, because o he need o con ol and educe emissions eleased in o
he en i onmen , aking in o accoun he policies and es ic ions
imposed, and secondly, ega ding he economic pilla , he echnology
mus be able o achie e easonable pe o mance and p oduc i i y
Fig. 4. To al quan i ies o uel supply in he 27 EU-membe s a es in 2020. Da a
ob ained om: ETC CM Repo 2022/02 G eenhouse gas in ensi ies o anspo
uels in he EU in 2020. Ac onyms: LNG (Lique ied Na u al Gas), CNG (Com-
p essed Na u al Gas), LPG (Liquid Pe oleum Gas), HVO (Hyd o ea ed Vege-
able Oil) and ETBE (E hyl e -bu yl-e he ).
A. A ias e al.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
9
Table 4
Eu opean bio uel p oduc ion acili ies including he TRL, echnology used, ype o eeds ock and p oduc ion capaci y.
Facili y Loca ion TRL Technology Feeds ock Ou pu (amoun )
Cen e o Bio e ining
Technologies
Denma k 4–5 Hyd o he mal
lique ac ion
Ag icul u al esidues: sewage sludge, manu e, indus ial
was es, lignocellulosics
Bio-oil (30 /y)
Ad anced Bio uel Solu ions
L d
Uni ed
Kingdom
8 Gasi ica ion O ganic esidues and was e s eams SNG (1500 /y)
Hyd ogen (500 /y)
ALTACA ENERGY Tu key 6–7 Fas py olysis Va ious biomass sou ces Bio-oil (20 000 m
3
/y)
AquaG een ApS Denma k 9 Fas py olysis O ganic esidues, sludge Syngas and biocha (N/A)
A celo Mi al Belgium 8 Fe men a ion Was e gases Bioe hanol (62 000 /y)
ARD F ance 4–5 Fe men a ion Lignocellulosic Bioe hanol (100 m
3
/y)
Audi AG Ge many 8 Me hana ion Was e gases SNG (300 m
3
/h)
Aus oCel Hallein Aus ia 8 Fe men a ion Lignocellulosics: spen sul i e liquo (SSL) Bioe hanol (30 000 /y)
BEST Aus ia 6–7 Gasi ica ion wi h FT-
syn hesis
Biogenic esides and lignocellulosic was e FT liquids (58 m
3
/y)
BioGasol Denma k 6–7 Fe men a ion S aw, g asses, ga den was e Bioe hanol (4000 /y)
Bioje AS No way 6–7 Gasi ica ion Fo es esidues SAF (N/A)
BioMCN Ne he lands 8 Gasi ica ion Lignocellulosic: wood chips Bio-me hanol (413 000 /y)
Bio SNG Guessing Aus ia 6–7 Gasi ica ion Lignocellulosics SNG (576 /y)
BioT uel – conso ium F ance 4–5 Gasi ica ion Fo es was e, s aw, dedica ed c ops FT liquids (60 /y)
Biozin No way 8 Fas py olysis Fo es and sawmill esidues Py olysis oil (100 000 /y)
Bo egaa d AS No way 6–7 Fe men a ion Suga cane bagasse, s aw, wood, ene gy c ops Bioe hanol (110 /y)
9 Fe men a ion Spen sul i e liquo (SSL) Bioe hanol (15 800 /y)
BP Spain 9 Hyd o ea men Oil c ops, oils and a s SAF (N/A)
BTG-B L Ne he lands 4–5 Fas py olysis N/A Py olysis oil (1000 /y)
8 Fas py olysis Wood pelle p ocessing was e Py olysis oil (3200 kg/h)
Bu amax Uni ed
Kingdom
8 Fe men a ion Suga and s a ch c ops: co n Bio-bu anol (240 500 /y)
Bu amax Ad anced Bio uels
LLC
Uni ed
Kingdom
6–7 Fe men a ion Ag icul u al esidues Bio-bu anol (15 /y)
Cepsa Spain 6–7 Hyd o ea men O ganic esidues and was e s eams HVO (50 000 /y)
Chempolis L d. Finland 6–7 Fe men a ion Non-wood and non- ood lignocellulosics Bioe hanol (5000 /y)
CHOREN Fuel F ibe g GmbH
& Co. KG
Ge many 6–7 Gasi ica ion D y wood chips and esidual o es y wood FT liquids (13500 /y)
8 Gasi ica ion D y wood chips and ecycled wood FT liquids (200000 /y)
Cla ian Ge many 6–7 Fe men a ion Whea s aw, co n s o e , miscan hus, suga cane bagasse Bioe hanol (1000 /y)
Conoco Philipps I eland 6–7 Hyd o ea men Vege able oils HVO (40000 /y)
Cu ec Ge many 4–5 Gasi ica ion S aw, wood, silage, o ganic esidues FT liquids (0.2 /y)
Domsjoe Fab ike Sweden 9 Fe men a ion Spen sul i e liquo (SSL) Bioe hanol (19000 /y)
DTU Chemical Enginee ing Denma k 4–5 Gasi ica ion O ganic esidues and was e s eams Clean syngas (N/A)
Ekobenz Poland 8 Hyd o ea men
a
Suga and s a ch c ops Gasoline- ype uels (22500
/y)
Ene gochemica Slo akia 8 Fe men a ion Dedica ed c ops and ag i- ood esidues Bioe hanol (55000 /y)
Ene kem SA Spain 8 Gasi ica ion O ganic esidues and was e s eams Bio-me hanol (265000 /y)
ENI I aly 8 Hyd o ea men Oil c ops, oils and a s HVO (750000 /y)
I aly 9 Hyd o ea men Oil c ops, oils and a s SAF (10000 /y)
I aly 9 Hyd o ea men Oil c ops, oils and a s HVO (500000 /y)
I aly 8 Hyd o ea men Soybean oil, used cooking oil, animal a s and was e
ege able oil
HVO (360000 /y)
En i al Slo akia 9 Fe men a ion Lignocellulosics Bioe hanol (50000 /y)
E.ON Gasi ica ion
De elopmen AB
Sweden 9 Gasi ica ion Wood biomass SNG (200 MW)
E a Bio Bulga ia 8 Fe men a ion Whea s aw Bioe hanol (50000 /y)
Fin oil Finland 8 Hyd o ea men C ude all oil HVO (100000 m
3
/y)
FlexJET Conso ium Uni ed
Kingdom
6–7 Hyd o ea men Oil c ops, oils and a s SAF (1200 /y)
FLITE Ne he lands 8 Alcohol- o-je Suga and s a ch c ops SAF (30000 /y)
F aunho e Umsich Ge many 4–5 Fas py olysis Sewage sludge Bio-oil (450 m
3
/y)
GIDARA Ene gy B.V. Ne he lands 9 Gasi ica ion O ganic esidues and was e s eams Bio-me hanol (87500 /y)
Global Bioene gies Ge many 6–7 Fe men a ion Cane suga , bee suga and s a ch Bio-isobu ene (100 /y)
Go ebo g Ene gi AB Sweden 8 Gasi ica ion Fo es esidues SNG (50000 /y)
G een Fuel No dic Finland 9 Fas py olysis Fo es esidues: sawdus , c own unks Py olysis oil (24000 /y)
HCS G oup and Ge o Ge many 6–7 Alcohol- o-je Biomass SAF (60000 /y)
IBN-One F ance 8 Fe men a ion Cane suga , bee suga and s a ch Bio-isobu ene (50000 /y)
INA C oa ia 8 Fe men a ion Miscan hus, whea s aw Bioe hanol (55000 /y)
Join Ven u e o Ai Liquide Ne he lands 8 Gasi ica ion O ganic esidues and was e s eams SAF (60000 /y)
Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o
Technology
Ge many 6–7 Gasi ica ion S aw DME (608 /y)
Gasoline- ype uels (360 /
y)
LanzaTech UK Uni ed
Kingdom
8 Alcohol- o-je O ganic esidues and was e s eams SAF (100000 m
3
/h)
Nes e Ne he lands 9 Hyd o ea men Oil c ops, oils and a s SAF (500000 /y)
Finland 8 Hyd o ea men Palm il, apeseed oil and animal a HVO (190000 /y)
Singapo e 9 Hyd o ea men Oil c ops, oils and a s HVO (1300000 /y)
Finland 6–7 Hyd o ea men Tall oil pi ch HVO (40000 /y)
PNK ORLEN Poland 9 Hyd o ea men Used cooking oil (UCO) HVO (300000 /y)
P eem Sweden 9 Hyd o ea men Oil c ops, oils and a s HVO (367000 m
3
/y)
Sweden 8 Hyd o ea men Tall oil HVO (800000 /y)
(con inued on nex page)
A. A ias e al.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 197 (2024) 114427
16
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