En i onmen al implica ions o biohyd ogen based ene gy
p oduc ion om s eam e o ming o alcoholic was e
An onio Co és, Gume sindo Feijoo, An onio Chica, Ja ie F ancisco Da Cos a-Se a, Ma ía Te esa
Mo ei a
Accep ed Mansuc ip
How o ci e:
Co és, A., Feijoo, G., Chica, A., Da Cos a-Se a, J., & Mo ei a, M. (2019). En i onmen al implica ions
o biohyd ogen based ene gy p oduc ion om s eam e o ming o alcoholic was e. Indus ial C ops
And P oduc s, 138, 111465. doi: 10.1016/j.indc op.2019.111465
Copy igh in o ma ion:
© 2019 Else ie L d. This manusc ip e sion is made a ailable unde he CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
En i onmen al implica ions o biohyd ogen based ene gy p oduc ion om s eam e o ming 1
o alcoholic was e 2
An onio Co ésa, Gume sindo Feijooa, An onio Chicab, Ja ie F ancisco Da Cos a-Se ab and 3
Ma ía Te esa Mo ei aa* 4
a Depa men o Chemical Enginee ing, School o Enginee ing, Uni e sidade de San iago de 5
Compos ela, Rúa Lope Gómez de Ma zoa, s/n, 15782 San iago de Compos ela (Spain) 6
b Ins i u e o Chemical Technology, Uni e si a Poli ècnica de València-Consejo Supe io de 7
In es igaciones Cien í icas, A d. de los Na anjos s/n, 46022 València (Spain) 8
* Co esponding au ho 9
E-mail: mai e.mo ei [email protected] 10
11
Abs ac 12
Nowadays, he e is an inc easing demand o ene gy in he wo ld. Wi h an ene gy sys em s ill 13
based on ossil uels, a pa adigm shi s owa ds clean ene gy p oduc ion based on a ailable 14
enewable esou ces is necessa y. Hyd ogen is a high-quali y ene gy ca ie ha can be used 15
wi h g ea e iciency and is expec ed o acqui e a g ea impo ance in he nex gene a ion o 16
uels. This s udy aims o analyze he po en ial en i onmen al impac s associa ed wi h he 17
s eam e o ming o alcoholic was e om dis ille ies o p oduce clean elec ici y by using he 18
Li e Cycle Assessmen me hodology. The main indings om his s udy epo ed ha he global 19
en i onmen al p o ile is be e han o he al e na i es mo e common as sani a y land ill o 20
incine a ion. In e ms o some impac ca ego ies as Abio ic and Ozone Deple ion, Acidi ica ion 21
and Eu ophica ion, s eam e o ming o alcoholic was e pe o med be e p o iles han o he 22
p ocesses ha p oduce hyd ogen om di e se eeds ocks. 23
Keywo ds: Alcoholic was e; En i onmen al p o ile; LCA; SOFC; Biohyd ogen 24
2
Abb e ia ions 25
LCA
Li e Cycle Assessmen
SS
Subsys em
CC
Clima e change
OD
Ozone deple ion
TA
Te es ial acidi ica ion
FE
F eshwa e eu ophica ion
ME
Ma ine eu ophica ion
HT
Human oxici y
POF
Pho ochemical oxidan o ma ion
PMF
Pa icula e ma e o ma ion
TET
Te es ial eco oxici y
FET
F eshwa e eco oxici y
MET
Ma ine eco oxici y
FD
Fossil deple ion
WW
Was ewa e
WGS
Wa e Gas Shi
PSA
P essu e Swing Adso p ion
ISO
In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion
26
1. In oduc ion 27
Cu en ly, global ene gy p oduc ion is based on he use o ossil uels such as coal, oil and 28
na u al gas (Rosse i e al., 2015a) and accoun s o app oxima ely 65% o global GHG 29
emissions (Uusi alo e al., 2017). Dependence on he use o ossil uels as an ene gy esou ce 30
has caused en i onmen al p oblems o global impac , such as ai pollu ion in e ms o emission 31
o pollu an s and pa icles, as well as he deple ion o na u al esou ces, among o he s (Hajjaji 32
e al., 2016; Reyes-Valle e al., 2015), which leads o ad e se consequences o socie y in e ms 33
o human heal h and damage o he ecosys em (Valen e e al., 2019). So much so ha he 34
2030 Agenda and he 17 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) se by he Uni ed Na ions 35
3
includes ensu ing access o a o dable, eliable and sus ainable ene gy o all. This objec i e 36
aims a gua an eeing uni e sal access o ene gy se ice, subs an ially inc easing he sha e o 37
enewable ene gy in he global ene gy mix and doubling he a e o imp o emen in ene gy 38
e iciency. This is why he pa adigm shi owa ds clean ene gy p oduc ion mus be based on 39
a ailable enewable esou ces (Da Cos a-Se a and Chica, 2018). 40
In ecen yea s, nume ous al e na i es o he use o adi ional ossil uels ha e been 41
p oposed, such as he p oduc ion o bio uels, bioalcohols, hyd ogen o any ype o enewable 42
ene gy (Bala , 2011). In pa icula , biomass is one o he enewable ene gy sou ces ha has 43
expe ienced s ong g ow h in ecen yea s, due o i s global a ailabili y and di e si y (Spi idon 44
e al., 2016; Tian e al., 2018). Bio uels de i ed om biomass o e a numbe o ad an ages 45
o e hei oil-based coun e pa s acco ding o Demi bas (2008): hey can be conside ed ca bon 46
neu al a e -combus ion by ixing ca bon du ing biomass g ow h, close o a ca bon-neu al 47
balance, so ha hey con ibu e o achie ing sus ainabili y goals. Fo his eason, nume ous 48
ini ia i es ha e been de eloped in he de elopmen o con e sion echnologies based on 49
esou ces de i ed om biomass (Un ean e al., 2018). 50
Focusing on he di e en ypes o uels, hyd ogen is a high quali y ene gy ca ie ha can be 51
used wi h high e iciency (F olo e al., 2013) and is expec ed o acqui e g ea impo ance in 52
nex gene a ion uels (Alipou -Moghadam e al., 2014). This ac , oge he wi h declining ossil 53
uel ese es, s eadily ising p ices and inc easing pollu ion make hyd ogen a e y a ac i e 54
p oduc o mee ing global ene gy demand (Khaodee e al., 2011). 55
Howe e , he en i onmen al p o ile o hyd ogen-based ene gy sys ems is as "clean" o "di y" 56
depending on he scheme o con e sion (Rabens ein and Hacke , 2008). The adi ional 57
schemes p oducing H2 om na u al gas a e a majo sou ce o CO2, wi h emissions o 58
app oxima ely 10-12 kg o CO2 pe kg o H2 (Spa h and Mann, 2001). T adi ional plan s p oduce 59
hyd ogen by ca aly ic s eam e o ming o na u al gas, which is a ma u e echnology and is he 60
4
pa hway by which mos hyd ogen is p oduced oday. Because o his, educing CO2 emissions 61
associa ed wi h hyd ogen p oduc ion would esul in a conside able educ ion o pollu ion 62
(Salkuyeh e al., 2018). 63
In his sense, uel cells echnology and he use o hyd ogen a e p oposed as one o he mos 64
p omising en i onmen al solu ions in ela ion o he educ ion o global emissions (Díaz 65
Al a ado and G acia, 2010). Fuel cells a e de ices ha elec ochemically con e chemical 66
ene gy om uels in o elec ici y (Mo ales e al., 2010). Among he di e en ypes o uel cells, 67
he Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) is he mos e icien , due o i s high ope a ing empe a u es 68
and he ac ha i is no poisoned wi h CO (He nández and Ka a o , 2009). When his ype o 69
ba e y is used, an e iciency a ound 50% can be ob ained (S azza e al., 2015); in addi ion, an 70
e iciency o 70% can be achie ed i cogene a ion sys em is used (S azza e al., 2010). 71
Hyd ogen p oduc ion om enewable sou ces such as popla (Susmozas e al., 2016) o willow 72
wood (González-Ga cía e al., 2012), suga cane (Halleux e al., 2008), swee po a o (Cos a e 73
al., 2018), so ghum (Aguila -Sánchez e al., 2018) o suga bee (Luo e al., 2009) ha e been 74
in es iga ed as he i s ac ions o achie e a signi ican educ ion o en i onmen al impac s 75
(Salkuyeh e al., 2018). Hyd ogen can be ob ained om di e en eeds ocks h ough s eam 76
e o ming (B aga e al., 2016; López e al., 2019; Zheng e al., 2019), au o he mal e o ming 77
(Khila e al., 2017; Spallina e al., 2018; Xue e al., 2017) and aqueous phase e o ming 78
(Co onado e al., 2018; Es e e-Adell e al., 2017; Ga cía e al., 2018), among hem, s eam 79
e o ming is he mos common, as almos 90% o H2 is p oduced by na u al gas e o ming. I 80
also has he highes con e sion e iciency, a ound 70% (Ha yan o e al., 2005). 81
S eam e o ming o na u al gas is he mos popula me hod o p oducing comme cial 82
hyd ogen ha cu en ly co e s abou 50% o global hyd ogen demand (Anzelmo e al., 2018) 83
and is some imes e e ed o as s eam me hane e o ming (SMR). S eam e o ming is an 84
endo he mic p ocess based on he eac ion o gas wi h s eam a high empe a u e and 85
5
mode a e p essu e. In his way, he chemical eac ion aking place leads o hyd ogen and 86
ca bon dioxide (Reac ion 1): 87
CH3CH2OH + H2O 2CO2 + 6H2 ΔH = 174 kJ mol-1 (1) 88
Howe e , depending on he eac ion mix u e and ope a ing condi ions in he eac o , ano he 89
ou e can be ollowed, p oducing undesi able p oduc s (Ni e al., 2007), such as ca bon 90
monoxide (Reac ion 2), me hane (Reac ion 3) o e hylene (Reac ion 4): 91
CH3CH2OH + H2O 2CO + 4H2 ΔH = 256 kJ mol-1 (2) 92
CH3CH2OH CO + CH4 + H2 ΔH = 50 kJ mol-1 (3) 93
CH3CH2OH C2H4 + H2O ΔH = 46 kJ mol-1 (4) 94
Once he p ocess is comple e, he ou pu s eam mus unde go pu i ica ion ea men o a oid 95
he p esence o by-p oduc s such as me hane and ca bon monoxide. The emo al o CO is an 96
impo an s ep because i no mally poisons he ca alys in uel cells, ha is why CO is emo ed 97
i s by he Wa e Gas Shi (WGS) eac ion (Reac ion 5). WGS is an exo he mic and e e sible 98
eac ion usually used in indus y o p oduce high pu i y hyd ogen (Alamolhoda e al., 2019). 99
No mally, 90% o he CO ou lowing om he s eam e o ming eac o can be con e ed o 100
CO2 (Rosse i e al., 2015b). 101
CO + H2O H2 + CO2 ΔH = -41 kJ mol-1 (5) 102
Following his s age, he P essu e Swing Adso p ion (PSA) p ocess sepa a es hyd ogen om 103
he es o he componen s o he gas s eam wi h 85% e iciency, ob aining H2 wi h 99% pu i y 104
(Susmozas e al., 2013), and whose ene gy con en is usually highe han ha o he na u al 105
gas used o e o ming. 106
The implemen a ion o o he al e na i es o hyd ogen p oduc ion can be conside ed om 107
al e na i e aw ma e ials, such as alcohols (Rosse i e al., 2015a). In addi ion o s eam 108
e o ming o e hanol, s udies ha e been published on s eam e o ming o di e en ypes o 109
6
alcohol wi h he aim o p oducing hyd ogen. Some o hese alcohols a e bu anol (Kuma e al., 110
2018), p opanol (Wang e al., 2015), me hanol (Tian e al., 2017) o glyce ol (Menezes e al., 111
2018) bu , e en so, he use o e hanol o his pu pose o e s he bes oppo uni y o p oduce 112
hyd ogen om enewable sou ces (Ramí ez and Homs, 2008), especially i his e hanol is 113
de i ed as esidue om o he p ocesses. Speci ically, he alcoholic was es om he wine 114
indus y esul s an a ac i e aw ma e ial due o 65% o wo ld wine p oduc ion is managed by 115
Eu opean wineg owe s mos ly small and medium-sized wine ies acco ding o he Comi é 116
Eu opéen des En e p ises Vins (CEEV, 2016). Wine p oduc ion gene a es la ge amoun s o solid 117
and liquid was es, wi h a se ious impac on he en i onmen when hey a e no adequa ely 118
ea ed. The liquid was es a e p ocessed in dis ille ies o ob ain pu i ied alcohols, bu in hese 119
p ocesses, alcoholic pu ges wi hou comme cial alue con aining impu i ies sepa a ed om 120
he good quali y alcohols a e gene a ed. Thus, he p ocess he e analysed aims o aise 121
awa eness o he po en ial o hese by-p oduc s and hei alo iza ion ac i i ies as a 122
sus ainable way o p oduce hyd ogen. 123
The main objec i e o he s udy is o analyze he po en ial en i onmen al impac s associa ed 124
wi h he s eam e o ming o alcoholic was e om dis ille ies. Quan i ying he consump ion o 125
ma e ial and ene gy esou ces du ing he li e cycle makes i possible o es ima e po en ial 126
changes and emissions o he en i onmen . The main p oduc o he p ocess is hyd ogen (H2), 127
along wi h a ce ain amoun o ca bon monoxide (CO), ca bon dioxide (CO2), me hane (CH4) 128
and e hylene (C2H4), which accoun s o a p opo ion lowe han 30%. This ou pu s eam is 129
used o p oduce ene gy in a 3 kW SOFC. 130
2. Ma e ials and me hods 131
2.1. De ini ion o goal and scope 132
The Li e Cycle Analysis me hodology has been conside ed as a undamen al ool in he analysis 133
o he en i onmen al p o ile associa ed wi h he s eam e o ming o alcoholic was e om 134
7
dis ille ies in o de o iden i y key en i onmen al pe o mance indica o s. In dis ille ies, alcohol 135
can be ex ac ed om some wines ha canno been ma ke ed. Du ing his dis illa ion p ocess, 136
an e hanol- ich ac ion is ob ained, bu also a esidual ac ion ha emains in he dis ille 's 137
ail, which is he esidue used in his s udy. 138
Figu e 1 p esen s he block diag am o he p ocess, iden i ying he sys em bounda ies, he 139
di e en subsys ems conside ed and he main inpu s and ou pu s o he sys em. 140
No in as uc u e p ocess was conside ed in he e alua ion, since he en i onmen al impac s 141
pe p ocess uni , om ins alla ion, cons uc ion, decommissioning, in as uc u e, machine y, 142
e c., ha e been conside ed negligible du ing he li e ime o his ype o acili ies. This has been 143
a common p ac ice in o he li e cycle assessmen s udies o bio e ine ies (Jeswani e al., 2015; 144
Ka lsson e al., 2014). Howe e , his s udy has aken in o accoun he manu ac u e o he 145
ca alys and he SOFC phase, due o he ac ha hei use ul li e is clea ly sho e han ha o 146
la ge ins alla ions. 147
148
Figu e 1. Sys em bounda ies o he e o ming sys em o he alo iza ion o he alcoholic 149
was e. Cap ion: T: T anspo ; R1: Re o ming eac o ; T1: Hea exchange . 150
8
The o eg ound sys em includes he p ocess uni s ha a e he di ec objec o his s udy. Fo 151
he pu poses o he s udy, h ee subsys ems (SS) ha e been conside ed, which a e de ailed 152
below: 153
Subsys em 1: Ca alys o mula ion. This subsys em conside s all he ma e ials necessa y o he 154
manu ac u e o he ca alys used in he e o ming eac o (Meno e al., 2017). The ca alys is 155
composed o a sepioli e base wi h Nickel (15% weigh ) and Lan hanum (1% weigh ). I s 156
conside ed use ul li e is 20 mon hs, egene a ing e e y 4 mon hs. The anspo o he ca alys 157
o he plan is also conside ed, aking as dis ance 100 km. 158
Subsys em 2: S eam e o ming. This p ocess includes all he inpu s needed o pe o m he 159
s eam e o ming p ocess. These inpu s a e mainly elec ici y, wa e and alcohol esidues om 160
dis ille ies. The anspo o alcoholic was e o he plan is no included, as his ype o acili y 161
is designed o be included in he dis ille y. The was e p oduced in his subsys em is he ca alys 162
spen a he end o i s use ul li e and is conside ed 100 km as he a e age anspo o he 163
land ill. 164
Subsys em 3: SOFC. This subsys em includes he ne p oduc ion o elec ici y in he SOFC using 165
he SS2 gas s eam as eed. A he exi o his subsys em, CO2 and H2O emissions a e de i ed 166
om he eac ions aking place wi h CO and CH4, C2H4 and H2 inside he SOFC. The elec ici y 167
p oduced is ed in o he g id. The SOFC wo ks a a high empe a u e o a ound 600ºC and 168
p oduces a la ge amoun o hea , as ep esen ed is Figu es 1 and 2, his hea is edi ec ed o 169
he sys em and used o hea he s eam en e ing he e o ming eac o . This subsys em 170
includes he SOFC manu ac u ing s age. Gas s eam pu i ying p ocesses a e no included 171
because SOFC a e no poisoned by he p esence o CO (He nández and Ka a o , 2009). This 172
ype o de ice di ec ly p o ides elec ici y om he chemical eac ion aking place. The 173
elec odes o his ype o ba e y a e ca aly ic, so hey a e ela i ely s able and a e no 174
consumed (F agiacomo e al., 2018). 175
15
269
Figu e 3. Rela i e con ibu ion (%) o he di e en subsys ems o he o al en i onmen al 270
impac 271
In o de o highligh he p ocesses wi h he highes en i onmen al impac on he li e cycle 272
pe o mance o he sys em, he indi idual con ibu ions o he impac a e b oken down in 273
Figu e 4. These esul s show ha SOFC manu ac u ing is he majo con ibu ion in almos all 274
impac ca ego ies, excep o ME. The e o e, he manu ac u e o SOFC is he main ho spo o 275
he sys em and mus ha e he highes p io i y in he imp o emen ac ions om he 276
en i onmen al poin o iew. 277
The second la ges con ibu o o he o al en i onmen al impac is elec ici y consump ion, 278
wi h con ibu ions pe cen age anging om 15% in HT o 32.9% in POF. I elec ici y 279
p oduc ion is aken in o accoun , i s con ibu ion o en i onmen al impac dec eases 280
signi ican ly o 4.2% and 9.1% in HT and POF, espec i ely. The o mula ion o ca alys s 281
p esen ed a uni o m dis ibu ion o en i onmen al impac s in all ca ego ies, wi h con ibu ions 282
always below 10.6%. The consump ion o na u al gas o hea he p ocess is only esponsible 283
o a maximum o 9.4% in CC and 8.5% in FD, bu in he es o he impac ca ego ies, hei 284
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
CC OD TA FE ME HT POF PMF TET FET MET FD
Rela i e con ibu ion
SS3
SS2
SS1
16
con ibu ions ne e exceed 6%. The es o he subs ances ( anspo , wa e consump ion and 285
was e ea men ) con ibu ed p ac ically insigni ican ly o he en i onmen al impac . 286
Was ewa e ea men is he main con ibu o o he ME impac , due o he high amoun o 287
ni ogen-based compounds such as ni i es and ni a es ha a e discha ged in he ea ed 288
e luen . This may explain, as seen in Figu e 3, why he main con ibu o o he ME impac 289
ca ego y is SS1, due o he was ewa e gene a ed du ing he o mula ion o he ca alys . 290
291
Figu e 4. Rela i e con ibu ion (%) o he componen s o alcoholic was e s eam e o ming o 292
he o e all impac 293
The en i onmen al p o ile o alcoholic was e s eam e o ming is mainly due o wo ac o s. On 294
he one hand, he use o a aw ma e ial ha is conside ed was e om ano he p ocess and 295
he e o e has no associa ed en i onmen al impac . On he o he hand, he p oduc ion o 296
elec ici y makes i possible o ob ain en i onmen al c edi s ha p omo e a be e 297
en i onmen al p o ile. 298
299
-20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
CC
OD
TA
FE
ME
HT
POF
PMF
TET
FET
MET
FD
Rela i e con ibu ion
Ca alys o mula ion T anspo Wa e consump ion
Elec ici y consump ion SOFC manu ac u e Was ewa e
Was e ea men Na u al gas Elec ici y p oduc ion
17
3.2. Sensi i i y analysis 300
In o de o compa e he en i onmen al cha ac e iza ion esul s o some al e na i e was e 301
ea men s o s eam e o ming, a sensi i i y analysis was pe o med. The me hods selec ed o 302
his analysis we e land ill and incine a ion. No e ha he in en o y da a o incine a ion and 303
land ill we e aken om he Ecoin en ® da abase. Figu e 5 depic s he en i onmen al 304
pe o mance o he al e na i e ea men s o he alcoholic was e conside ed. As no ed, he 305
s eam e o ming scena io po en ially implied a mo e accep able en i onmen al p o ile han 306
he o he scena ios, excep o Ozone Laye Deple ion, Te es ial Acidi ica ion, F eshwa e 307
Eu ophica ion and Te es ial Eco oxici y. In pa icula , s eam e o ming makes i possible o 308
educe GHG emissions by 33% compa ed o incine a ion and by 30% compa ed o land ill. 309
S eam e o ming is he la ges con ibu o o OD impac o he emission o ha m ul gases o 310
he s a osphe ic ozone laye du ing some ope a ions such as elec ici y gene a ion o 311
chemical p oduc ion. Rega ding Te es ial Acidi ica ion and F eshwa e Eu ophica ion, s eam 312
e o ming p esen s he wo s en i onmen al pe o mance. The consump ion o Ni-based 313
compounds in he manu ac u e o SOFC and some p ocesses de i ed om he ex ac ion o 314
lan hanum o SOFC a e he esponsible p ocesses o he poo pe o mance in TA and FE 315
espec i ely. Wi h espec o TET, s eam e o ming has wo se esul s, bu i he h ee 316
eco oxici y ca ego ies (TTE, MET and FET) a e conside ed, he en i onmen al impac o s eam 317
e o ming is lowe , imp o ing 95.8% wi h espec o incine a ion and 97.8% wi h espec o he 318
sani a y land ill. 319
18
320
Figu e 5. Compa a i e en i onmen al p o ile o he al e na i e ea men s o alcoholic was e 321
conside ing 1 onne as unc ional uni 322
3.3. Compa a i e analysis 323
In addi ion o he basic scheme, a compa ison was made wi h some p ocesses published in he 324
scien i ic li e a u e. The FU was changed o 1 kg o hyd ogen p oduced in he plan wi h 99.9 325
ol% pu i y by s eam e o ming (Figu e 6), in ag eemen wi h o he e o ming s udies using 326
o he aw ma e ials o hyd ogen p oduc ion (Hajjaji e al., 2016, 2013; Khila e al., 2016; 327
Susmozas e al., 2016, 2015, 2013), hus allowing he compa ison o he en i onmen al p o ile 328
o di e en p ocesses. The e o e, he new acili y con igu a ion does no conside he 329
ope a ion o he SOFC, consequen ly he ou pu s eam o he sys em is led o a pu i ica ion 330
sys em: Fi s , he WGS p ocess emo es ca bon monoxide and p oduces a small amoun o 331
addi ional hyd ogen. Addi ionally, in a COPROX eac o he emaining CO can be u he 332
educed o CO2 in he p esence o oxygen. Finally, he PSA p ocess sepa a es H2 om he es 333
o he gases in he s eam, ob aining H2 wi h 99% pu i y. The e o e, wo addi ional subsys ems 334
we e in oduced o pu i y he ou pu hyd ogen s eam (SS3) and p o ide cooling wa e (SS4) 335
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
CC OD TA FE ME HT TET FET MET
S eam e o ming Sani a y land ill Incine a ion
19
336
Figu e 6. New lowcha conside ed o compa e he s eam e o ming o alcoholic was e wi h 337
o he published s udies. 338
The ollowing p ocesses ha e been conside ed: SMR-H2: S eam e o ming o me hane ob ained 339
om na u al gas (Susmozas e al., 2013). PG-H2: Popla biomass gasi ica ion. The sys em 340
includes he cul i a ion o popla and i s anspo o he plan . Once in he plan a e included 341
all he ope a ions necessa y o ob ain hyd ogen and he p oduc ion o elec ici y om he 342
s eam p oduced in he sys em (Susmozas e al., 2013). PG&C-H2: Gasi ica ion o popla 343
biomass, as men ioned abo e, bu includes ca bon ixa ion du ing he cul i a ion s age 344
(Susmozas e al., 2016). GSR-H2: Glyce ol e o ming, ob ained as a co-p oduc o biodiesel 345
p oduc ion by anses e i ica ion o apeseed oil. Ca bon seques a ion du ing oil p oduc ion is 346
conside ed (Susmozas e al., 2015). BSR-H2: Bio uel e o ming, including also ca bon ixa ion 347
p oduced du ing he g ow h o biomass used o bio uel (Susmozas e al., 2015). SBR-H2: S eam 348
e o ming o bioe hanol, including bioe hanol p oduc ion (Hajjaji e al., 2016). BAR-H2: 349
Au o he mal e o ming o bioe hanol (Khila e al., 2016). 350
In o de o ca y ou he compa a i e analysis, li e cycle in en o ies we e modi ied. In ela ion 351
o he ype and quan i y o eac ion ca alys , he WGS da a we e ob ained om (Compagnoni 352
e al., 2017). All he necessa y da a o measu e he inpu s and ou pu s in SS3. WGS and PSA 353
20
and SS4. Cooling wa e supply we e ob ained om (Susmozas e al., 2015, 2013). In en o y 354
da a o WGS, PSA and Cooling wa e supply can be ound in Table 5. 355
Table 5. New li e cycle in en o y o compa e he s eam e o ming o alcoholic was es wi h 356
o he published p ocesses 357
Inpu s om Technosphe e
Ou pu s o Technosphe e
Ma e ials
kg
P oduc s
kg
Alcoholic was e
5.42
H
2
1.00
Wa e
24.21
Emissions
kg
SR ca alys
4.41·10-4
CO
2
8.16
WGS ca alys
1.11·10-3
CH
4
0.45
Ene gy
kWh
C
2
H
4
9.41·10-3
Elec ici y
1.36
CO
1.97
T anspo
·km
Was es
kg
Road
0.48
SR ca alys o land ill
1.11·10-3
WGS ca alys o land ill
4.41·10-4
Was ewa e om WGS
4.61
358
The esul s o he compa ison be ween s eam e o ming o alcoholic esidues and o he 359
ela ed p ocesses a e p esen ed in e ms o he impac ca ego ies o he CML me hodology 360
Global wa ming po en ial (GWP – kg CO2 eq), Deple ion o abio ic esou ces (ADP – kg Sb eq), 361
Ozone laye deple ion (ODP – kg CFC-11 eq), Pho ochemical oxida ion (POFP – kg C2H4 eq), 362
Acidi ica ion po en ial (AP – kg SO2 eq) and Eu ophica ion po en ial (EP – kg PO43-). The 363
magni udes o he en i onmen al impac s o hyd ogen p oduc ion sys ems a e displayed in 364
Table 6, in o de o simpli y he compa a i e s udy, he esul s a e scaled o 100 and 365
ep esen ed in Figu e 7. Fo example, alcoholic was e s eam e o ming shows he bes esul s 366
in e ms o ADP, ODP, AP and EP, bu pe o ms wo se in GWP and has he wo s esul in POFC. 367
368
369
370
21
Table 5. Summa ized esul s o compa a i e li e cycle assessmen 371
P ocesses
GWP
ADP
ODP
POFP
AP
EP
Re e ence
P esen
s udy
9.55 4.25·10-3 5.29·10-8 3.17·10-3 4.20·10-3 8.11·10-4 P esen s udy
SMR-H2
10.60 8.90·10-2 1.20·10-6 5.18·10-4 8.40·10-3 1.64·10-3 (Susmozas e al., 2013)
PG-H2
0.41 8.57·10-2 1.62·10-7 4.40·10-4 1.19·10-2 2.85·10-3 (Susmozas e al., 2013)
PG&C-H2
-14.60 --- 2.85·10-7 8.31·10-4 2.07·10-2 4.60·10-3 (Susmozas e al., 2016)
GSR-H2
12.70 5.69·10-2 8.90·10-7 5.16·10-4 6.51·10-2 5.26·10-2 (Susmozas e al., 2015)
BSR-H2
3.79 4.13·10-2 5.54·10-7 6.00·10-4 1.56·10-2 3.20·10-3 (Susmozas e al., 2015)
SBR-H2
6.81 2.13·10-2 3.96·10-7 1.55·10-3 3.53·10-2 2.54·10-2 (Hajjaji e al., 2016)
BAR-H2
7.27 4.87·10-2 3.13·10-6 1.65·10-3 2.76·10-2 2.81·10-2 (Khila e al., 2016)
372
373
Figu e 7. Compa ison (in %) o di e en e o ming p ocesses o ob ain hyd ogen. Cap ion: Da k 374
Blue: P esen s udio; Ligh Blue: SMR-H2; Pink: PG-H2; B own: PG&C-H2; G een: GSR-H2; Pu ple: 375
BSR-H2; Red: SBR-H2; Yellow: BAR-H2. 376
The compa ison be ween he p esen s udy and o he published p ocesses is possible because 377
he en i onmen al pe o mance o he di e en s udies is published in some LCA s udies wi h 378
a me hodological amewo k consis en wi h his s udy. S eam e o ming o alcoholic esidues 379
has he highes alue in POF, due o di ec emissions o CH4, which occu in ela i ely high 380
quan i ies du ing s eam e o ming. Howe e , his p ocess pe o ms well in e ms o ODP wi h a 381
alue a ound 2% o BAR-H2, which is he p ocess wi h he wo s en i onmen al pe o mance in 382
his ca ego y. 383
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
GWP ADP ODP POFP AP EP
Rela i e con ibu ion
-100%
22
Fou impac ca ego ies a e de ailed in his sec ion: Deple ion o abio ic esou ces (ADP), 384
Acidi ica ion po en ial (AP), Eu ophica ion po en ial (EP) and Global wa ming po en ial (GWP). 385
These a e he mos common and well-es ablished ca ego ies o assessing bioene gy sys ems 386
in LCA s udies (Che ubini and S ømman, 2011; Muench and Guen he , 2013; Pe e s e al., 387
2015). The o al GHG emissions o he sys em a e es ima ed a app oxima ely 9.55 kg CO2 eq 388
pe kg o H2 p oduced. As can be seen in Figu e 8.a, his alue is ela i ely highe han ha o 389
o he echnologies bu is conside ably lowe han ha o a con en ional H2 p oduc ion sys em 390
(SMR-H2). App oxima ely 90% o hese emissions a e a ibu ed o di ec me hane emissions 391
om he e o ming eac o , as CH4 is 21 imes mo e likely o a ec GWP o e a 100-yea 392
pe iod, acco ding o IPCC. The lowes alue in his ca ego y co esponds o PG&G-H2, since his 393
p ocess conside s CO2 cap u e du ing biomass cul i a ion. This explains he impo ance o 394
sys em bounda ies in an LCA s udy, since PG&G-H2 co e s om biomass cul i a ion o 395
hyd ogen p oduc ion wi h CO2 cap u e. Howe e , in he p esen s udy he limi o he sys em 396
anges om alcoholic esidues en e ing he plan o he p oduc ion o elec ici y, so ca bon 397
seques a ion du ing biomass cul i a ion is no conside ed. 398
Some me als, mine als and ossil uels a e used in all H2 p oduc ion sys ems. Figu e 8b shows 399
ha ossil me hane o hyd ogen sys em (SMR-H2) has he g ea es impac on ADP, as expec ed, 400
due o he la ge consump ion o ossil uels in he e o ming p ocess. H2 p oduced om 401
bioe hanol consumes conside able non- enewable esou ces h oughou he li e cycle when 402
e hanol p oduc ion phases a e conside ed (Hajjaji e al., 2013). Howe e , in his s udy, s eam 403
e o ming o alcoholic was e (mainly e hanol) is he bes p ocess in e ms o ADP because his 404
e hanol is a was e de i ed om ano he p ocess ha has no associa ed impac . Wi h espec 405
o Acidi ica ion Po en ial and Eu ophica ion Po en ial (Figu e 8c and 8d), s eam e o ming o 406
alcoholic was e p esen s he bes esul s. The p ocesses wi h he highes impac in hese 407
impac ca ego ies a e hose ha ake in o accoun he cul i a ion phase (SBR-H2, BAR-H2 and 408
23
GSR-H2), mainly due o he use o e ilize s con aining ni a e, ammonia and phospha e in he 409
p oduc ion o bioe hanol om whea o biodiesel om apeseed oil. 410
411
412
Figu e 8. Compa ison o he en i onmen al impac s in GWP, ADP, AP and EP ca ego ies 413
4. Conclusions 414
F om a li e cycle pe spec i e, he esul s sugges ha his ype o ene gy sys ems ha p oduce 415
hyd ogen om alcoholic was e h ough s eam e o ming has good en i onmen al 416
pe o mance. O e all, s eam e o ming o his ype o alcoholic was e o ene gy p oduc ion 417
could play a signi ican ole in u u e ene gy sys ems. 418
The SOFC is he main con ibu o o en i onmen al impac in mos impac ca ego ies. 419
Analysing he di e en p ocesses, he manu ac u e o SOFC is he p ocess wi h he g ea es 420
en i onmen al impac in all impac ca ego ies excep in ME, whe e was ewa e ea men is 421
he main con ibu o . The sensi i i y analysis shows he p omising pe o mance o his was e 422
ea men , since he ea men o 1 onne o alcoholic was e p oduces 351 kg o CO2 eq, his 423
esul is 33% and 30% be e han incine a ion and sani a y land ill espec i ely. 424
I is clea ha Li e Cycle Assessmen is a use ul ool o de e mine he en i onmen al 425
pe o mance o s eam e o ming o alcoholic was e o p oduce elec ici y. Howe e , hese 426
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
kg CO2eq/FU
Global Wa ming Po en ial
0,00
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,08
0,10
kg Sb eq/FU
Abio ic Deple ion Po en ial
0,0E+00
1,0E-02
2,0E-02
3,0E-02
4,0E-02
5,0E-02
6,0E-02
7,0E-02
kg SO2eq/FU
Acidi ica ion Po en ial
0,0E+00
1,0E-02
2,0E-02
3,0E-02
4,0E-02
5,0E-02
kg PO43- eq/FU
Eu ophica ion Po en ial
24
esul s ha e been ob ained by e alua ing he da a aken on a labo a o y scale, and mo e 427
s udies on a la ge scale will be needed in he u u e o de e mine a mo e accu a e es ima e o 428
he ac ual en i onmen al p o ile o he p ocess. 429
Compa a i e analysis has allowed us o compa e his p ocess wi h o he s ela ed o he 430
p oduc ion o hyd ogen om di e en aw ma e ials. Al hough s eam e o ming has some 431
poo esul s in GWP and POF due o me hane emissions, i s en i onmen al pe o mance is 432
gene ally be e han o he p ocesses published in he scien i ic li e a u e. 433
434
Acknowledgemen s 435
This esea ch was suppo ed by he Eu opean P ojec s STAR-P oBio (G an Ag eemen Numbe 436
727740) and li e-ECOELECTRICITY. The au ho s (M . An onio Co és, P o . Gume sindo Feijoo 437
and P o . Ma ia Te esa Mo ei a) belong o he Galician Compe i i e Resea ch G oup GRC 438
ED413C 2017/2019 and o he CRETUS S a egic Pa ne ship (ED431E 2018/01), co- unded by 439
FEDER (EU). P o . Ma ía Te esa Mo ei a and P o . An onio Chica acknowledge o Red de 440
Excelencia en bio e ine ías sos enibles (CTQ2016-81848-REDT) 441
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