In e na ional Jou nal o
En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h
A icle
Gende Di e ences on Mo o Compe ence in 5-Yea -Old
P eschool Child en Rega ding Rela i e Age
Rubén Na a o-Pa ón1, Joaquín Lago-Balles e os 1,* , Víc o A u e-Gi áldez 2,
Albe o Sanmiguel-Rod íguez 3,4 , Ca los Lago-Fuen es 5and Ma cos Mecías-Cal o 5,6
Ci a ion: Na a o-Pa ón, R.;
Lago-Balles e os, J.; A u e-Gi áldez,
V.; Sanmiguel-Rod íguez, A.;
Lago-Fuen es, C.; Mecías-Cal o, M.
Gende Di e ences on Mo o
Compe ence in 5-Yea -Old P eschool
Child en Rega ding Rela i e Age. In .
J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18,
3143. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
ije ph18063143
Academic Edi o : Anne Vuillemin
Recei ed: 15 Feb ua y 2021
Accep ed: 16 Ma ch 2021
Published: 18 Ma ch 2021
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Facul ad de Fo mación del P o eso ado, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela, 27001 Lugo, Spain;
uben.na a [email p o ec ed]
2Facul ad de Ciencias de la Educación, Uni e sidad de A Co uña, 15008 A Co uña, Spain; .a [email p o ec ed]
3
Facul ad de Lenguas y Educación, Uni e sidad Camilo JoséCela, 28692 Mad id, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
4Facul ad de Lenguas y Educación, Uni e sidad Neb ija, 28015 Mad id, Spain
5Facul ad de Ciencias de la Salud, Uni e sidad Eu opea del A lán ico, 39011 San ande , Spain;
[email p o ec ed] (C.L.-F.); [email p o ec ed] (M.M.-C.)
6Cen o de In es igación y Tecnología Indus ial de Can ab ia (CITICAN), 39011 San ande , Spain
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
The aim o his s udy was o e alua e he di e ences on mo o compe ence be ween
5-yea -old boys and gi ls and o in es iga e he exis ence o Rela i e Age E ec (RAE) on hei mo o
compe ence. A o al o 232 p eschool child en we e e alua ed o whom 134 (57.8%) we e boys and 98
(42.2%) we e gi ls. The Mo emen Assessmen Ba e y o Child en-2 (MABC-2) was used o collec
da a. The da a show a main e ec on gende ac o ; he e was a main e ec in o al sco e o manual
dex e i y (MD; p= 0.010), in o al sco e o balance (Bal; p< 0.001), in o al es sco e (TTS; p< 0.001),
and in o al pe cen ile sco e (TPS, p< 0.001). In he semes e o bi h ac o , he e we e di e ences in
aiming and ca ching (A&C, p< 0.001), in Bal (p= 0.029) and in o al pe cen ile sco e (TPS, p= 0.010).
Gi ls pe o m be e in MD, Bal, TTS, and TPS han boys. P eschool child en bo n in he i s semes e
ob ain, in gene al, a highe pe cen age and a highe pe cen ile han hei pee s bo n in he second
one. RAE is p esen in A&C, Bal, and TPS, wi h highe sco es ob ained by p eschool child en bo n in
he i s semes e compa ed o hose bo n in he second one.
Keywo ds:
ela i e age e ec ; childhood; mo o compe ence; manual dex e i y; aiming and ca ching;
balance; mo emen assessmen ba e y o child en-2 (MABC-2)
1. In oduc ion
A co ec wo k in Physical Educa ion (PE) leads o an imp o emen in he mo o
compe ence o child en [
1
]. Mo o compe ence is known in he mo o beha io li e a u e as
he abili y o each indi idual o expe ly pe o m di e en ine and g oss mo o skills [
2
],
while showing adequa e le els o quali y and con ol o mo emen [
3
] and he acquisi ion
and imp o emen o hese skills [4].
Basic mo o skills a e classi ied in he mo o beha io li e a u e as ollows: (1) locomo-
o skills (e.g., unning, sliding, jumping); (2) objec manipula ion and con ol skills (e.g.,
hi ing, kicking, h owing, ca ching); and (3) s abili y and body con ol skills (e.g., balance,
body ocking) [5].
The i s yea s o he indi idual’s li e (0 o 5 yea s) a e a c ucial pe iod o child en o
consolida e as physically compe en since he di e en componen s o mo o compe ence
a e he pilla s whe e he mos complex mo emen s a e based [
6
,
7
]. Fo his eason, he ield
o mo o compe ence has become a g owing a ea o esea ch o special impo ance due
o i s ela ionship wi h he heal h and de elopmen o child en [
8
,
9
] wi h be e cogni i e
de elopmen , wi h execu i e unc ions and wi h academic pe o mance [
9
–
14
]. The de el-
opmen o mo o compe ence du ing childhood is dependen on biological (i.e., gene ic,
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph18063143 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143 2 o 10
sexual, and ma u a ional) and en i onmen al ac o s (i.e., s e eo ypes o gende oles),
as well as he ela ionships be ween hese [15].
Wi h espec o gende , i is known ha boys and gi ls go h ough he same sequence
o mo o compe ence de elopmen . Howe e , in childhood, gi ls end o show lowe le els
o global mo o compe ence and objec con ol, and manipula ion skills han boys [
16
–
20
]
and, in con as , gi ls show a be e pe o mance han boys in ine mo o skills [
21
–
23
]
and in balance [
19
,
21
,
22
,
24
,
25
]. Howe e , du ing he p eschool pe iod (3 o 6 yea s), i is
likely ha he e is a wide ange o indi idual di e ences in he de elopmen o mo o
compe ence be ween di e en ages and gende s [
22
,
26
] and ha hese di e ences do no
emain s able h oughou he p eschool pe iod [22].
These di e ences may be due o ela i e age, since i has been shown ha he size o he
Rela i e Age E ec (RAE) in school e alua ions, speci ically, in mo o compe ence, has an
in e se co ela ion wi h age [
27
]. A ailable s udies show ha child en bo n in he i s
semes e o he academic yea ha e be e cogni i e pe o mance and mo o compe ence
han younge child en bo n in he las semes e o he same yea [
28
–
30
], in addi ion
o being mo e likely o ob ain highe g ades in PE [
31
]. These ad an ages o ela i ely
olde s uden s may be mo i a ed by di e ences in physical size and ma u a ion [
4
,
32
,
33
].
Physical ma u i y could o e olde s uden s an ad an age, which is some imes mis aken
o supe io abili y [34].
Howe e , hese ypes o gende e ec s a e no epo ed in any s udy on RAE in e-
sea ch ela ed o mo o compe ence a an ea ly age. Few s udies a e cu en ly ound in es i-
ga ing he in luence o ela i e age on gene al skills and pe o mance
measu es [29,35–37]
.
Typically, age- ela i e examina ions in you h popula ions ha e ocused on spo s samples,
high-pe o mance samples, o eli e a hle es. The main objec i e o his s udy was o analyze
he e ec o gende and RAE in a sample o 5-yea -old child en om Galicia (Spain) in
es s o manual dex e i y, h owing and ca ching and balance, as well as in he global
sco e in mo o compe ence, hypo hesizing ha he mo o compe ence, measu ed by he
MABC-2 ba e y, would be highe in p eschool child en who we e bo n in he i s semes e
o he yea compa ed o hose who we e bo n in he las semes e o he same yea and
concluding he e will be gende di e ences.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. S udy Design
Fo he de elopmen o his esea ch, a desc ip i e design was es ablished [
38
],
in which each o he h ee mo o skills ha make up he Mo emen Assessmen Ba -
e y o Child en-2 (MABC-2) ha e been es ablished as dependen a iables o he s udy
(i.e., Manual Dex e i y, Aiming and Ca ching, and Balance) while compa ing hem based
on he independen a iables in his s udy (gende and semes e o bi h).
2.2. Pa icipan s
The selec ion o he pa icipan s was ca ied ou h ough a non-p obabilis ic p ocedu e,
using a sampling by con enience and geog aphical p oximi y o choose 5 educa ional
cen e s o he public-school ne wo k o Galicia (Spain).
The inclusion c i e ia o pa icipa e in he s udy we e: (1) p o ide in o med consen
signed by hei pa en s o legal gua dians; (2) no su e om illness o di icul y (physical
o men al) ha p e en s pa icipa ion in he de elopmen o he MABC-2 es s; (3) no
ha ing a inal sco e below he 5 h pe cen ile a e he es , since below his pe cen ile,
child en can ha e mo o compe ence p oblems, he eby al e ing he esul s.
A o al o 248 schoolchild en (5 yea s old) we e in i ed; o e all, 16 we e excluded
ex pos o p esen ing signi ican mo emen di icul ies, since hey we e below he 5 h
pe cen ile o he ba e y. Finally, he sample consis ed o 232 schoolchild en.
All we e classi ied by semes e s based on hei da e o bi h (semes e 1 (S1: bo n om
Janua y o June); semes e 2 (S2: bo n om July o Decembe )) and acco ding o gende
(boys and gi ls).
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143 3 o 10
2.3. Tools
Sociodemog aphic da a such as da e o bi h, age, and gende ha e been collec ed
h ough ad hoc ques ionnai es.
Fo mo o skills, he e sion adap ed o he Spanish con ex by G aupe a and Ruíz [
39
]
o he Mo emen Assessmen Ba e y o Child en-2 (MABC-2) [
40
] was used. I is a alid
and eliable es o iden i y changes in mo o compe ence in p eschool child en [
39
–
42
] wi h
e y high in e - a e eliabili y [
43
]. This ba e y allows knowing he mo o compe ence in
h ee speci ic skills h ough eigh s anda dized es s: (1) manual dex e i y: pos ing coins,
h eading beads (bo h sco ed as he ime in seconds aken o comple e), and d awing ail
(sco ed by he numbe o e o s he subjec s make); (2) aiming and ca ching: ca ching a bean
bag, and h owing a bean bag on o ma (bo h sco ed by he numbe o success ul a emp s),
and (3) balance: one-leg balance (sco ed as he ime eco ded), walking on aised heels and
jumping on ma s (bo h sco ed as he numbe o co ec a emp s egis e ed) [
40
]. In his
sense, a high sco e in he di e en elemen s o his ba e y has a posi i e meaning (less
di icul y in ca ying i ou ), so he highe he sco e, he g ea e he mo o compe ence [
44
].
Th ough his ba e y, h ee mo o skills a e e alua ed: manual dex e i y (MD), aiming
and ca ching (A&C) and balance (Bal). To ob ain he sco es o each o hem, a o al o
eigh es s mus be de eloped: inse ing coins, h eading beads and d awing ace (MD);
ca ching he bag o chickpeas and ossing he bag o chickpeas on he ma (A&C); swinging
one leg, walking wi h aised heels and jump on ma s (Bal). Fo each es , di ec sco es
a e ob ained ha mus be ans o med in o scala s and, subsequen ly, o he calcula ion
o each gene al mo o abili y (i.e., MD, A&C, and Bal), he scala and pe cen ile sco es
a e calcula ed. Wi h hese sco es o each mo o skill, he o e all sco e o he ba e y was
calcula ed o each subjec (scala and pe cen ile).
2.4. P ocedu es
Fi s , he educa ional cen e s and eache s we e con ac ed explaining he objec i es
o he s udy. Once he app o al was gi en, he in o ma ion and in o med consen shee
was sen o he pa en s o legal gua dians o he s udy pa icipan s o hei signa u e
and e u n. Subsequen ly, he da a necessa y o ca y ou he in es iga ion was eco ded;
sociodemog aphic da a (i.e., age, da e o bi h, gende ) and da a om he MABC-2 ba e y.
Fo he de elopmen o he MABC-2 ba e y, he gene al ules o applica ion o he
MABC-2 ba e y o he manual we e ollowed. S anda dized ma e ial was used and he
e alua o s (p e ious aining on ba e y managemen ) assessed he s uden s indi idually
and ca ied ou he same me hodology in all educa ional cen e s o a oid esea che bias:
desc ip ion o he ask, demons a ion by he examine , p ac ice by he child o he es as
indica ed in he p ocedu e (whe e he examine could co ec possible e o s) and execu ion
o he es ollowing he ins uc ions o he manual (no ins uc ions we e gi en du ing he
es pe o ming). Be o e ca ying ou he es , he child en we e allowed o p ac ice each es
o co ec possible e o s, since du ing he es , he examine s did no ansmi ins uc ions.
The applica ion o he MABC-2 ba e y was ca ied ou in class ooms p o ided by
he educa ional cen e s ha pa icipa ed in he s udy, which we e isola ed, b igh , clea ,
well en ila ed, and isola ed om noise ha could p oduce dis u bances o in e e ences
in he e alua ion. In addi ion, o he es s ha equi ed si ing (i.e., manual dex e i y),
he oom had a able and wo chai s.
Fo he ea men o he da a ob ained h ough he applica ion o he MABC-2 ba e y,
he scala sco es ha e been calcula ed o each o he 8 es s and in his way o be able o
calcula e he sco es (scala and pe cen ile) o each mo o skill and he global ba e y.
The esea ch was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o he na ional pla o m Educa
(code 22019), unde he s anda ds es ablished in he Decla a ion o Helsinki.
2.5. S a is ical Analysis
The a iables o he sociodemog aphic da a we e exp essed in equencies o he
ca ego ical a iables and in measu es o cen al endency (mean and s anda d de ia ion)
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143 4 o 10
o he quan i a i e a iables. To de e mine he di e ences be ween all he a iables o he
MABC-2 ba e y, he semes e o bi h (S1 and S2) and gende (boys s. gi ls), a MANOVA
was pe o med wi h he Bon e oni s a is ic o know he signi icance o he in e ac ion
be ween he a iables while knowing he e ec size, pa ial e a squa ed (η2) was used.
To know he di e ences in he o al pe cen ile o he MABC-2 ba e y be ween he
semes e o bi h (S1 and S2) and gende (boys s. gi ls), a S uden ’s - es was used o
independen samples.
All s a is ical analyses we e ca ied ou using SPSS so wa e ( .25, IBM Co po a ion,
New Yo k, NY, USA). The le el o s a is ical signi icance was se a p< 0.050.
3. Resul s
A o al o 232 heal hy p eschool child en we e e alua ed, o which 134 (57.8%) we e
boys and 98 (42.2%) we e gi ls. The dis ibu ion o he pa icipan s by semes e o bi h
was 120 (51.7%) o S1 and 112 (48.3%) o S2. Table 1shows he esul s globally, by gende
and by semes e o bi h in each o he speci ic skills ha ha e been assessed using he
MABC-2 ba e y.
Table 1. Resul s o MABC-2 es based on gende and he semes e o bi hda e.
Semes e 1
(Bo n om Janua y o June)
Semes e 2
(Bo n om July oDecembe )
To al Sco es Gende Mean SEM Mean SEM
Manual dex e i y
(Pos coins; Th eading beads; D awing ail 1)
boys 24.04 0.92 25.21 * 0.86
Gi ls 28.92 ** 0.91 25.14 * 0.87
To al 26.36 0.68 25.18 0.39
Aiming and ca ching
(Ca ching bean bag; Th owing bean bag
on o ma )
boys 13.49 0.66 11.98 0.58
Gi ls 13.75 0.69 10.46 * 0.60
To al 13.61 0.47 11.42 * 0.43
Balance
(One-leg balance; Walking heels aised;
Jumping on ma s)
boys 26.44 0.77 23.38 0.97
Gi ls 30.85 ** 1.02 29.46 ** 1.27
To al 28,54 0.66 25.60 *,** 0.81
To al es Sco e
boys 73.93 1.92 72.36 1.95
Gi ls 82.85 ** 1.40 77.21 * 1.79
To al 78.17 1.27 74.14 1.41
No e: SEM: S anda d E o o Mean; * di e en o semes e 1 (p< 0.05); ** di e en o boys (p< 0.05).
The esul s o he MANOVA (Figu es 1and 2) ega ding manual dex e i y (MD)
indica ed ha he e is a signi ican main e ec o he gende ac o [F(1, 228) = 6.703,
p= 0.010
,
η2
= 0.03], being highe in gi ls. A signi ican e ec was also ound in he
in e ac ion be ween bo h ac o s [F(1, 228) = 7.07, p= 0.008,
η2
= 0.03] bu no in he ac o
semes e o bi h [F(1, 228) = 1.983, p= 0.160, η2= 0.01].
In e ms o aiming and ca ching (A&C), he indings indica ed ha he e is a signi ican
main e ec o he semes e o bi h ac o [F(1, 228) = 13.024, p< 0.001,
η2
= 0.05], he sco es
being highe in hose bo n in he i s , bu no in he gende ac o [F(1, 228) = 0.899,
p= 0.344
,
η2= 0.01], no in he in e ac ion o bo h ac o s [F(1, 228) = 1.803, p= 0.181, η2= 0.01].
Rega ding balance (Bal), he esul s o he MANOVA indica ed ha he e is a signi -
ican main e ec o he gende ac o [F(1, 228) = 26.712., p< 0.001,
η2
= 0.10] wi h he
highes sco es in he gi ls. The e was also ound a main e ec in he semes e o bi h
ac o [F(1, 228) = 4.822, p= 0.029,
η2
= 0.02] bu no in he in e ac ion be ween bo h ac o s
[F(1, 228) = 0.674, p= 0.412, η2= 0.003].
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143 5 o 10
Figu e 1.
To al skill sco es and o al pe cen ile sco e acco ding o gende . MD: Manual dex e i y;
A&C: Aiming and Ca ching; Bal: Balance; TTS: To al Tes Sco e; TP: To al Pe cen ile. No e:
*p< 0.001
di e en be ween Gi ls s. Boys; ** p< 0.05 di e en be ween Gi ls s. Boys; ns p> 0.005 no
signi ica i e di e ences.
Figu e 2.
Semes e o bi h acco ding o o al skill sco es. MD: Manual dex e i y; A&C: Aiming and
Ca ching; Bal: Balance; TTS: To al Tes Sco e. No e: * p< 0.001 di e en be ween S1 s. S2;
** p< 0.05
di e en be ween S1 s. S2. ns p> 0.005 no signi ica i e di e ences.
The esul s ega ding he o al es sco e (TTS) indica ed ha he e is a signi ican main
e ec o he gende ac o [F(1, 228) = 13.338, p< 0.001, η2= 0.05] wi h gi ls ob aining he
highes sco es, bu no in he semes e o bi h ac o [F(1, 228) = 3.654, p= 0.057,
η2
= 0.02],
no in he in e ac ion be ween semes e and gende [F(1, 228) = 1.164, p= 0.282,
η2
= 0.01].
Rega ding he pai wise compa ison in MD (Table 1), s a is ically signi ican di e ences
ha e been ound be ween boys and gi ls in he i s semes e (p< 0.001), wi h highe sco es
in gi ls, bu no in he second semes e (p= 0.962). Rega ding A&C, no s a is ically
signi ican di e ences ha e been ound. When Bal is analyzed, s a is ically signi ican
di e ences ha e also been ound be ween boys and gi ls, in a o o gi ls in he i s
semes e (p= 0.002), as well as in he second semes e (p< 0.001). Rega ding he TTS, in he
esul s o he i s semes e highe sco es appea in gi ls (p= 0.001).
In he analysis by pai s, acco ding o gende and semes e o bi h, di e ences we e
ound in gi ls be ween he i s and second semes e in DM (p= 0.008) and A&C (p= 0.001),
being g ea e in hose bo n in he i s semes e . In boys, di e ences we e ound in Bal
(p= 0.020) in a o o boys bo n in he i s semes e . Rega ding he TTS, no signi ican
di e ences we e ound.
Al hough he e a e di e ences be ween he pe cen ile eached by boys and gi ls when
he semes e s a e compa ed (Figu e 3), he end wi hin each gende g oup indica es
ha he e a e s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween s uden s bo n in S1 (M = 47.08,
SE = 2.55
) s. S2 (M = 36.56, SE = 2,93; p= 0.007). The same is ue o gi ls, S1 (M = 57.16,
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143 6 o 10
SE = 3.32) s. S2 (M = 41.28, SE = 4.62; p= 0.005), bu i is no ue o boys, S1 (M = 37.95,
SE = 3.45) s. S2 (M = 33.84, SE = 3.77; (p> 0.050).
Figu e 3.
Pe cen iles acco ding o gende and Semes e o bi h (S) and global. No e: * p< 0.007 di -
e en be ween Semes e 1 s. Semes e 2. ** p< 0.005 di e en be ween Semes e 1 s. Semes e 2.
ns p> 0.005 no signi ica i e di e ences.
4. Discussion
The objec i e o his s udy was o analyze he e ec o gende and RAE in a sample o
5-yea -old child en om Galicia (Spain) in es s o manual dex e i y, h owing and ca ching,
and balance, as well as in he global sco e in mo o compe ence.
The da a ob ained in his esea ch indica e ha gende s a is ically signi ican di -
e ences we e ound be ween boys and gi ls. All he sco es and pe cen iles ob ained by
gi ls we e highe ; esul s ha do no suppo some in es iga ions [
16
–
23
,
25
,
45
,
46
], which
indica e ha boys ob ain highe sco es globally. These global di e ences wi h espec o
gende could be due, in pa , o he highe sco es ob ained by gi ls in he MD [
22
,
47
,
48
] and
in he Bal [
22
,
24
,
37
,
49
], pe haps p oduced by he de elopmen o p ac ices o s e eo yped
ac i i ies, and di e en spo s ac i i ies, be ween boys and gi ls. The e o e, PE classes
should p omo e coeduca ional spo s ac i i ies o y o elimina e hese gende di e ences.
In e ms o RAE, hose bo n in S1 (bo h boys and gi ls) also ob ain highe sco es
compa ed o hose bo n in S2, ha is, he o me a e in a highe pe cen ile han he
la e [
22
,
36
,
37
,
50
]. Thus, p eschool child en bo n in S1 achie e a highe TPS han hei
pee s bo n in S2, which can cause hose bo n ea lie (S1) o ob ain be e g ades in PE
due o achie ing be e esul s in s anda dized physical and mo o es s, ega dless o he
in luence o he RAE.
Fo he speci ic skills e alua ed wi h he MABC-2 ba e y, he esul s o ou s udy on
manual dex e i y (MD) show ha gi ls ob ain highe sco es han boys [
19
,
21
–
23
,
25
,
37
,
47
,
48
],
in gene al, and in S1 in pa icula [
36
,
37
], while boys p esen he same sco es as gi ls
in S2. Howe e , ou s udy did no ake in o accoun o he a iables such as he p ac ice
o ex acu icula ac i i ies o he sociocul u al en i onmen . The e a e au ho s who
pos ula e ha his could be ela ed o he ype o s e eo yped ac i i ies o gende ole
models ha gi ls pe o m, which a e hose ha make hem be e in ine mo o skills [
14
],
such as w i ing [
20
] o p ac icing hand-eye ac i i ies and good coo dina ion [
51
]. A s udy
ound ha hey p esen g ea e pe cei ed manipula ion bu wi hou inding s a is ically
signi ican di e ences in pe cei ed locomo ion, pe cei ed manipula ion, pe cei ed g oss
mo o pe o mance, and pe cei ed mo o compe ence, acco ding o geog aphic egion and
gende [52].
Rega ding he semes e o bi h, no di e ences we e ound in his dimension, speci i-
cally, when compa ing wi hin he same gende [37]. In MD, he same end is main ained
as in he p e ious es s, ha is, he sco es o gi ls bo n in S1 a e highe han he sco es o
hose bo n in S2. Howe e , his end changes in boys, wi h he sco es o boys bo n in
S2 being highe compa ed o hose bo n in S1. These esul s coincide wi h hose ob ained
by gi ls and ollow he same line as s udies on mo o pe o mance [
53
,
54
], o selec ion and
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143 7 o 10
de ec ion o spo s alen [
55
,
56
], whe e hose bo n in he i s mon hs o he yea ha e
be e mo o pe o mance and a e he i s chosen.
Rega ding he A&C, he e a e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween gende s,
wi h he child en’s sco es being simila . This is no in ag eemen wi h o he s udies which
e eal ha boys end o show highe le els han gi ls in mobile con ol and manipula-
ion skills [
16
–
18
,
25
,
45
–
47
,
57
,
58
]. Howe e , child en (bo h boys and gi ls) bo n in he
i s semes e pe o m be e han hei second semes e pee s, like o he s udies [
21
–
23
].
Rega ding he semes e o bi h, and speci ically in he A&C, s a is ically signi ican di e -
ences ha e also been ound, wi h he sco es o hose bo n in he i s semes e being be e ,
wi h he RAE being mo e e iden a hese ages o he mo o compe ence es s [
36
,
37
]. In he
compa ison o A&C be ween gende s, s a is ically signi ican di e ences a e obse ed in
gi ls when compa ing he semes e s (in a o o hose bo n in he i s semes e ), while in
boys no simila di e ences a e ound. When compa ing gende and bi h semes e , i is
obse ed ha he e a e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences in he compa ison be ween
boys and gi ls.
In he Bal, di e ences ha e been ound wi h espec o gende , wi h gi ls ob aining
be e sco es, ega dless o he semes e o bi h [
19
,
21
,
22
,
24
,
25
,
37
]. This could be due o
he ac ha gi ls may ha e an ad an age in he de elopmen o pos u al con ol [
21
–
23
]
al hough i is known ha his capaci y does no inish consolida ing un il 8–9 yea s [
51
].
Rega ding he semes e o bi h, s a is ically signi ican di e ences we e ound in he
compa isons in he Bal being he highes sco es ob ained by gi ls in bo h he i s and
second semes e s [
37
]. These esul s could be due o he ac ha he de elopmen o mo o
compe ence du ing in ancy, childhood, and adolescence depend on biological ac o s [i.e.,
gene ic, sexual and ma u a ional] and en i onmen al [i.e., gende oles, expe iences, mo o
play oppo uni ies ( a ie y o play ma e ials and app op ia e physical spaces)] [
5
,
59
,
60
],
and hei in e ac ions [15].
5. Conclusions
I is concluded ha he e a e di e ences be ween 5-yea -old boys and gi ls in e ms o
mo o compe ence. Those child en bo n in S1 achie e be e sco es in mo o compe ence
compa ed o hose o S2 by gende and globally, and gi ls pe o m be e han boys (i.e.,
MD, Bal, and TTS). In his sense, he di e ence o 6 mon hs in he da e o bi h in p eschool
child en can ep esen up o 8% o hei li e [
53
]. F om an educa ional poin o iew,
PE eache s, mus ake i in o accoun when scheduling, which should be done in he sho
e m o sui he needs o each child, because o he i s yea s o li e (0 o 5 yea s) a e a
undamen al pe iod o he de elopmen o physically compe en child en [6,7].
On he o he hand, his esea ch should be aken in o accoun by PE eache s, since
he e alua ion o his subjec is usually ca ied ou h ough s anda dized es s, which could
bene i hose bo n in he i s imes e s and ha m he younges wi hin o he same coho .
In his sense, i is known ha hose s uden s wi h lowe esul s in mo o compe ence end
o ha e less pa icipa ion in o ganized games o spo s du ing childhood, which leads o a
nega i e spi al o disengagemen om an ac i e li es yle.
In addi ion, ea ly childhood educa ion cen e s and schools mus play a leading ole
in p o iding and p omo ing equal mo o oppo uni ies. Boys and gi ls spend a la ge
pa o hei ime in schools, in such a way ha planned and well-de ined p og ams a e
implemen ed om he e as a s a egy o a ha monious de elopmen o mo o compe ence,
h ough pedagogically s uc u ed PE classes augh by commi ed p o essionals.
6. S udy Limi a ions and Fu u e P oposals
Rega ding he limi a ions o his s udy, ou esul s mus be unde s ood wi hin he
sociocul u al con ex whe e he s udy was de eloped (Galicia, Spain), and canno be
ex apola ed o o he egions o coun ies due o hei social and cul u al peculia i ies.
Fu he mo e, he sample is no su icien ly ep esen a i e and la ge; he e o e, he esul s
mus be aken wi h cau ion in o de o be gene alized. On he o he hand, we did no
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143 8 o 10
analyze o ake in o accoun o he ac o s ha could a ec RAE a hese ages, such as
spo s a endance o an h opome ic pa ame e s [
61
]. In addi ion, a p oduc -o ien ed
e alua ion ool has been used, ha is, he mo emen is e alua ed om a quan i a i e
app oach, e alua ing he esul o he execu ion and no he p ocess.
Fu u e s udies should del e in o he e ec o ela i e age in o he educa ional s ages
wi hin he a ea o PE and school spo s.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, R.N.-P. and M.M.-C.; me hodology, R.N.-P. and M.M.-C.;
alida ion, R.N.-P., M.M.-C., J.L.-B., V.A.-G., A.S.-R., and C.L.-F.; o mal analysis, R.N.-P.; in es iga-
ion, R.N.-P., M.M.-C., J.L.-B., and C.L.-F.; da a cu a ion, J.L.-B. and C.L.-F.; w i ing—O iginal d a
p epa a ion, R.N.-P. and M.M.-C.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, R.N.-P., M.M.-C., J.L.-B., V.A.-G., A.S.-
R., and C.L.-F.; isualiza ion, R.N.-P., M.M.-C., J.L.-B., and C.L.-F.; supe ision, R.N.-P. and M.M.-C.
All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
The s udy was conduc ed acco ding o he guidelines o he
Decla a ion o Helsinki, and app o ed by he Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d (o E hics Commi ee) o
Educa (code 22019).
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e no a ailable in acco dance wi h
Regula ion (EU) o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council 2016/679 o 27 Ap il 2016 ega ding
he p o ec ion o na u al pe sons wi h ega d o he p ocessing o pe sonal da a and he ee ci cula ion
o hese da a (RGPD).
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Re e ences
1.
A u e Gi áldez, V. ¿How should Physical Educa ion wo k in Ea ly Childhood Educa ion be? Re os
2019
,37, 588–596. [C ossRe ]
2. Hende son, S.E.; Sugden, D.A. Mo emen Assessmen Ba e y o Child en; The Psychological Co po a ion: Ken , UK, 1992.
3.
U esch, T.; Ba did, F. Mo o compe ence. In Dic iona y o Spo Psychology:Spo , Exe cise, And Pe o ming A s; Hack o , D.,
Schinke, R., S auss, B., Eds.; Else ie : Be lin/Heidelbe g, Ge many, 2019; p. 186. ISBN 9780128131503.
4.
Malina, R.M.; Boucha d, C.; Ba -O , O. G ow h, Ma u a ion, and Physical Ac i i y; Human Kine ics: Champaign, IL, USA, 2004;
ISBN 0880118822.
5.
Goodway, J.; Ozmun, J.C.; Gallahue, D.L. Unde s anding Mo o De elopmen : In an s, Child en, Adolescen s, Adul s, 8 h ed.; Jones &
Ba le Lea ning: Bos on, MA, USA, 2019; ISBN 978-443-5000.
6.
Cla k, J.E.; Me cal e, J.S. The moun ain o mo o de elopmen : A me apho . In Mo o De elopmen : Resea ch and Re iews; Cla k,
J.E., Humph ey, J., Eds.; NASPE Publica ions: Res on, VA, USA, 2002; pp. 163–190.
7.
S odden, D.F.; Goodway, J.D.; Langendo e , S.J.; Robe on, M.A.; Rudisill, M.E.; Ga cia, C.; Ga cia, L.E. A De elopmen al
Pe spec i e on he Role o Mo o Skill Compe ence in Physical Ac i i y: An Eme gen Rela ionship. Ques
2008
,60, 290–306.
[C ossRe ]
8.
Lopes, L.; San os, R.; Coelho-e-Sil a, M.; D ape , C.; Mo a, J.; Jido se , B.; Cla k, C.; Schmid , M.; Mo gan, P.; Duncan, M.; e al.
A Na a i e Re iew o Mo o Compe ence in Child en and Adolescen s: Wha We Know and Wha We Need o Find Ou . In . J.
En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 18. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
9.
Robinson, L.E.; S odden, D.F.; Ba ne , L.M.; Lopes, V.P.; Logan, S.W.; Rod igues, L.P.; D’Hond , E. Mo o Compe ence and i s
E ec on Posi i e De elopmen al T ajec o ies o Heal h. Spo s Med. 2015,45, 1273–1284. [C ossRe ]
10.
Lopes, L.; San os, R.; Pe ei a, B.; Lopes, V.P. Associa ions be ween g oss Mo o Coo dina ion and Academic Achie emen in
elemen a y school child en. Hum. Mo . Sci. 2013,32, 9–20. [C ossRe ]
11.
Ludyga, S.; Mücke, M.; Kamijo, K.; And ä, C.; Pühse, U.; Ge be , M.; He mann, C. The Role o Mo o Compe ences in P edic ing
Wo king Memo y Main enance and P epa a o y P ocessing. Child De . 2020,91, 799–813. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
12.
Mul ey, K.L.; Taun on, S.; Pennell, A.; B ian, A. Head, Toes, Knees, SKIP! Imp o ing P eschool Child en’s Execu i e Func ion
Th ough a Mo o Compe ence In e en ion. J. Spo Exe c. Psychol. 2018,40, 233–239. [C ossRe ]
13.
Schmid , M.; Egge , F.; Benzing, V.; Jäge , K.; Conzelmann, A.; Roebe s, C.M.; Pesce, C. Disen angling he ela ionship be ween
child en’s mo o abili y, execu i e unc ion and academic achie emen . PLoS ONE 2017,12, e0182845. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
14.
Veldman, S.L.C.; Jones, R.A.; San os, R.; Sousa-Sá, E.; Okely, A.D. G oss mo o skills in oddle s: P e alence and socio-
demog aphic di e ences. J. Sci. Med. Spo 2018,21, 1226–1231. [C ossRe ]
15.
Newell, K.M. Cons ain s on he De elopmen o Coo dina ion. In Mo o De elopmen in Child en: Aspec s o Coo dina ion and
Con ol; Sp inge : Do d ech , The Ne he lands, 1986; pp. 341–360.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 3143 9 o 10
16.
Golding, J.; Emme , P.; Iles-Ca en, Y.; S ee , C.; Lingam, R. A e iew o en i onmen al con ibu ions o childhood mo o skills. J.
Child Neu ol. 2014,29, 1531–1547. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
17.
Goodway, J.D.; Famelia, R.; Bakh ia , S. Fu u e di ec ions in physical educa ion & spo : De eloping undamen al mo o
compe ence in he ea ly yea s is pa amoun o li elong physical ac i i y. Asian Soc. Sci. 2014,10, 44–54. [C ossRe ]
18.
He mann, C.; Ge lach, E.; Seelig, H. De elopmen and Valida ion o a Tes Ins umen o he Assessmen o Basic Mo o
Compe encies in P ima y School. Meas. Phys. Educ. Exe c. Sci. 2015,19, 80–90. [C ossRe ]
19.
Val , L.; Pso a, R.; Abdollahipou , R. Gende di e ences in pe o mance o he Mo emen Assessmen Ba e y o Child en—2nd
edi ion es in adolescen s. Ac a Gymnica 2016,46, 155–161. [C ossRe ]
20.
Jelo ˇcan, G.; Zu c, J. P eschool child en’s esul s in mo emen ABC es : Di e ences be ween gi ls and boys in mo emen de ici .
Ann. Kinesiol. 2016,7, 3–19.
21.
Ki a, Y.; Suzuki, K.; Hi a a, S.; Sakiha a, K.; Inagaki, M.; Nakai, A. Applicabili y o he Mo emen Assessmen Ba e y o
Child en-Second Edi ion o Japanese child en: A s udy o he Age Band 2. B ain De . 2016,38, 706–713. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
22.
Kokš ejn, J.; Musálek, M.; Tu ano, J.J. A e sex di e ences in undamen al mo o skills uni o m h oughou he en i e p eschool
pe iod? PLoS ONE 2017,12, e0176556. [C ossRe ]
23. Ma hisen, G.E. Mo o compe ence and implica ions in p ima y school. J. Phys. Educ. Spo 2016,16, 206–209. [C ossRe ]
24.
Olesen, L.G.; K is ensen, P.L.; Ried-La sen, M.; G øn ed, A.; F obe g, K. Physical ac i i y and mo o skills in child en a ending
43 p eschools: A c oss-sec ional s udy. BMC Pedia . 2014,14, 229. [C ossRe ]
25.
Ven e , A.; Pienaa , A.E.; Coe zee, D. Ex en and na u e o mo o di icul ies based on age, e hnici y, gende and socio-economic
s a us in a selec ed g oup o h ee- o i e-yea -old child en. S. A . J. Res. Spo . Phys. Educ. Rec ea . 2015,37, 169–183.
26.
Kambas, A.; Vene sanou, F.; Giannakidou, D.; Fa ou os, I.G.; A loni i, A.; Cha zinikolaou, A.; D aganidis, D.; Zimme , R.
The Mo o -P o iciency-Tes o child en be ween 4 and 6 yea s o age (MOT 4–6): An in es iga ion o i s sui abili y in G eece. Res.
De . Disabil. 2012,33, 1626–1632. [C ossRe ]
27.
Vincen , J.; Glamse , F.D. Gende di e ences in he ela i e age e ec among US olympic de elopmen p og am you h socce
playe s. J. Spo s Sci. 2006,24, 405–413. [C ossRe ]
28.
Aune, T.K.; Ing aldsen, R.P.; Ves heim, O.P.; Bje kese , O.; Dalen, T. Rela i e Age E ec s and Gende Di e ences in he Na ional
Tes o Nume acy: A Popula ion S udy o No wegian Child en. F on . Psychol. 2018,9, 1091. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
29.
McPhillips, M.; Jo dan-Black, J.-A. The e ec o mon h o bi h on he a ainmen s o p ima y and seconda y school pupils. B . J.
Educ. Psychol. 2009,79, 419–438. [C ossRe ]
30.
Sp ie sma, M. E ec o ela i e age in he i s g ade o p ima y school on long- e m scholas ic esul s: In e na ional compa a i e
e idence using PISA 2003. Educ. Econ. 2010,18, 1–32. [C ossRe ]
31.
Cobley, S.; Ab aham, C.; Bake , J. Rela i e age e ec s on physical educa ion a ainmen and school spo ep esen a ion. Phys.
Educ. Spo Pedagog. 2008,13, 267–276. [C ossRe ]
32.
Dalen, T.; Ing aldsen, R.P.; Roaas, T.V.; Pede sen, A.V.; S een, I.; Aune, T.K. The impac o physical g ow h and ela i e age e ec
on assessmen in physical educa ion. Eu . J. Spo Sci. 2017,17, 482–487. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
33.
Wa ie, N.; Scho e , J.; Bake , J. The Rela i e Age E ec in Spo : A De elopmen al Sys ems Model. Spo s Med.
2015
,45, 83–94.
[C ossRe ] [PubMed]
34.
Aune, T.K.; Pede sen, A.V.; Ing aldsen, R.P.; Dalen, T. Rela i e Age E ec and Gende Di e ences in Physical Educa ion
A ainmen in No wegian Schoolchild en. Scand. J. Educ. Res. 2017,61, 369–375. [C ossRe ]
35.
Robe s, S.J.; Fai clough, S.J. The In luence o Rela i e Age E ec in he Assessmen o High School S uden s in Physical Educa ion
in he Uni ed Kingdom. J. Teach. Phys. Educ. 2012,31, 56–70. [C ossRe ]
36.
Na a o-Pa ón, R.; Mecías-Cal o, M.; Rod íguez Fe nández, J.E.; A u e-Gi áldez, V. Rela i e Age E ec on Mo o Compe ence in
Child en Aged 4–5 Yea s. Child en 2021,8, 115. [C ossRe ]
37.
Na a o-Pa ón, R.; A u e-Gi áldez, V.; Sanmiguel-Rod íguez, A.; Mecías-Cal o, M. Di e ences on Mo o Compe ence in
4-Yea -Old Boys and Gi ls Rega ding he Qua e o Bi h: Is The e a Rela i e Age E ec ? Child en 2021,8, 141. [C ossRe ]
38.
A o, M.; López, J.J.; Bena en e, A. Un sis ema de clasi icación de los diseños de in es igación en psicología. Ann. Psicol.
2013
,29,
1038–1059. [C ossRe ]
39. G aupe a, J.L.; Ruiz, L.M. Ba e ía de E aluación del Mo imien o pa a Niños-2; Pea son: Mad id, Spain, 2012; Volume 2.
40.
Hende son, S.E.; Sudgen, D.A.; Ba ne , A. Mo emen Assessmen Ba e y o Child en-2, 2nd ed.; The Psychological Co po a ion:
London, UK, 2007.
41.
Schoemake , M.M.; Niemeije , A.S.; Flappe , B.C.T.; Smi s-Engelsman, B.C.M. Validi y and eliabili y o he Mo emen Assessmen
Ba e y o Child en-2 Checklis o child en wi h and wi hou mo o impai men s. De . Med. Child Neu ol.
2012
,54, 368–375.
[C ossRe ] [PubMed]
42.
Valen ini, N.C.; Ramalho, M.H.; Oli ei a, M.A. Mo emen assessmen ba e y o child en-2: T ansla ion, eliabili y, and alidi y
o B azilian child en. Res. De . Disabil. 2014,35, 733–740. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
43.
Se be a , I.; Lo esnes, J.M.; Mamen, A. Reliabili y and S uc u al Validi y o he Mo emen Assessmen Ba e y o Child en-2 in
C oa ian P eschool Child en. Spo s 2019,7, 248. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
44.
Ruiz Pé ez, L.M.; G aupe a Sanz, J.L. Un es udio anscul u al de la compe encia mo iz en escola es de 7 a 10 años: U ilidad de
la Ba e ía Mo emen ABC. Re . Española Pedagog. 2005,63, 289–308.
