sus ainabili y
A icle
He i age, Tou ism and Local De elopmen in Pe iphe al
Ru al Spaces: Mé ola (Baixo Alen ejo, Po ugal)
F. Ja ie Ga cía-Delgado 1, An onio Ma ínez-Puche 2and Rubén C. Lois-González 3,*
1Depa men o His o y, Geog aphy and An h opology, Uni e si y o Huel a, 21071 Huel a, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Human Geog aphy, Uni e si y o Alican e, San Vicen e del Raspeig, 03080 Alican e, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o Geog aphy, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, San iago de Compos ela,
15703 A Co uña, Spain
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Recei ed: 30 Sep embe 2020; Accep ed: 28 Oc obe 2020; Published: 3 No embe 2020
Abs ac :
In he con ex o mul iple epu posing o u al spaces, ou ism ep esen s a pa h o
de elopmen , wi h he po en ial o e i alize hese a eas. The conse a ion and es o a ion o he i age,
and i s p omo ion h ough ou ism, can become an oppo uni y o local de elopmen , in which a
ange o s akeholde s ul il di e en oles in he ca ying ou o he p ocesses in ol ed. The aim o
he s udy was o analyse he he i agisa ion p ocesses and hei ou is alue enhancemen and how
i a ec s local de elopmen in M
é
ola (Baixo Alen ejo, Po ugal). A se ies o in e iews wi h he
chie s akeholde s in he p ocess we e conduc ed, om which he con ex s and concep ualisa ions
o de elopmen we e de e mined. On he basis o seconda y da a in e ms o s a is ics, an analysis
o he impac s o he p ocess o he i agisa ion and he de elopmen o ou ism was unde aken.
The main conclusions d awn by he esea ch a e he ollowing: (a) he impo ance o he p ocess o
he i agisa ion in M
é
ola; (b) he iabili y o he p ojec , gi en he cos and lack o comp ehensi e
conse a ion, in c ea ing a uni ied whole; (c) he pe o mance o , and powe ela ionships be ween,
he a ious s akeholde s; (d) he limi ed pa icipa ion o locals due o disa ec ion wi h he p ojec ;
(e) he co ela ion be ween he i age, u al ou ism, and local de elopmen .
Keywo ds:
pe iphe al a eas; local de elopmen ; he i agisa ion; sus ainable u al ou ism;
s akeholde s; disa ec ed ci izens
1. In oduc ion
Ru ala easha eo enexpe iencedadeepeningc isisasa esul o hee ec so globalisa ion,economic
cycles, new p oduc ion p ac ices, and sociological and cul u al changes, all o which ha e o ced local
de elopmen o adop mul i unc ional app oaches [
1
,
2
] and economic di e si ica ion [
3
]. These p ocesses
ha e been compa ably common in “lagging u al egions” [
4
] (p. 347), which cha ac e is ically lack he
c i ical mass o be able o compe e and su e om he decline o adi ional ac i i ies [
4
] and a ma ked
pe iphe alisa ion [
5
]. Consequen ly, g ow h wi hin hese communi ies is highly dependen on hei
capaci y o adap i e [
2
] and inno a i e [
6
] s a egies, which can allow i s de elopmen , o e coming he
cen e–pe iphe y models [4].
By hese means, u al a eas can become “loca ions o he s imula ion o new socio-economic
ac i i y” [
4
] (p. 347) h ough di e si ica ion [
1
,
4
]: leisu e, u al ou ism, ca e ing es ablishmen s,
biodi e si y conse a ion, housing expansion, and u iliza ion o he na u al and cul u al he i age.
Also, he ein e p e a ion o o he adi ional uses o he i age such as ag icul u e, ag ibusiness,
c a s, and quali y p oduc s, among o he s, is possible [4,7].
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157; doi:10.3390/su12219157 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 2 o 27
Two pe spec i es o he u al landscape and i s esou ces ha e eme ged [
8
]: (a) he ex e nal iew:
as a ec ea ional space which needs o be egula ed i i is o be p ese ed and enjoyed; (b) he in e nal
iew: as a habi able space, he legisla ion conce ning which ac s as a ba ie o he e e yday ac i i ies
and p ac ices o he popula ion. Residen s end o ake a u ili a ian and p agma ic pe spec i e iew o
u al spaces based on p oduc ion, o en a odds wi h en i onmen al egula ion o i s na u al esou ces,
while isi o s and ou is s end owa ds a mo e aes he ic o consume -cen ed pe spec i e, which
a ou s legisla ing i s uses [
9
]. In his ega d, he EU policies ha e a icula ed guidelines o he
di e si ica ion and imp o emen o ag icul u al p oduc ion, he p e en ion o u al depopula ion, and
he gene a ion o employmen and income. Ru al communi ies ha e hus seen hei social and cul u al
capi al become hei main he i age asse [10,11].
Ru al a eas on he pe iphe y base hei s a egies o de elopmen on adi ional ac i i ies [
4
].
In such a con ex , ou ism becomes a challenge [
12
] and akes on a dual ole as: (a) an agen o
di e si ica ion and egene a ion o he adi ional way o li e [
13
]; and (b) a means o s eng hening he
p ocesses o local de elopmen [
14
]. Con ol o e hese p ocesses on he pa o local esiden s enables
hem o ensu e ha his de elopmen is bo h sus ainable and bene icial [
15
]. Ne e heless, i is possible
o ou ism o be o e alued as a panacea o he decline in u al condi ions [
12
,
16
], as he poli ical and
popula discou ses es i y, and o an a ea’s limi a ions in e ms o de elopmen o be pushed o he
backg ound [
17
], while i s esou ces and po en ial a e o eg ounded [
18
]. The ac ha no all loca ions
a e equally open o he de elopmen o ou ism, enjoy he same deg ee o popula i y, o ha e he same
ad an ages is o en o go en, hus uelling he con a y iewpoin ha ega ds ans o ma ion in he
name o ou ism as a commodi ica ion o he u al en i onmen [19].
To his can be added an addi ional laye o complexi y wi h ega ds o s udies in o u al ou ism.
The e is cu en ly a wide a ie y o models, ac i i ies, and ypes o accommoda ion, which in u n a e
o en in need o a “new gene a ion” o u al ou ism, based on he managemen o sma , i ually
o ien ed des ina ions [
20
,
21
], a deepe unde s anding o he ma ke , and ully in eg a ed p o essional
managemen sys ems o ien ed owa ds sus ainabili y [
22
]. The ph ase “ u al ou ism” is equen ly
employed as an umb ella e m de ined by geog aphical loca ion, whe eby ac i i ies coming wi hin i s
scope ha e no hing in common beyond he ac ha hey ake place in a u al con ex , as opposed o
an u ban one [
23
]. Al hough u al ou ism places a p emium on exis ing he i age o c ea e alue, i
is ne e heless a apidly e ol ing a ea, wi h signi ican challenges and business oppo uni ies [
24
].
Consequen ly, heo e ical accoun s and policy decisions highligh he impo ance o a g ass oo s
app oach o u al de elopmen , he ac i e in ol emen o he local communi y, and he de elopmen
o small-scale p ojec s unde lining “ adi ion, cha ac e and cul u e” [
25
] (p. 108). Also undamen al
o imp o ing he pe spec i es o he sec o is he in ol emen o local poli ical leade s in mapping ou
p ocesses, pu ing essen ial se ices in place, and imp o ing he business en i onmen .
Indeed, in pe iphe al a eas, which ha e seen a decline in adi ional ac i i ies [
12
] and whe e
oppo uni ies a e sca ce, “any economic di e si ica ion is likely o be welcomed” [
15
] (p. 532) and
“ ou ism is a desi able di e si ie ” [
11
] (p. 391). Fo he “bo ing pe iphe ies” and in-be ween a eas [
26
]
(p. 740), ou ism ep esen s a new means o egional de elopmen [
27
], al hough i is ye o be
seen whe he he equa ion when ou ism equals de elopmen is mo e han wish ul hinking [
12
,
18
].
Much will depend on he local and empo al con ex , he poli ical will, he cul u al and socioeconomic
esou ces a ailable in he e i o y, and s akeholde commi men . All he o egoing aspec s will be deal
wi h in his case s udy, in which, addi ionally, a dialec ic will be es ablished be ween he ‘he i agisa ion’
and he exploi a ion o he i age o he pu poses o ou ism.
Tou ismac i i iesin he pe iphe y can be a iableop ion o achie ing economic de elopmen asan
e ec i e sou ce o income and employmen [
12
,
28
], ackling he issues o access whils eju ena ing and
e aining he popula ion [
6
,
18
,
29
]. In his espec , ou ism is o en ega ded as a “ca alys o inno a i e
local de elopmen ” [
11
] (p. 383), enabling he educ ion o egional dispa i ies [
18
]. None heless,
egions may no always ob ain be e esul s, despi e ecei ing mo e unds [
18
], as hese may be poo ly
managed [
30
]. P o ided ou is a ac ions a e gene a ed in pe iphe al a eas, unique des ina ions
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 3 o 27
and p oduc s can be consolida ed, encou aging whe e isi o s can a el, wi h he mo i a ion o
pa icipa e in di e se expe iences [
29
]. O en hese a ac ions a e no su icien o es ablish an ex ensi e
ou ism o e and, hus, local de elopmen based on ou ism [
29
] since he scale o a ac ion, he
conse a ion, and he uniqueness ac o o he esou ce is he one ha po en ially gene a es g ow h o
o he ypes o ou ism and main ains i s iabili y [
6
,
31
]. Thus, he deg ee o pe iphe ali y de e mines
he ou is low, dis inguishing be ween pe iphe al disconnec ed des ina ions [
32
] and in e media e
des ina ions [
26
], accessible by oad [
29
], which o en ecei e so-called “au onomous ou ism” o
“ ubbe i e a ic” [
33
], making i possible o gene a e u he de elopmen in des ina ions close o
densely popula ed a eas [
22
], al hough, consequen ly, i migh esul in o e exploi a ion and agili y
o he spaces [
34
,
35
]. The p ese a ion, in e en ion, and ecupe a ion o he i age, and he alue his
b ings o an a ea, become an oppo uni y o sus ainable local de elopmen [
36
], con ibu ing h ough
ou ism p ojec s ha seek o “design new spaces” [
37
] (p. 290), in which di e en s akeholde s ake
pa . The p ocess o “he i agisa ion” ocuses on hose elemen s ha a e unique o a pa icula u al a ea,
oo ed in i s his o y, and iden i iable as a “ma ke o egional iden i y” [
37
] (p. 275). Howe e , he shee
ange and scale o he i age makes i di icul o conse e and p omo e, pa icula ly i he economic
esou ces a e limi ed [
38
]. No is his aided by he con usion be ween he no ions o esou ce and
p oduc ( he la e mee ing demand and ha ing a p ice) [
37
]. The p ocess by which he i age esou ces
in u al a eas a e con e ed in o ou ism p oduc s needs o be loca ed in a pos -Fo dis con ex [
39
]. I is
a p ocess which, since he ea ly 1990s and as ecognised by ICOMOS [
40
], has wi nessed an expansion
in o he cul u al space [41].
The conjunc ion o cul u al he i age and ou ism has been widely s udied [
41
–
43
], as i opens up
possibili ies o he economic de elopmen o places wi h a dep h o he i age, al hough a he same
ime i c ea es challenges o he managemen o a ac ions [
43
,
44
]. Such is i s impo ance ha i is
ins i u ionalised in public policy and local de elopmen [
45
], c ea ing an in e dependence be ween
he i age conse a ion and he de elopmen o ou ism [
42
], al hough his ela ionship is no wi hou
con adic ions and con lic s [
43
]. In his manne , bo h posi i e and nega i e e ec s de i e om he
conjunc ion, mos o which a e common o u al and he i age ou ism.
In eg a ed u al ou ism (IRT) is an app oach ha seeks o a oid, o a leas o mi iga e, he
p oblems associa ed wi h ou ism in u al a eas. In his endogenous model, local ac o s a e impo an
because hey “bene i om policies ha empowe hem and enhance hei long- e m well-being” [
4
]
(p. 363). By con as , cul u al ou ism is p omo ed as a means o economic and social di e si ica ion [
29
].
Howe e , in e ms o he ins i u ional con ex , he managemen o he i age di e s om hose
o ganisa ions ha ega d esou ces mo e as asse s o ou ism [
42
]. The emphasis is on p o ec ing and
p ese ing he i age a he han ensu ing ha i e u ns a p o i [
43
] (p. 33). In o de o sa is y ad oca es
o hese opposing pe spec i es, i is necessa y o in es iga e poin s o con ac be ween hem [43].
O undamen al impo ance o planning ou ism is he coo dina ion and collabo a ion be ween
s akeholde s [
46
–
48
], essen ial o which is he collabo a i e ocus a all le els be ween hose esponsible
o managing he i age and all ha goes wi h i , and hose esponsible o ou ism and all i s
esou ces [
43
]. All in e es ed pa ies should be in ol ed in he p ocess [
49
], as success depends
on hei commi men . Fu he , acco ding o communi y pa icipa ion heo y, he inclusion o local
esiden s in he decision-making p ocess is also impo an [
43
], as hei in ol emen in he de elopmen
o p ojec s has a signi ican impac [46,50]. The e is, oo, he issue o leade ship and he delega ion o
esponsibili ies among he s akeholde s [
47
] in de e mining he social ela ionships unde lying he
cons uc ion o a ou is e i o y [
51
]. The ela ionship be ween managemen and sus ainable ou ism
should also be aken in o accoun [52].
In his ega d, he case s udy o he own o M
é
ola (Baixo Alen ejo, Po ugal) is pa icula ly
ele an as i embodies he elemen s and p ocesses discussed abo e. I is a small own wi h a popula ion
o a ound 6000, loca ed in a u al a ea, which has been in demog aphic and economic decline since he
middle o he 20 h cen u y due o he loss o adi ional p ima y ac i i ies (see Sec ion 2.2). In 1978,
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 4 o 27
a p ocess o ma kedly ideological he i agisa ion was ini ia ed o s imula e local de elopmen , which
was supplan ed a he beginning o he 21s cen u y by a p ojec o expand ou ism.
The main objec i e o his pape was o ca y ou a diach onic s udy in o he p ocesses in ol ed
in he i agisa ion, om a ou ism and local de elopmen pe spec i e, and o unde ake an analysis
o hei social, poli ical, and ins i u ional con ex s [
53
]. The s udy ocused on a singula loca ion in
he u al pe iphe y, which has been o e laid, like a palimpses , wi h an a chaeological and ma e ial
concep ion o he i age, o eg ounding local esou ces as elemen s o iden i y and awa eness o he
pas . Gi en he need o seek o he al e na i es o ackle he s uc u al c isis, a p ocess o ou ism
alo isa ion was chosen in he leas ou is ic a ea o Po ugal. The e o e, hese p ocesses in he u al
con ex we e analysed. Analysis o he p ocesses in ol ed in his shi o u al ou ism includes he
oles and backg ound o he s akeholde s; he measu es, ins umen s, and ac ions implemen ed in
he cou se o he i agisa ion and implan a ion o cul u al ou ism; and a c i ical assessmen o he
successes, ailu es, esul s, and o e all impac . Conside a ion was also gi en o he lessons ha could
be d awn om he Museum Town o M
é
ola p ojec , and which can be ans e ed o o he loca ions
wi h signi ican cul u al he i age and commi ed in ol emen o he s akeholde s.
2. Me hodology and Case S udy
2.1. Da a and Me hods
S udying local de elopmen h ough he complex ela ionships be ween he i age/ ou ism and he
s akeholde s is bes achie ed by use o a case s udy app oach, by means o collec ing in-dep h da a om
a a ie y o sou ces [
54
]. The pa adigm has been widely applied o s udies o ou ism [
55
], in pa icula
he p ocesses and managemen o he i agisa ion [
56
], oles and ela ionships be ween s akeholde s
and go e nance [
11
,
28
,
43
,
57
,
58
], local/ u al de elopmen and ou ism [
25
,
59
], and ou ism in he
pe iphe y [18,29].
The me hodology employed was quali a i e, based on in e iews in ended o colla e di e en
opinions and pe cep ions om he p incipal ac o s [
57
]; o iden i y social ne wo ks and espec i e
powe s uc u es [
60
]; and o de e mine he e ec s o he i agisa ion, he o eg ounding o ou ism,
and he p oblems de i ing om hese p ocesses [
29
,
57
]. The in e iews we e semi-s uc u ed [
61
],
consis ing o open ques ions, which allowed o dig ession in o ela ed opics o in e es [
62
], enabling
us o ob ain in o ma ion on di e en opics (Table 1). In o al i e in e iews we e conduc ed wi h
ac o s in ol ed in he p ocesses o he i agisa ion and he p omo ion o ou ism:
•
In e iew 1 (he eina e In 1): poli ical ep esen a i e o he Town Council, ice p esiden o he
Mé ola Municipal Chambe (he eina e CMM).
•
In e iew 2 (he eina e In 2): museology and he i age specialis o he CMM; also a membe o
he Mé ola A chaeological Si e (he eina e CAM).
•In e iew 3 (he eina e In 3): a chaeologis , di ec o and he ounde o he CAM.
•
In e iew 4 (he eina e In 4): a chaeologis , co-di ec o o he CAM, esponsible o managemen
o CAM.
•In e iew 5 (he eina e In 5): local business woman, ep esen a i e o he ou ism sec o .
The da a ob ained om he in e iews we e complemen ed by in ensi e e i o ial econnaissance
( alua ion o he he i age en i onmen , accessibili y s udy, in o mal in e iews wi h local business in e es s
and esiden s) and seconda y sou ces cen ed on: (a) he i age cha ac e isa ion, he he i agisa ion p ocess,
and ou ism p omo ion in M
é
ola, based bo h on he published sou ces and he planning documen s);
(b) he p e alen discou ses in he conjunc ion o he i age and ou ism, bo h in published and unpublished
esea ch on M
é
ola; (c) o icial s a is ical in o ma ion o analysing esul s (S a is ics Po ugal, he eina e
INE) and o icial da abases (Na ional Tou ism Regis e , he eina e RNT) [63].
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 5 o 27
Table 1. Ques ions o he in e iew.
Block o
Ques ions Ques ions Ob ained In o ma ion
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
All in e iewees
He i age, ou ism, o de elopmen idea
Tou ism managemen , o ganisa ion, and planning
P ojec objec i es wi h he e e ence o he Mé ola Vila Museu P ojec
Managemen o ins umen s and ools
P ojec unding
Pa icipa ing ac o s and/o cha ac e is ics
Role o local popula ion
Valua ion o esou ces
He i age, ou ism, o de elopmen diagnosis
Coope a ion, pa icipa ion, and compe i ion
Models consul ed
P omo ion s a egies
P oposals
Fo companies
Company da a, cha ac e is ics, and senio i y
T aining, bo h o employe s and employees
O igin o a company
Employmen gene a ed
Topics o in o ma ion: 1: p ocesses; 2: he i age and/o ou ism ela ionships; 3: implemen a ion o ini ia i es,
measu es, ins umen s, and ac ions; 4: ac o s in ol ed; 5: objec i es; 6: esul s and/o impac s; 7: sus ainable
ou ism and/o local de elopmen .
2.2. Case S udy: Mé ola
The municipali y o M
é
ola is loca ed in he SW o he Ibe ian Peninsula, in he Beja dis ic
(Baixo Alen ejo p o ince) o Po ugal (Figu e 1). I is he six h la ges municipali y in Po ugal,
a 1293 km2, and is di ided in o 7 smalle a eas o “ eguesías”, conside ed as pa ishes (Figu e 1).
Figu e 1. A ea o he s udy, loca ion, and he adminis a i e s uc u e.
I is a pe iphe al a ea, whose bo de land s a us has caused he c isis o be keenly el [
64
]. Due o
he ac ha he land is unsui able o a able a ming, he main adi ional ac i i ies ha e been o es y,
animal husband y, and hun ing, dis ibu ed among la ge p i a e es a es. In 1995, he Guadiana Valley
Na u al Pa k (he eina e PNVG), co e ing 47.39% o he municipali y, was c ea ed o p o ec i s
ou s anding na u al beau y and ecological weal h (Figu e 1).
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 6 o 27
Closu e o he mines and he ag icul u al c isis in he mid-20 h cen u y p ecipi a ed a pe iod o
decline and u al exodus. In 2018, he e we e 6202 esiden s, a loss o 76.17% o he 1960 o al. I is also
an aging popula ion (58.59%
≥
65), wi h a e y low demog aphic densi y (4.80 inhabi an s/km
2
) [
65
]
dispe sed o e 98 popula ion nuclei [66].
M
é
ola is equidis an (120 km) om he owns o Fa o (Po ugal) and Huel a (Spain), and likewise
om he majo ci ies o Lisbon and Se ille (220 km). The nea es sizeable own is Beja (53 km) (Figu e 1).
Inc eased oad connec i i y om he mid-20 h cen u y onwa ds caused he demise o i e anspo ,
elega ing he own e en u he o he backwa e s, al hough imp o ed access o he Alga e and
Spain a he beginning o he 21s cen u y wen some way o coun e ac his.
The Alen ejo is he leas isi ed egion o Po ugal [
30
], especially Baixo Alen ejo (Table 2),
which has seen e y li le in es men . In spi e o his, he e a e se e al a ac ions in M
é
ola wo hy o
ou is in e es , in he o m o cul u al he i age, e.g., “ ila” o M
é
ola as he museum own; he na u al
en i onmen (PNVG); and indus ial he i age, such as he S
ã
o Domingos Mine, a disused open-cas
‘Vic o ian’ coppe mine on he wes e n inges o he Ibe ian Py i e Bel (Figu e 1).
Table 2. Tou ism impo ance in Po ugal, Baixo Alen ejo, and Alen ejo (2018).
Te i o ial Scope Gues s (To al) Gues s (% o he
Na ional To al)
Lodging Capaci y
(To al)
Lodging Capaci y (% o
he Na ional To al)
Baixo Alen ejo 202,534 0.80 3010 0.71
Alen ejo 1,470,950 5.83 23,852 5.64
Po ugal 25,249,904 100.00 423,152 100.00
Sou ce [67].
The own o M
é
ola i sel is a walled hill op ci y on he igh bank o he Guadiana Ri e (Figu e 2),
he choice o loca ion being de e mined by i s na igabili y, namely a 72 km om he i e mou h,
de ensibili y, abundance o wa e , and polyme allic deposi s [68]. Wi hin he walls, he own is oday
ypical o mode n Po uguese a chi ec u al s yle o e an Islamic s a um [
69
] o conside able his o ic
and aes he ic in e es [
69
]. This he i age began o be alued a he end o he 1970s in he o m o he
“M
é
ola Museum Town” p ojec , and since he s a o he new millennium, he ou ism dimension has
been o eg ounded. In 2017, M
é
ola was added o Po ugal’s Ten a i e Lis (TL) (This should no be
con used wi h UNESCO’s “Wo ld He i age Lis ” (he eina e WHL) o si es wi h Wo ld He i age s a us.
The “Ten a i e Lis ” is he esul o UNESCO’s ecommenda ion o membe S a es o “submi hei
Ten a i e Lis s, p ope ies which hey conside o be cul u al and/o na u al he i age o ou s anding
uni e sal alue and he e o e sui able o insc ip ion on he Wo ld He i age Lis .” [
70
]. Inclusion on
he Ten a i e Lis is a p e equisi e o being decla ed a Wo ld He i age Si e, bu does no gua an ee
insc ip ion on he WHL.) o inclusion on he Wo ld He i age Lis .
Figu e 2.
View o he own o M
é
ola om he le bank o he Guadiana i e . The wall, he Mo he
Chu ch, and he cas le can be obse ed.
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 7 o 27
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Ac ions Towa ds he P o ec ion, He i agisa ion and Enhancemen o Tou ism
Th ee buildings in M
é
ola ha e been decla ed na ional monumen s: he chu ch ‘Ig eja Ma iz’
(Almohad mosque (12 h cen u y), cons uc ed on an ea ly Ch is ian chu ch (6 h cen u y),
and consec a ed a e he Reconquis a (13 h cen u y) [
71
]) and he ‘To e del Rio’(ancien wha
and o i ied po s uc u e (5 h cen u y), unique in Po ugal, con olling access o he po and he
mo emen o goods [
69
]) (misleadingly known as he ‘Old B idge’ in English, hough i is nei he a
owe no a b idge), bo h in 1910, and he ‘Cas elo de M
é
ola’( he Muslim o ess (12 h cen u y) was
emodelleda e heCh is ianReconquis a (13 h cen u y)[
68
])in1951[
72
](Figu e3). Thesedecla a ions
o asse s ha e no gene a ed in e en ions o led o a plan o p o ec hese o be se [73].
Figu e 3.
The ch onology o he main miles ones, p ocesses, and poli ical con ex o he he i agisa ion
and i s alue o ou ism.
The i s democ a ic municipal elec ions in M
é
ola (1976) b ough he Po uguese Communis
Pa y (he eina e PCP) (The pa y con inues o ake a ole in local coali ions o his day.) o powe , and
he new Mayo se abou eco e ing he own’s his o ical, cul u al, and na u al he i age [
74
], wi h he
guidance o esea che s om he Uni e si y o Lisbon [75].
In 1980, he no - o -p o i “M
é
ola He i age P ese a ion Associa ion” (he eina e ADPM) was
es ablished wi h he aim o conse ing and p omo ing he own’s he i age [
76
]. Facing he need o
in es in in as uc u e and se ices, he municipal au ho i y delega ed his ole o he ADPM, bo h
pa ies sha ing poli ical and ideological a ini ies [
75
]. In 1988, p ojec s being unde aken na ionally
we e equi ed by he ADPM o be spli in wo, esul ing in he “M
é
ola A chaeological Si e” (CAM)
being o med o deal wi h he ma e ial cul u al he i age, while he ADPM ook esponsibili y o he
na u al and e hnog aphic he i age.
The specialis scien i ic suppo supplied by CAM o he he i agisa ion s a egy was channelled
h ough he “M
é
ola Museum Town P ojec ” (he eina e PMVM) [
73
]. Acco ding o his plan,
he ‘ ila’, o gi e he own i s his o ical appella ion, was concei ed o as an open-ai museum [
76
],
inco po a ing a weal h o a chaeological and a chi ec u al elemen s in o a ou e a ound he cen e [
73
].
In his way he en i e y o he own was deemed a single esou ce [
77
] (p. 236), g adually inco po a ing
new elemen s, such as he nodal poin s o he museum, in o he whole (Figu e 4). Whe e e possible,
hese nodal poin s a e housed in es o ed buildings [
77
] a he si e o he a chaeological inds [
75
]
(Figu e 5).
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 8 o 27
Figu e 4. Museum cen es o he Mé ola Museum and u ban ou es. Sou ce: [72,78–80].
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 9 o 27
Figu e 5.
Images A and B show a chaeological in e en ion o he ea ly Ch is ian emple in he
basemen o he Ig eja Ma iz (E-S side), 28 Decembe 2004 (
A
) and 4 Feb ua y 2013 (
B
). The nodal
poin o he museum (
C
), seen om he basemen , and in e p e a ion o he emains inside (
D
,
E
),
8 Ap il 2016. The images highligh he eno mous wo k o he i agisa ion, i s slowness, and i s cos .
In 2002, a e 25 yea s o PCP ascendency, he Socialis Pa y (he eina e PS) came o powe in he
CMM and a pe iod o eg ounding he alue o ou ism o M
é
ola’s he i age was ini ia ed. This p ocess
was based on he conse a ion and eco e y o he i age (in ol ing high cos s and low p o i s).
Al hough i s museological unde pinnings we e ini ia ed yea s ea lie , he Museum o M
é
ola
was o mally es ablished in 2004 by he CMM, in esponse o abno mali ies in he managemen
s uc u e, which p e en ed i s inclusion in he Po uguese Museum Ne wo k [
73
], wi h scien i ic
specialis esponsibili y being delega ed o he CAM [
78
]. E o s o di e si y he ange o o e s om
he museum we e se in mo ion om 2006 (Figu e 4). In 2001 ( ha is, be o e he poli ical shi o powe
in municipali y), he Islamic Fes i al o M
é
ola (he eina e FIM) was inaugu a ed, o ganised by he
CAM unde he auspices o he CMM. A biennial es i al aking place o e 3–4 days in May. Wi h he
accession o he PS, he FIM became an impo an elemen in ge ing he own no iced on he ou is
ci cui , wi h he help o media p omo ions and links o simila e en s [73].
The ou ism-o ien ed he i age o ganised wi hin he own included guided isi s and hemed
walks a ound he cen e, leading om node o node o he ou doo museum (Figu e 4). The ou es we e
managed by he Tou is In o ma ion Cen e, which was dependen on he CMM [
81
], in collabo a ion
wi h he CAM.
Nex , 2004 saw he c ea ion o Me u is, a publicly owned en e p ise wi h he objec i e o
making he mos o ou ism oppo uni ies wi h he municipali y h ough he de elopmen o
p oduc s, he p ojec ion o an image, and he implan a ion o s a egies o a ac , incen i ize,
and e ain ou ism-o ien ed businesses, which would consequen ly p o ide local employmen [
82
].
Public company audi ing by he Po uguese go e nmen led o i s dissolu ion in 2015, wi hou ha ing
achie ed i s objec i es.
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 16 o 27
Figu e 14.
Alcazaba o M
é
ola ( he nodal poin o he museum). The Exca a ion o he Islamic Qua e
wi h he cas le and he Towe o T ibu e in he backg ound (
A
) and he in e p e a ion signage (
B
),
9 Feb ua y 2019. The in e en ion o consolida e he bap ismal complex (
C
) and he in e p e a ion
signage (
D
), 8 Ap il 2016. The images show he g ea space o in e en ion and he p ocess o
conse a ion o he a chaeological he i age.
Al hough he museum was doub lessly he maximum exp ession o he i agisa ion, and he ila as
i s mos impo an esou ce, om a isi o ’s pe spec i e, i was ecognised as o limi ed in e es [
91
],
wi h p ese a ion and esea ch aking p ecedence o e ou ism [
29
] (Figu e 14). I did, howe e ,
embody a a ie y o di e se pe spec i es, pa icula ly socio-cul u al, eligious, mili a y, and o he
ac i i ies, such as a esea ch cen e and adi ional c a s, which, conside ed join ly, enhanced i s
po en ial as he ou ism a ac ion [
41
]. The es ablishmen o hese ou es a ound own helped o
ein o ce he idea o a uni ied collec ion o elemen s [
92
], al hough hei physical dispe sion made i
di icul o in eg a e all o hem in o a whole.
The FIM has p oposed as an inno a i e e en , in line wi h au hen ici y, o p omo e Islamic he i age
and local his o y [
93
,
94
], h ough a se ies o cul u al and a is ic ac i i ies and scien i ic con e ences,
all o which we e held wi hin he own walls o e i alize he his o ic cen e and in ol e esiden s.
Communi y-based e en s such as his a e impo an o he li e o pe iphe al a eas [
29
,
95
], and can
become impo an cul u al a ac ions [41], capable o a ac ing mo e han 20,000 isi o s.
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 17 o 27
Me u is has no achie ed i s objec i es, and Visi M
é
ola, dedica ed o all ou is ac i i ies in
he municipali y, has no managed o inc ease he necessa y pa icipa ion o p i a e capi al in he
p omo ion [
96
] o public–p i a e collabo a ion [
58
], no has i c ea ed a unique image o he des ina ion
o he b and [97,98].
Finally, in he p epa a ion o i s candidacy ha ollowed, he own pu sued i s bid o become
a WHS in he hope ha such a decla a ion would kick-s a ou ism in he a ea [
99
]. The iew o
he CAM was he app oach ha ep esen ed a poli ical p ojec ela ed o he p omo ion, a he han
echnical ma e s (In 2, In 4), and poin ed ou he lack o a s a egy, whils acknowledging i s po en ial.
3.4. Posi ions Indica ed Among S akeholde s
Each o he ac o s has hei own and “cons uc ed eali y” [
100
] (p. 79) in e es s [
46
], gi en oice
by he p e ailing discou se and shaped by a ep esen a i e amewo k [
101
]: he CAM akes a
conse a ionis posi ion, while he CMM ollows a mo e comme cial iew. In sho , he con lic ing
in e es s ep esen he classic ade-o be ween he i age, conse a ion o cu a o ship, and ou ism [
43
].
Each discou se aligns i sel wi h pa icula ideological p ojec s and modes o unde s anding he
p og ess, especially he i agisa ion in e ms o he sa egua ding he cul u al iden i y o he local
inhabi an s and he p omo ion o ou ism ha b ing angible economic bene i s o he local popula ion.
Fo he CAM, hei conse a ionis posi ion is mo i a ed by ideological belie s clus e ed a ound
collec i ism and egali a ianism [
73
]. Bo h public (CMM) and p i a e (CAM/ADPM) ini ia i es should
be aligned on issues o cul u al iden i y [
102
], o which he i agisa ion is he means o con ibu e
o “communi y de elopmen ”. In his iew, cul u al alues should always p e ail and he ene s
o ou ism a e dispa aged as comme cialism, whe e p o i is p ized abo e he inhe en alue o
he i age [
103
], and he e is a eluc ance o ix p ices [
42
,
104
]. Al hough his discou se has de eloped
o e ime [
75
], ou ism emains a esul a he han an end in i sel , some hing ha could con ibu e o
main aining he local inhabi an s [
73
] and hei iden i y [
89
,
102
]. The in e es s o he CAM a e no in
ou ism bu in he i agisa ion. Howe e , as his needs o be inanced (In 2), hey op o small-scale
ini ia i es “so as o a oid mul ina ional ho el chains” [89] (p. 1).
By con as , he comme cialis discou se o he CMM is linked o a iew o local de elopmen as a
coming oge he o endogenous and exogenous, public and p i a e o ces—endogenous ounda ions
wi h an ou wa ds p ojec ion ocusing on sea ching o in es o s and inance. The emphasis is on
ou ism as gene a o o weal h, wi h he ole o he CMM being ha o cu a ing and p omo ing,
while p i a e en e p ises ake esponsibili y o ou ism ini ia i es. In his ision, ou ism becomes a
de elopmen s a egy o s imula ing cash low and b inging in su icien e u ns o inance he i age
conse a ion, bu always on he p inciple ha he “use pays” [
42
]. Ne e heless, he ou ism- ocused
iew o de elopmen “ uns he isk o neglec ing o he impo an ac o s and p ocesses” [
26
] (p. 740).
Al hough poli icians insis ha ou ism could educe egional dispa i ies, expec a ions end o be
o e -op imis ic [18,30].
The CMM’s local policies ega ding he p ocess [
82
] ha e gene a ed in o mal ag eemen s be ween
public and p i a e ac o s, wi h hegemonic discou ses ha “can cons i u e a ‘ egime’ ha in u n
shapes local policy-making” [
58
] (p. 25). A balance needs o be eached be ween he policies o
he i agisa ion and ou ism wi hou losing sigh o he issue o sus ainable g ow h [
105
] and c ea i e
cons uc ion/des uc ion [106].
S akeholde s can play a signi ican ole. They can become empowe ed and imp o e well-being
o e he long- e m [
4
], acqui ing agency as a esul o hei own in luence and h ough he ela ionships
de eloped among hemsel es [
47
,
99
]. Collabo a ion be ween s akeholde s has hus become a majo
issue [49].
The main s akeholde s in he he i agisa ion p ocess a e he CMM and he CAM, also p e iously
known as he ADPM. They ac a he same le el, each has i s a ea o expe ise, bu hey sha e he
same discou se, ideological p og amme, and in e es s, in which he p inciples o coope a ion [
46
] and
collabo a ion [
27
,
107
] a e pa amoun . An ea ly issue was ha o leade ship [
108
], a ole ini ially illed
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 18 o 27
by he i s democ a ically elec ed mayo (In 3, In 4), who ca ied ou he ole o managing ela ionships
be ween he in e es ed pa ies [
4
]. A e he dea h o he mayo in 1982, he ADPM, eplaced by he
CAM in 1988 and he ea e , ook on he scien i ic and in ellec ual leade ship, hei au ho i y being
ecognised by he CMM. The coope a ion success ully ini ia ed a la ge-scale p ocess o he i agisa ion
(PMVM).
When he socialis s we e o ed in o go e n he CMM in 2002, he con lic ing pe cep ions and
issues o discou se [
57
,
101
] be ween he poli ical pa ies and hei leade s (In 2) p oduced a i . This led
o a change in ela ions be ween he agencies, and hie a chies began o appea h ough he CMM,
aking o e he leade ship alongside i al ies and disag eemen s [
57
]. In 2004, he CMM pu in o ac ion
a plan o ampli y he numbe o s akeholde s o include Me u is and he Se
ã
o Ma ins Founda ion
(a ounda ion se up o he conse a ion and p ojec ion o he S
ã
o Domingos Mine isi o cen e, which
is a sho d i e om M
é
ola.), limi ing he powe o he CAM/ADPM and ac ing as a coun e weigh .
A he same ime, he CMM enla ged i s own powe by aking o e he unning o he M
é
ola Museum,
albei de e ing o he au ho i y o he CAM in scien i ic ma e s (In 4). These ensions mani es ed
hemsel es in he in e up ion o he he i agisa ion p ocess, he hal o he aining p og amme, and
he poo ou comes in e ms o ou ism.
When, in 2008, he socialis mayo le he pos , con ac be ween he CMM and CAM/ADPM was
esumed, and al hough he e emained a gap be ween hei iewpoin s, “ he e was a new injec ion
o li e in he he i age ques ion” (In 4). The app ochemen be ween he wo sides ein igo a ed
pe o mance and he achie emen o objec i es [
43
,
47
], eac i a ing he p ocesses o he i agisa ion and
p omo ion o ou ism, and se ing in mo ion again he aining p og amme unde he s ewa dship o
a new en i y, named as he ALSUD T aining School [
109
]. The enewed impe us o a ac ou ism
b ough a new s akeholde in o he ame, he Associa ion o Business Owne s (In 5).
C i icism o he leading igu es wi hin he CMM by he CAM includes “no being up o he ask (...)
conse a ion is no a cou se o ac ion” (In 2) and “wan ing o li e only o ou is s” (In 4). The CAM
also unde lines ha “ he CMM shouldn’ be doing e e y hing (...) and he p i a e sec o [ e e ing o
he CAM/ADPM] should also be a pa o hings” (In 2). Fo i s pa , he CMM main ains ha “ he
p ima y objec i e is he scien i ic [he i agisa ion], on he basis o which ou ism can be de eloped, and
hen in i s u n local de elopmen ” (In 1). The discou se does no a emp o delegi imize he CAM;
i ecognises i s expe ise and good p ac ice [
83
] and i s au ho i y in scien i ic ma e s (In 1), bu i
claims o he CMM a ole in he managemen and p omo ion o ou ism, and, gi en he simila i ies
wi h elec o al campaigning, he p ojec ion o he own o he wide wo ld (In 1).
The ac o s we e awa e o he dange s inhe en in a lack o coo dina ion and collabo a ion, and
ecognised pa isanship as he main obs acle o achie ing his [
83
]. I was clea ha s a egies o
imp o ing ela ions we e needed [
46
], along wi h a ne wo k o acili a ing decision-making in ma e s
conce ning he de elopmen o ou ism [
110
,
111
], bu nei he side, i seemed, was willing o ake he i s
s ep owa ds opening up he dialogue [
43
]. The business sec o sensed a poli ical/ideological impasse
which “mean ha [ ou ism] didn’ wo k” (In 5). Acco ding o Da Rosa [
109
], ac o s hemsel es should
no be o eg ounded bu a he he esul o hei collabo a ion and he ins ance he ecommenda ion
ell on dea ea s [
51
]. In some cases, such as ha o he FIM, he exis ence o common in e es s
s eng hened ela ionships, bu in o he s, such as ha o he LIPMP p ojec , i ampli ied i al ies [
58
].
One hing ha appea ed in he objec i es and discou se o mo e han one o he ac o s (In 1, In 3)
was he impo ance o he pa icipa ion o local esiden s, gi en ha his was conside ed c ucial o
he whole p ocess o de elopmen , and a means o a oiding con lic and b inging s abili y o he
p ojec s [
112
,
113
]. I lay a he hea o he ques ion o iden i y and was conside ed o be closely
connec ed o educa ion and awa eness (In 1, In 2, In 4), and o ein o cing he communi y’s con idence
o manage i s he i age [
43
,
112
]. A he s a o he he i agisa ion p ocess, he poli ical a ini ies o hose
in ol ed led o he in ol emen o young people in he p ojec [
75
], and hei pa icipa ion in he
ADPM/CAM (In 4), which can be iewed as kinds o “communi y he i age g oups” [
56
] (p. 459). In ac ,
Dua e [
73
] unde lined local empowe men in wo espec s: (a) he di e si ica ion o cul u al acili ies
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 19 o 27
and (b) he implemen a ion o mechanisms o he p omo ion and pa icipa ion o di e en social
agen s. Despi e his, s a ing om 2002, a g adual disa ec ion o he locals wi h he a chaeological
ac i i y, he he i age, and museums began o be no ed [
73
,
109
]. The CAM pu his shi down o “a
depa u e om he o iginal idea on he pa o he PS” (In 4), while he CMM blamed i on he ac ha
he esul s o he p ocess we e no su icien ly isible [
83
]. A deepe look a he causes is equi ed in
e ms o discou se, un ul illed expec a ions, and s akeholde a i ude, among o he s.
The he i agisa ion p ocess included ce ain objec i es s a ed in he PMVM, bu he CMM did no
de elop any speci ic objec i es o s eng hening ou ism beyond “local de elopmen ”. The e was
no plan ou lining he s a egies o be ollowed, as es i ied by he absence o an o icial he i age
decla a ion o he complex and he exis ence o a Plano de Sal agua da e Valo iç
â
o do Cen o
His
ó
ico da Vila de M
é
ola [
114
], a own planning documen , e ised in 2017, in which he ocus
was solely on housing- ela ed ma e s. In o de o c ea e a model o go e nance ha enhances
ou ism sus ainabili y while mi iga ing nega i e e ec s [
15
], de eloping iable and empo ally and
en i onmen ally sus ainable a ac ions [
6
] i is necessa y o de ine objec i es, o mula e s a egies [
57
],
and implemen measu es and ac ions h ough a pa icipa i e p ocess. Such a model would also
enable he sea ch o inance o pallia e he nega i e e ec s o pe iphe ali y [
6
], a he same ime
ha inno a ions in he ou ism sec o gene a ed new in e ac ions and imp o ed ela ions be ween
s akeholde s, implemen ing ins i u ional changes [
11
]. The inclusion on he LIPMP could con ibu e o
his, al hough i would equi e a ho ough u he s udy.
3.5. The Successes, Failu es, Resul s, and O e all Impac o he P ocesses
Theinc easein he numbe o he isi o s o he M
é
olaMuseum (Figu e6)indica esi s impo ance
and consolida ion as a he i age des ina ion [
29
]. While he con on a ion be ween CAM and CMM has
caused s agna ion (2004–2008), la e , as he collabo a ion esumed, g ow h has been obse ed once
again [
27
,
107
]. Al hough he e was no inc ease in he numbe o he museum isi s due o i s inclusion
in he LIPMP, he e was an inc ease in he numbe o gues s s ays (Figu e 7).
Tou is ac i i y indica es a ce ain ma ked seasonali y, as de ec ed in o he pe iphe al spaces [
29
]
wi h o e nigh s ays concen a ed in summe (38.3% in 2018) and May in FIM yea s, complica ing
business iabili y [
12
]. None heless, he e a e mo e inciden al ips wi h a pu pose [
29
], as shown by
he inc ease o o e nigh s ays in he ecen yea s (Figu e 7). Howe e , he o ganisa ion o indi idual
a el and he p edominance o he use o one’s own ca [
33
,
115
] de e mined connec i i y and dis ance
o be key ac o s [
29
] wi h a p edominance o na ional ou ism and on he bo de s, especially on he
Spanish side.
When he PMVM was ini ia ed, he e has been no ou is o e in he municipali y o M
é
ola.
The opening o ou is accommoda ion in he own has opened since 2008, coinciding wi h he
ees ablishmen o he con ac s be ween CMM and CAM. Mos o he openings coincided wi h FIM
yea s. The yea 2018 p o ided he u ning poin due o he expec a ions gene a ed by he inclusion
o he illage in he LIPMP. The p esence o di e en ypes o accommoda ion demons a es an
adap a ion o di e en ma ke s [
24
], howe e , accommoda ion wi hou in e na ionally ecognised
quali y s anda ds p edomina es [27].
In o de o a ac and e ain isi o s, and so gene a e income, i is impo an o be able o o e a
ange o ac i i ies [
116
]. This o e has appea ed since 2004 as a esul o he Me u is ac i i y, while
enhancing he compe i ion o p i a e businesses (In 5). Once again he e ec o he yea s in which he
FIM ook place can be seen in he inc eased demand, alongside he impac o inclusion on he LIPMP,
speci ically, he ounding o wo companies in 2017.
Gas onomy is a i al ac o in u al and cul u al des ina ions [
117
]. The o e o M
é
ola is boos ed
h ough a ic b eaking up he jou ney a oadside es ablishmen s [
29
], which again in oduces he
p oblem o seasonali y.
The ins i u ional con ex is iewed a ou ably as a key o de elopmen by he companies (In 5),
which highligh he p omo ional e o s o he CMM and he simpli ica ion o adminis a i e and
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 20 o 27
legisla i e p ocedu es. En ep eneu ship, which is dominan and mo e dynamic compa ed o he
o he ypes o business, has been d i ing he ange o ac i i ies a ailable based on leade ship, and
opening up new oppo uni ies in he ela i ely unde de eloped u al ou ism sec o [
118
], whe e
he e is a li le business cul u e [
12
]. Ne e heless, a he ime o w i ing, some 51.72% o business
olume connec ed wi h accommoda ion and ac i i ies was concen a ed in he hands o ou g oups,
namely wo en ep eneu s wi h a a ie y o en u es, a ho el company, and a o eign-owned eal
es a e business.
The si ua ion o dep i ed a eas on he pe iphe y make a low o in es men necessa y [
119
]
in a sec o o high cos s and low e u ns [
12
], and whe e he local public ini ia i e ocuses on
e i aliza ion/p omo ion (In 1). Financial and specialis echnical suppo is essen ial in he long
e m [12,27] o a oid/limi he ing ess o capi al om ou side.
Acco ding o he head o ices o he companies in ol ed, ou side in es men in local eal
es a e has been g owing o e he las ew yea s, which has had a nega i e e ec on capi al
accumula ion [
18
]. In addi ion, he g ow h in online pla o ms o managing accommoda ion is
displacing local in ol emen , o he de imen o he a ailable op ions [
120
], and deple ing he alue
added. On he plus side, he pla o ms make he p ocess o booking u al loca ions a easie , bu he
dominance o ex e nal ope a o s emains a challenge [12].
The he i age and ou ism ep esen di ec and indi ec employmen oppo uni ies, as well as
sel -employmen [
22
], one o he chie objec i es o u al ou ism [
118
], bu he s uc u e o ou ism may
no be so a ac i e o he local popula ion [
12
] due o he limi ed numbe o jobs i c ea es. Jobs a e being
c ea ed wi hin he sec o , a he same ime ha he p ima y sec o wo k o ce is diminishing [
29
], wi h
an a e age o 1.53 wo ke s pe company, al hough his a ies acco ding o he ype o es ablishmen
and i s capaci y.
Employmen in his sec o is especially suscep ible o he e ec s o seasonali y [
95
], which can
be pa icula ly el in he smalle companies [
121
]. P oblems connec ed o he lack o a business
cul u e and a p e ailing ag icul u al men ali y can also be no ed (In 4, In 5), and he e a e human
esou ces ec ui men p oblems (In 5). Ano he p oblem ha has been no ed is he up oo ing o
he wo k o ce [
15
], as many companies a e con olled by ex e nal g oups, al hough hey do c ea e
employmen . The a ailable da a do no indica e whe he i is among he mos disad an aged g oups
ha employmen is c ea ed [
122
], whe he he e is any hidden employmen , and wha he epe cussions
a e o he labou ma ke and unemploymen . Explo ing hese issues would inc ease ou unde s anding
o he p ocesses o local de elopmen and powe ela ionships [123].
Ru al ou ism is concei ed o a means o a ac ing and ancho ing a s able popula ion [
6
,
9
,
18
,
29
].
The slowdown o decline may be ela ed o he dynamism o ou ism and he aining e o s p o ided
by EPJBC and ALSUD has pa ly p o ided he possibili y o ill in he lack o essen ial necessa y
skills [
12
]. None heless, i is necessa y o inc ease quali ied employmen in ou ism business o a oid
depopula ion p ocesses.
While ou ism has allowed he his o ic cen e o gain in e es wi h he ehabili a ion o adi ional
buildings (In 2, In 4) as ou is accommoda ion (13) and second homes [
85
,
124
,
125
], i has esul ed in
i s depopula ion and he ou is i ica ion p ocesses [
85
]. As a esul , he gen i ica ion p ocess has been
summed up wi h he ghe i ica ion (In 5) due o he municipal policy gene a ing a complex balance
ci cums ances. The e is a isk o heming, such as can be obse ed in o he comp ehensi e he i age
p ojec s, such as ha o Óbidos [73].
Among he posi i e cul u al impac s ha a e wo h no ing a e he eapp aisal o he own’s
he i age, which had been los o unde alued [
126
], he cul u al capi al [
127
], and he au hen ici y and
p ese ing o iden i y [
73
,
128
,
129
]. Howe e , he deg ee o au hen ici y in he p ocess o o eg ounding
ou ism should be iden i ied as “a ac ion-based iden i y” [
130
]. The disc epancies be ween he p ojec
and local esiden s is leading o he “delibe a e” cons uc ion o adap a ion o iden i y a ound he
cul u al expe ience [
130
] (p. 39), p io i ising wha he ou is a imes pe cei ed, i.e., banalia ion,
compa ed o wha he he i age migh uly be. A clea example o his is he FIM, which mixes
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 21 o 27
he local wi h he uni e sal, is no cen ed on he pa icipan s and hei expe iences, and lea es he
local popula ion eeling de ached om hei oo s (In 1). The e is, oo, he ongoing deba e abou he
commodi ica ion o u al space [
131
] and cul u e [
59
,
124
], and he con e ing o au hen ici y, o iden i y,
in o me chandise, bo h o which call in o ques ion he de elopmen p ocesses [132].
Since he 1990s, he issue o sus ainabili y has been an addi ional cons uc in he deba e o e u al
ou ism [
133
] and cul u al ou ism [
52
,
134
,
135
]. In his ega d, he mos se ious ques ions conce n how
o manage isi o s o an a ea, how o con ol numbe s, and how o es ablish limi s [
34
], especially
when he e is a peak in demand o e en s, e.g., in FIM, o a ma ked seasonali y, issues which equi e
u he s udy in o de o es ablish eliable indica o s o sus ainabili y.
The ins i u ional discou se, encapsula ed in he documen , “p o i abili y, ac i a ion and
sus ainabili y, hinking o ways o gene a e weal h and u he ene gize he local economy” [
83
]
(p. 102) a gues a con a y iew o he capping o capaci y, es ablishing a posi i e co ela ion be ween
he numbe o isi o s and de elopmen [
136
]. No does sus ainabili y appea in he discou se o he
business in e es s (In 5). Conce n in his espec has only been oiced in he CAM, which ixes he
maximum numbe o a endees a he FIM a 40,000 [
76
]. Indeed, he e ba ely seems any awa eness o
he pu ely ma hema ical limi s wi h espec o p o iding se ices, e.g., he own can accommoda e
295 people/day and he ca e ing se ice can p o ide 9104 meals wi h a u no e o eigh se ices pe
sea , while he maximum capaci y o he es o he municipali y is no la ge han 307 people/day in
e ms o accommoda ion and ≥6000 meals.
I is e iden ha he a e o g ow h pu s p essu e on sus ainabili y, as he ADPM no ed in 2007 [
82
],
and he e ec s o he own’s inclusion on he LIPMP also need o be aken in o accoun . The implica ions
o po en ially being decla ed a WHS could be mani old, and i is qui e possible ha hey do no ma ch
expec a ions [43,137].
4. Conclusions
In he own o M
é
ola, a pe iphe al e i o y wi h ewe oppo uni ies and a s uc u al c isis,
his o ical he i age, i s conse a ion, and i s alue o ou ism has con e ed in o he compa a i e
ad an age [
12
] ha gene a es oppo uni ies [
15
,
36
] o local de elopmen [
14
]. Howe e , he
subs an ial amoun o he he i age inc eases i s conse a ion cos s [
38
] and hinde s he con inui y o
conse a ion p ojec s.
The social, poli ical, and ins i u ional con ex [
53
] de ines he p ocesses o he i agisa ion and
i s alue o ou ism, which gene a e he dialec ic be ween he i agisa ion and he exploi a ion o
he commodi ica ion o he i age, as well as i s o e all pe cep ions [
42
] and he concep ions o
de elopmen ha a e signi ican ly dependen on dominan ela ionships and discou ses [
101
]. Fi s ly,
he coope a ion [46–48] and hen he compe i ion be ween p i a e (CAM, ADPM) and public (CMM)
ac o s indica e con adic ions and con lic s. The eco e y o he collabo a i e app oach [
42
] imp o es
he esul s ha a e e lec ed by he inc ease o ou is supply and demand.
F om he communi y pe spec i e, he p omo ion o local pa icipa ion in u al de elopmen
policy-making p ocesses has no been ul illed. Di e se easons and causes ha e p og essi ely led o
he social disa ec ion o he p ocesses hemsel es, esul ing in he loss o social and cul u al capi al,
which is conside ed as he main asse o local de elopmen [
10
,
11
], and he o e all con ol o he
p ocess [
15
]. Acco dingly, he e is an e iden isk o con lic s as he consolida ion o he ex e nal ision
o he e i o y is op ed o o e he in e nal one [8].
As ou ism enables di e si ica ion [
12
], i os e s he discou se o he he i age, ou ism, and
de elopmen co ela ion [
12
,
18
]. The miles ones (FIM, LIPMP) ha e been undamen al o he
de elopmen o supply and demand (quo a). Howe e , as shown by he da a, he expec a ions
gene a ed by ou ism ha e no been cu en ly me [
12
,
16
]. None heless, he a ou able economic
business ends, e.g., he gene a ion o employmen and income and inc ease in supply, as well as
demog aphic ends, e.g., he slowing down o decline, can be obse ed. On he o he hand, he
ad e se e ec s, such as he gen i ica ion, o e equen a ion, and ma ked seasonali y, ha comp omise
Sus ainabili y 2020,12, 9157 22 o 27
sus ainabili y ha e been iden i ied [
34
,
35
]. The e o e, i is o c ucial impo ance o de e mine and
es ablish o he ac i i ies o escape he heming caused by he specialisa ion.
In he con ex o he communi y pa icipa ion [
46
,
50
], he imp o emen s o he analysed p ocesses
a e based on he comp ehensi e p o ec ion o he en i e M
é
ola own, he de elopmen o planning
p ocesses, and a s a egy ha equi es he pa icipa ion o all s akeholde s, public and p i a e alike [
49
].
The es ablishmen o limi s h ough he pe spec i e o ca ying capaci y and app op ia e indica o s
will be necessa y o achie e long- e m sus ainabili y [
35
]. Such planning becomes essen ial o a oid
bo lenecks while aiming o an e en ual decla a ion o he own as he Wo ld He i age Si e.
The limi a ions o he s udy mainly de i ed om he s a is ical se ies a ailable, pa icula ly
a e 1991, and he ac ha p ima y in o ma ion was no collec ed di ec ly om he local popula ion.
On he o he hand, he semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h he key s akeholde s ha e p o ided ex ensi e
in o ma ion and ep esen ed he pe aining iews on he opic o his esea ch.
Finally, he ollowing esea ch opics a e p oposed by he au ho s o his esea ch, speci ically,
(a) in-dep h s udies o he ela ionships be ween economic, namely p ima y, seconda y, and
e ia y, ac i i ies and he impac s gene a ed on hem by he p ocesses o he i age and ou ism
enhancemen ; (b) compa a i e s udies o e i o ies wi h simila cha ac e is ics o con ex ualise
causes and consequences o he p ocesses on local de elopmen ; and c) analysis o issues ela ed o
employmen , employabili y, gende issues, and quali y o li e o he local popula ion in ela ion o
he i age and i s use in ou ism p ocesses. I is s ongly conside ed ha he u u e esea ch on hese
hemes could u he con ibu e owa ds be e unde s anding and mo e e idence-based analysis on
he ela ion be ween ou ism, he i agisa ion, and i s alues on sus ainable local de elopmen .
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, F.J.G.-D., A.M.-P. and R.C.L.-G.; me hodology, F.J.G.-D. and A.M.-P.;
alida ion, F.J.G.-D., A.M.-P. and R.C.L.-G.; o mal analysis, F.J.G.-D., A.M.-P. and R.C.L.-G.; in es iga ion, F.J.G.-D.,
A.M.-P. and R.C.L.-G.; esou ces, F.J.G.-D. and A.M.-P.; da a cu a ion, F.J.G.-D.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion,
F.J.G.-D., A.M.-P. and R.C.L.-G.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, F.J.G.-D., A.M.-P. and R.C.L.-G.; supe ision,
R.C.L.-G.; unding acquisi ion, F.J.G.-D., A.M.-P. and R.C.L.-G. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Acknowledgmen s:
The au ho s a e especially g a e ul o Susana G
ó
mez Ma
í
nez, o he CAM, o he aluable
assis ance in a anging in e iews and making a ailable essen ial documen a ion.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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