Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 360 (2022) 131979
A ailable online 26 Ap il 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
The ca bon oo p in o he hake supply chain in Spain: Accoun ing o
ishe ies, in e na ional anspo a ion and domes ic dis ibu ion
Guilhe me Ma ins A ag˜
ao
a
,
b
,
*
, Pablo Sa alegui-Díez
c
,
d
, Sebas i´
an Villasan e
a
,
b
,
c
,
Lucía L´
opez-L´
opez
e
, Edua do Aguile a
c
,
, Joan Mo an a
c
,
e
a
CRETUS, Depa men o Applied Economics, 15782, San iago de Compos ela, A Co u˜
na, Spain
b
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen School, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, A Co u˜
na, Spain
c
Asociaci´
on Cien í ica Alimen a, Spain
d
Labo a o io de His o ia de los Ag oecosis emas LHA, Uni e sidad Pablo de Ola ide, Se ille, Spain
e
Ins i u o Espa˜
nol de Oceanog a ía IEO, Cen e Oceanog `
a ic de Balea s COB, Ecosys em Oceanog aphy G oup GRECO, Moll de Ponen sn, 07190, Palma, Balea ic
Islands, Spain
CEIGRAM, Uni e sidad Poli ´
ecnica de Mad id, 28040, Mad id, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Handling Edi o : M.T. Mo ei a
Keywo ds:
Hake
Fishe ies
Ca bon oo p in
T ans o ma i e changes
Spain
ABSTRACT
Clima e change mi iga ion depends o a la ge ex en on economic sec o s modi ying hei p oduc ion p ocesses o
signi ican ly educe hei g eenhouse gas emissions, pa icula ly CO₂. Howe e , g eenhouse gas emission as-
sessmen s a e usually excluded om managemen o cap u e ishe ies. T adi ionally, hake (Me luccius ssp.) has
been an impo an ood o he popula ion o Wes e n Eu ope, and emains one o he mos consumed ish in
Spain’s gas onomic cul u e. This pape econs uc s, o he i s ime, he hake sea ood chain in Spain wi h he
aim o es ima ing he ca bon oo p in o i s ex ac ion ( ishing), anspo and dis ibu ion. Ou esul s show ha
o al g eenhouse gas emissions om he hake p oduc ion and alue chain in 2017 we e 681 k CO₂e, wi h an
emission in ensi y o 4.42 kgCO₂e kg‾
1
o whole ish. F om hese o al emissions, hose ela ed o ishing op-
e a ions ep esen 67% (456 k CO₂e), wi h he emaining 33% (225 k CO₂e) associa ed wi h anspo (ma i-
ime, ai o oad). Ai anspo was he highes in e ms o emission in ensi y pe kilog am o hake anspo ed
(15.85 kgCO₂e kg‾
1
), and con ibu ed o he la ges sha e (72%) o anspo emissions. Ma i ime anspo
p esen ed he leas emission in ensi y (0.33 kgCO₂e kg‾
1
) and p edomina ed o hake caugh ou side he EU (e.g.,
A gen ina, Namibia), o se ing he long dis ances he hake had o a el wi h g ea e anspo e iciency. Ou
s udy highligh s he impo ance o including g eenhouse gas emissions analysis in he ope a ionaliza ion o he
ecosys em-based ishe ies managemen in he Eu opean Common Fishe ies Policy as well as o he egula ions
such as he Ma ine S a egy F amewo k Di ec i e as a key ool o decision make s o app op ia ely add ess
clima e change impac s. The e idence p o ided by ou s udy highligh s he impo ance o inding a balance
be ween heal hy ish consump ion pa e ns and hei associa ed en i onmen al impac s.
1. In oduc ion
The cu en globaliza ion o he economy has led o an inc easing
olume o in e na ional ade. An in e connec ed ne wo k o supplie s,
p oduce s, ade s and consume s ac oss he globe has inc eased he
dis ances be ween he p oduc ion and consump ion si es (Kas ne and
Habe l, 2014; Wa son e al., 2015, Fa me y e al., 2015). This global
supply chain may aise li ing s anda ds and help alle ia e po e y, bu i
also places g ea demands on ecosys ems and na u al esou ces (Wible
e al., 2014; Tilman and Cla k, 2014). Reducing g eenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions o mi iga e clima e change (CC) equi es inc easing ou
knowledge abou which sec o s gene a e he la ges con ibu ions o
GHG emissions and whe e and how educ ion s a egies can be e ec-
i ely implemen ed. In pa icula , o sho ing p ocesses should be aken
in o conside a ion, as hey lessen impac indica o s in consume coun-
ies a he expense o na u al esou ces om all o e he wo ld (Ba e
e al., 2013).
Recen s udies poin ou ha ood sys em emissions, om p oduc ion
o consump ion, including p ocessing, anspo and packaging, ep e-
sen a hi d o global an h opogenic GHG emissions (C ippa e al., 2021;
* Co esponding au ho . CRETUS, Depa men o Applied Economics, 15782, San iago de Compos ela, A Co u˜
na, Spain.
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (G.M. A ag˜
ao).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/jclep o
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jclep o.2022.131979
Recei ed 29 Decembe 2021; Recei ed in e ised o m 2 Ap il 2022; Accep ed 22 Ap il 2022
i An upda e o his a icle is included a he end
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 360 (2022) 131979
2
Xu e al., 2021). This indica es a clea di e ence in GHG emissions be-
ween ood ca ego ies, wi h g ains, ui and ege ables ha ing he
lowes impac and mea om uminan s ha ing he highes impac
(Clune e al., 2017; Poo e and Nemecek, 2018). Some examples a e he
impac s ela ed o eed p oduc ion in he Eu opean mea sec o (e.g.,
Weiss and Leip, 2012), o emissions ela ed o syn he ic ni ogen e -
ilize s in Spanish ag icul u e (e.g., Aguile a e al., 2021). E en mo e,
anspo impac s should also be aken in o conside a ion, pa icula ly in
coun ies such as Spain, whe e dependence on ood impo s has
inc eased in he las decades (P´
e ez-Nei a e al., 2016). O e all, he
emissions o he Spanish popula ion accoun o 3.5 Mg CO₂e cap
−1
y
−1
ela ed o hei consump ion pa e ns, 45% o which is ela ed o animal
ood (Aguile a e al., 2020).
P e ious s udies ound ha he ishe ies sec o emi s be ween 112
and 179 million onnes o CO₂ in o he a mosphe e annually, which
accoun s o ca 0.5% o o al GHG emissions and ep esen s abou 4% o
global emissions om ood p oduc ion (Tyedme s e al., 2005; Pa ke
e al., 2018; G ee e al., 2019). Despi e ecen ad ances, ma ine cap u e
ishe ies a e o en excluded om global GHG assessmen s o , in he bes
o cases, policy ecommenda ions a e usually made based on a limi ed
numbe o case s udies, hus no aking in o accoun he la ge a iabili y
in emissions among ishe ies ha a ge a wide ange o species using
di e en ishing gea s (Pa ke e al., 2018). GHG assessmen s applied o
ishe ies show ha anspo and uel consump ion o he ishing ac i i y
commonly cons i u e he mos impo an impac s (Hospido and
Tyedme s, 2005; V´
azquez-Rowe e al., 2010, 2011).
Unde his con ex , Spain is among he 25 la ges sea ood p oduce s
in he wo ld and hos s he la ges ishing indus y in he Eu opean Union
(EU) (STECF, 2021). In 2019, Spain p oduced a ound 850,000 ons o
sea ood, 29% o he o al EU lee landings, and accoun ed o nea ly
1700 million eu os in landing alue (STECF, 2021). In Spain, I iba en
e al. (2011) we e he i s schola s who assessed he ca bon oo p in o
ishing ac i i ies, epo ing GHG emissions o 888,620 CO₂e yea
−1
by
he Galician lee . V´
azquez-Rowe e al. (2011) also e alua ed he en i-
onmen al impac s ela ed o he ex ac ion, p ocessing and consump-
ion o he no he n s ock hake in Eu opean wa e s caugh by Galician
awle s and longline s, showing conside ably lowe en i onmen al
impac s o esh ille s o Eu opean hake om longline essels
compa ed o awle s, mainly due o he high ene gy demand o he
awle s analysed.
Hake has been an impo an ood o he people o Wes e n Eu ope
h oughou his o y, and i emains as one o he mos consumed sea ood
p oduc s in Spain. I is also impo an o he domes ic ma ke and
pa icula ly ele an o he economy o he ishing sec o and ood se-
cu i y, accoun ing in 2017 o 15% o he o al alue caugh by he
Spanish lee (MAPAMA, 2017a; STECF, 2021). Howe e , he e is no
e idence a ailable on he ca bon oo p in o he hake supply chain in
Spain as a whole. The e o e, by using he li e cycle-o ien ed indica o o
he ca bon oo p in (Finkbeine , 2009; V´
azques-Rowe e al., 2016), we
ha e assessed, o he i s ime, he GHG emissions o : (a) Spanish
essels a ge ing hake landed a domes ic po s; b) Spanish essels a -
ge ing hake landed a in e na ional po s; (c) hake impo s des ined o
Spain, including GHG emissions om ishing essels in he coun ies o
o igin; and (d) he anspo modes and ou es (sea, ai and land) used
o anspo o Spain and dis ibu ion ou es ( oads) wi hin he Spanish
e i o y. We also compa ed he ca bon oo p in o esh o chilled
hake and ozen hake, which includes only ozen ille s and mea .
2. Ma e ial and me hods
The sys em analysed includes ex ac ion ( ishing), in e na ional
anspo o Spain, and domes ic dis ibu ion wi hin Spanish e i o y
o he yea 2017. The lee consump ion o uel included all ishing
ope a ions (Supplemen a y Ma e ial, Figu e SM1), while impo s
included in e na ional anspo as well as emissions om ishing lee
ope a ions in he coun ies o o igin. We accoun ed o he di e en
ypes o anspo (land, sea and ai ) and he di e se ou es ha landings
ollow om po s o e aile s dis ibu ed in Spain, ollowing in e modal
anspo supply chains om ab oad up o he inal dis ibu ion in each
Spanish p o ince. The domes ic dis ibu ion included he eci cula ion
1
o hake wi hin he na ional e i o y and be ween he logis ics cen es o
he di e en p o inces in o de o co e he demand o domes ic con-
sump ion (Supplemen a y Ma e ial, Figu es SM2, SM4, SM5, SM6 and
Table SM5).
Some componen s o he supply chain ha e been excluded om he
analysis: a) all pos - e ail emissions, including anspo , s o age,
cooking and was e, b) he olume o hake ma ke ed as “canned and
p ocessed”, because i ep esen s a minimal amoun o he o al hake
ma ke ed in Spain, c) ca bon emissions du ing awling ope a ions due
o he esuspension o seabed sedimen s, al hough ecen s udies sugges
ha his emine alisa ion could be an impo an sou ce o CO₂ emissions
(Sala e al., 2021), d) GHG emissions ela ed o he anspo and dis-
ibu ion o expo s o hi d coun ies, because ou aim is o unde s and
he emission in ensi y and impac s o he ood chain supply associa ed
wi h hake consump ion in Spain (I should be no ed ha expo s ha e
only been conside ed o calcula ing he ne a ailabili y o hake o
consump ion in Spain), and e) emissions om cooling agen s in ishing
ope a ions (I iba en e al., 2011).
The hake landings o he Spanish lee we e ob ained om he es-
sels’ logbook eco ds (Da a Collec ion F amewo k, Regula ion (EU) Nº
2017/1004). These eco ds include in o ma ion on he numbe o
landings, ishing zones and sub-zones acco ding o he codes used by he
Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions (FAO), he po
and coun y o landing, and he essels’ engine powe . In e na ional
sea ood ade lows o hake we e ob ained om he o icial da abase o
he Spanish Sec e a y o S a e o Fo eign T ade S a is ics (Da aComex,
2017), which includes in o ma ion on coun ies o o igin, Spanish
p o inces o des ina ion, olume anspo ed and ypes o anspo
( oad, ma i ime and ai ). We assumed ha landings o he Spanish lee
in in e na ional po s ollowed he same anspo ou es as impo s,
using he same ca go a eas and logis ics cen es. We also assumed ha
hake landed a Spanish po s ollowed he same supply chain anspo
ou es as o he oods.
The di e ence be ween he ne a ailabili y o hake o human con-
sump ion wi hin each Spanish p o ince, i. e., he di e ence be ween
landings, plus impo s minus expo s, and he olume o consump ion in
each p o ince allowed us o iden i y he exis ence o eci cula ion o a
p oduc be ween hem, om hose p o inces wi h a p oduc ion su plus
o hose wi h a de ici , o co e hei domes ic consump ion (Supple-
men a y Ma e ial). The olume o hake consump ion in each Spanish
p o ince was ob ained om he Food Consump ion Panel da a
(MAPAMA, 2017c). To compu e he olume o hake ecei ed by he
p o inces wi h de ici s, we assumed ha hey ecei ed a p opo ional
con ibu ion o he agg ega e o al na ional su plus om p o inces wi h
su plus, acco ding o he ma ke sha es o la ge dis ibu ing wholesale s
in Spain (Supplemen a y Ma e ial, Table SM1). A e es ima ing he
hake lows a p opo ional con ibu ion o he agg ega e domes ic o al
om he ishing zones and he ne impo s o e ail in each p o ince, we
compu ed he in e na ional anspo and he domes ic dis ibu ion
ou es wi h he associa ed means o anspo in each case, as well as he
dis ances a elled.
2.1. Calcula ing he ca bon oo p in
To ob ain he ca bon oo p in we con e ed he lee uel con-
sump ion and he dis ances co e ed by he di e en ypes o anspo a
he di e en s ages o he en i e hake supply chain in o GHG emissions.
In his s udy we conside ed a unc ional uni (FU) as he amoun o CO₂
1
T anspo o hake be ween p o inces wi h a su plus o p o inces wi h a
de ici .
G.M. A ag˜
ao e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 360 (2022) 131979
3
equi alen (CO₂e) emi ed pe kilog am o whole hake, and we applied a
se ies o con e e s widely used in his ype o s udies ollowing he
ReCiPe (H) 2016 .1.04 me hodology (Huijb eg s e al., 2016) (Sup-
plemen a y Ma e ial, Figu e SM3).
2.2. G eenhouse gas emissions om ishing
The GHG emissions om hake ca ches we e calcula ed based on uel
consump ion by ishing essels, including ishing, anspo om he
ishing zone o he landing po and he ou wa d jou ney wi h an emp y
essel, assuming i ep esen s he as majo i y o GHG emissions
(V´
azquez-Rowe e al., 2011). Da a on uel consump ion we e ex ac ed
om he Scien i ic, Technical and Economic Commi ee o Fishe ies
(STECF, 2019), which p o ides a de ailed consump ion p o ile o each
lee segmen o di e en ishing a eas. As lee segmen s ca ch mo e
han one species, i was necessa y o alloca e uel consump ion in a
weigh ed manne be ween he olumes o he di e en species caugh ,
using a mass alloca ion app oach
2
(see he Supplemen a y Ma e ial).
Finally, GHG emissions ela ed o uel consump ion (KgCO₂ eq.
−1
.
km
−1
) we e calcula ed ollowing he me hodology and con e e s
de eloped by Aguile a e al. (2019) (Eq. (1), and Supplemen a y Ma-
e ial, Table SM2):
GHG ishing=
Vdiesel
Mhake
x Mhake x GCV x GHGdiesel (1)
whe e Vdiesel/MHake deno es he olume o diesel consump ion pe
onne o hake caugh , Mhake means he mass o hake caugh , GCV (g oss
calo i ic alue) is he ene gy con ained in each uni o mass o olume o
diesel, and GHG diesel deno es he alue o GHG emissions pe MJ o
diesel o he yea 2010, including uel p oduc ion and di ec emissions
om uel combus ion.
2.3. G eenhouse gas emissions om anspo
The GHG emissions associa ed wi h he di e en anspo ypes
we e calcula ed using con e e s o each o he ypes o anspo used
in he hake supply chain in Spain ob ained h ough a li e a u e e iew
(Supplemen a y Ma e ial, Table SM3). We complemen ed his in o -
ma ion wi h he Ecoin en 3.7.1 da abase (Ecoin en , 2019). The choice
o a pa icula anspo ype and he use o e ige a ion was made
based on he in o ma ion a ailable in he scien i ic li e a u e and on
expe knowledge (Fi zge ald e al., 2011; Meneghe i and Ceschia,
2020; Pa ajuli e al., 2021). Measu ing he emissions om hese ans-
po s in Kg CO₂e pe onne pe kilome e (Kg CO₂ eq.
−1
.km
−1
), makes i
possible o es ima e he emissions de i ed om anspo by mul iplying
he dis ance a elled and he olume anspo ed by he alues o he
con e e s (Supplemen a y Ma e ial). T anspo ou es o he ne ol-
ume o hake ma ke ed we e econs uc ed by b eaking down he dis-
ances a elled o each o he anspo ypes. The applica ion o he
selec ed con e e s allowed us o calcula e he impac o each o he
ou es om he olume anspo ed and he dis ance a elled be ween
he o igin and he des ina ion (Eq. (2)):
GHG ansp =∑(GHGmdx dis ance xMHake)(2)
Emissions om anspo (GHG ansp) a e calcula ed h ough he
con e e s (Supplemen a y Ma e ial, Table SM3) o each mode o
anspo (GHGmd), mul iplied by he es ima ed dis ance and he mass
o hake anspo ed (Mhake).
3. Resul s
3.1. To al supply, ne a ailabili y and o igin o hake
The e m ‘hake’ encompasses a g oup o deme sal ish species (genus
Me luccius) ha inhabi all seas and oceans, usually a dep hs be ween
150 and 600 m and close o he bo om. O he 12 di e en species
belonging o his genus wo ldwide, 8 a e ma ke ed in Spain (Supple-
men a y Ma e ial, Table SM4) (MAPAMA, 2017b). Among hem, Eu o-
pean hake (Me luccius me luccius) and A gen ine hake (Me luccius
hubbsi) we e esponsible o 83% o he o al ca ches o hake o he
Spanish lee (STECF, 2017). Rega ding impo s, he main species o
hake ma ke ed in Spain a e Cape hake (Me luccius capensis), A gen ine
hake and Sou he n hake (Me luccius aus alis). Hence o h in his pape ,
e e ences ‘hake’ include he 8 species ma ke ed in Spain.
The Spanish lee caugh 98,206 o hake in 2017. O his o al
30,134 came om Spanish essels landing hei ca ch in domes ic
po s, o which 12,789 we e caugh in na ional ishing zones and
17,345 in in e na ional ishing zones (Fig. 1). The emaining 68,072
came om Spanish essels ishing exclusi ely in in e na ional ishing
zones, and landing hei ca ches a in e na ional po s. Impo s eached
a olume o 121,032 , which when added o he ca ch yield p oduced a
o al a ailabili y o 219,239 . F om his o al a ailabili y we deduc ed
he olume o hake expo ed (65,305 ), esul ing in a ne a ailabili y o
153,934 o hake, which is he olume ha ul ima ely eached he e ail
sec o o consump ion in Spain (Fig. 1). I is wo h highligh ing ha o
all he hake a ailable o consump ion in Spain, only 8% is caugh by he
Spanish lee in na ional ishing zones.
Spanish essels ha es ing hake ope a e egula ly in 5 majo FAO
ishing zones. The FAO 41 (Sou hwes A lan ic) is he ishing zone wi h
he highes olume o ca ches (46,000 ; 47%); 93% o hese ca ches
we e landed a in e na ional po s (mainly A gen ina and U uguay)
while only 7% we e landed a Spanish po s (Fig. 2). The second FAO
zone wi h he highes ca ches was FAO 27 (No h-Eas A lan ic) (mo e
han 33,000 ; 33%), 76% o he olume was landed a Spanish po s,
while he emaining 24% was landed a in e na ional po s (I eland and
F ance), and hen anspo ed o Spain. These wo zones (41 and 27)
oge he accoun o 80% o he o al hake caugh by he Spanish lee
(Fig. 2a; Supplemen a y Ma e ial, Table SM4).
Mos o he hake a ailable in Spain (55%) elies on impo s, wi h
Namibia being he coun y om which he mos hake was impo ed
(40,000 ), ep esen ing 30% o he o al olume o impo s. O he hake
impo ed om Namibia, 96% was anspo ed o Spain ozen. The
second mos impo an coun y was F ance (24,000 ), ep esen ing 17%
o he o al. Unlike Namibia, almos all o he hake impo ed om F ance
a i ed in Spain esh (98%). A gen ina was he hi d coun y, wi h mo e
han 15,000 o hake, all o which was ma ke ed ozen (Fig. 2b).
The hake impo ed and landed by Spanish essels in in e na ional
po s a els long dis ances o be sold in Spain. Fig. 3 shows he weigh ed
a e age dis ance (km) o hake anspo ed by each coun y o o igin.
Sou h Ame ican coun ies (Chile, A gen ina, U uguay) and he Islas
Mal inas/Falkland Islands led he anking o weigh ed a e age dis-
ances. Chile was he coun y wi h he longes jou ney pe on o hake
caugh and anspo ed o Spain, while in he opposi e posi ion anked
Po ugal, wi h a weigh ed a e age dis ance o less han 850 km. F ance,
he Uni ed Kingdom, I eland and Denma k also showed e y simila
igu es when compa ing he weigh ed a e age dis ance a elled o
landings o ca ches in in e na ional po s and impo s. Hake anspo ed
om Ge many, Denma k, Sou h A ica, he Uni ed S a es, Canada and
Chile came mainly om impo s, while hake anspo ed om U uguay,
Mau i ania, Senegal, Mo occo, Po ugal, Guinea, I aly and Angola came
exclusi ely om ca ches landed by Spanish essels in in e na ional po s
(Fig. 3).
2
The applica ion o e iciency o he olume cap u ed in each sub-zone al-
lows us o es ima e he amoun o diesel a ibu able o he hake cap u es o
each segmen .
G.M. A ag˜
ao e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 360 (2022) 131979
4
3.2. G eenhouse gas emissions (GHG) o he hake supply chain
The o al GHG emissions o he hake supply chain we e 681 k CO₂e,
wi h ishing accoun ing o 456 k CO₂e (67%), and anspo accoun ing
o 225 k CO₂e (33%) (Fig. 4; Supplemen a y ma e ial, Table SM6).
Emissions associa ed wi h impo ed hake we e 356 k CO₂e, accoun ing
o mo e han hal o o al emissions (52%), wi h ishing being espon-
sible o 231 k CO₂e (65%), and anspo o 124 k CO₂e (35%). In he
second place, we ound hake om essels landing hei ca ches a in-
e na ional po s, wi h an amoun o 216 k CO₂e, and ep esen ing 32%
o o al GHG emissions. In his case, ishing was esponsible o emis-
sions es ima ed a 119 k CO₂e (65%), and anspo o 97 k CO₂e
(55%). Finally, hake om essels landing hei ca ches a domes ic po s
emi ed 109 k CO₂e, ep esen ing 16% o o al emissions, wi h ishing
accoun ing o 97% and anspo o he emaining 3%. O landings
made a domes ic po s, hake caugh in na ional ishing zones p esen ed
an emission o 57 k CO₂e, while hake caugh in in e na ional ishing
zones eached 52 k CO₂e. In bo h cases, emissions associa ed wi h
ishing accoun ed o mo e han 95% (Fig. 4; Supplemen a y Ma e ial,
Table SM6). All hake landed a in e na ional po s and om impo s was
caugh in in e na ional ishing zones.
Conside ing only emissions by p oduc p esen a ion ( esh and
ozen), emissions om esh hake accoun ed o 541 k CO₂e, 79.5% o
o al GHG emissions, wi h ishing accoun ing o 337 k CO₂e (62% o
emissions om his p esen a ion), and anspo a ion ep esen ed 204 k
CO₂e (38% o emissions om esh hake) (Fig. 4; Supplemen a y Ma-
e ial, Table SM6). Ou esul s also indica e ha ozen hake was
esponsible o lowe emissions han esh hake due o he lowe olume
caugh and anspo ed, eaching a o al amoun o emissions es ima ed
a 139 k CO₂e. Emissions ela ed o he ishing o ozen hake we e 118
k CO₂e (85%), and hose om anspo a ion we e 21 k CO₂e (15%)
(Fig. 4; Supplemen a y Ma e ial, Table SM6).
The Emission In ensi y (EI) o hake in Spain was 4.42 kg CO₂e/kg o
whole ish (Fig. 5). The impo ed hake showed he highes EI (4.88 kg
CO₂e/kg), ollowed by he hake landed a in e na ional po s (4.09 kg
CO₂e/kg), while hake landed a domes ic po s p esen ed he lowes
emission in ensi y a io (3.86 kg CO₂e/kg). I is impo an o highligh
ha hake landed a domes ic po s a e caugh in bo h na ional and in-
e na ional ishing zones: while hake caugh in in e na ional zones
showed an EI o 3.22 kgCO₂e kg‾
1
, hake caugh in na ional zones showed
a highe EI, wi h a alue o 4.74 kgCO₂e kg‾
1
(Fig. 5). F esh hake also
showed a highe EI when compa ed o ozen hake, eaching an amoun
o 4.62 kgCO₂e kg‾
1
, while he EI o ozen hake was 3.78 kg CO₂e/kg
(Fig. 5).
The associa ed emissions om in e na ional and domes ic hake
anspo alone amoun ed o 225 k CO₂e (Fig. 6; Supplemen a y Ma-
e ial, Table SM6). The anspo mode wi h he highes olume o
emissions was ai anspo , wi h a olume o 165 k CO₂e, ep esen ing
73% o emissions ela ed o hake anspo , despi e only accoun ing o
14% o he o al olume anspo ed. In second place we ound sea
anspo , wi h 34 k CO₂e, 15% o he o al emissions, and 45% o he
o al olume anspo ed and inally oad anspo which p esen ed 26
k CO₂e, 10% o anspo - ela ed emissions being esponsible o 41% o
he o al olume anspo ed (Fig. 6; Supplemen a y Ma e ial,
Table SM6). Ai anspo also showed he highes emissions in ensi y,
aluing 7.70 kgCO₂e kg‾
1
, a abo e he o he modes o anspo , sea
Fig. 1. A ailabili y o hake in he Spanish supply chain. To al a ailabili y includes he sum o all hake en e ing Spanish e i o y, and Ne a ailabili y e e s o he
hake ac ually a ailable o consume s in Spain a e sub ac ing expo s om o al a ailabili y.
G.M. A ag˜
ao e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 360 (2022) 131979
5
Fig. 2. a) Volume o hake ca ches in onnes ( , colou scale) and pe cen age o ca ches landed on Spanish e i o y and in hi d coun ies by FAO a ea. Ca ches landed
by Spanish essels in Spanish po s a e di e en ia ed om hose ca ches landed by Spanish essels in in e na ional po s. b) Volume o hake impo s in onnes ( ,
colou scale) and pe cen age o impo s o esh and ozen hake.
Fig. 3. Weigh ed a e age dis ance (in km) pe onne anspo ed by coun y o o igin. The yellow ba s e e o hake caugh by Spanish essels and landed a in-
e na ional po s. The g ey ba s e e o hake caugh by essels om hi d coun ies and impo ed o Spain as in e na ional sea ood ade lows. The dis ances include
he anspo ou es om he coun y o landing o e ail in Spanish p o inces.
G.M. A ag˜
ao e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 360 (2022) 131979
6
anspo p esen ed an EI 0.50 kgCO₂e kg‾
1
, and oad anspo was he
mos e icien compa ed o ai and oad anspo , wi h an EI 0.42
kgCO₂e kg‾
1
.
4. Discussion
The ishing indus y has become inc easingly in e connec ed on a
global scale (Hilbo n, 2013). T a elling o he deepes wa e s o he
oceans is now a common p ac ice (Swa z e al., 2010), and subsequen
anspo o he inal des ina ion ma ke may equi e hund eds o
housands o miles o a el by sea and ai (Madin and Mac eadie, 2015).
The dependence on consump ion o hake om in e na ional sou ces
uels he deba e on he en i onmen al impac s ha anspo has on he
sea ood supply chain. This deba e exis s o a wide ange o ood p od-
uc s, which is based p ecisely on he dependence o ood chains on
a ious ac o s such as he loca ion o logis ical dis ibu ion nodes, he
means o anspo used o he p oduc ion sys ems, wi h p oduc ion
sys ems being he ac o ha gene ally has he g ea es en i onmen al
Fig. 4. To al G eenhouse gas emissions (GHG) (k
CO₂e) o : a) he hake supply chain wi h b eakdown
o emissions be ween ishing and anspo o e ail,
b) by o igin o hake conside ing he ca ches landed by
Spanish essels in Spanish po s, he ca ches landed
by Spanish essels in in e na ional po s and impo s,
as well as anspo a ion associa ed wi h hese ca e-
go ies ( he ca ches landed by Spanish essels in
Spanish po s a e di ided in o ca ches made in “Na-
ional ishing zones” and in “In e na ional ishing
zones”), c) by p esen a ion o hake ( esh and ozen)
wi h b eakdown o emissions be ween ishing and
anspo o e ail.
Fig. 5. The Emission In ensi y (kgCO₂e kg‾
1
): a) o he hake supply chain; b) by o igin o hake conside ing he ca ches landed by Spanish essels a Spanish po s, he
ca ches landed by Spanish essels a in e na ional po s and impo s; c) by p esen a ion o hake ( esh and ozen).
Fig. 6. a) GHG emissions (k CO
2
e) by anspo mode o he hake ood chain, b) Emission in ensi y (kgCO
2
e kg
−1
) by anspo mode o he hake ood chain.
Nei he penal includes emissions om ishing ope a ions.
G.M. A ag˜
ao e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 360 (2022) 131979
7
impac (In an e-Ama e e al., 2018; P´
e ez Nei a e al., 2020). As
men ioned ea lie (sec ion ma e ial and me hods), his s udy did no
include he emissions ela ed o leakage o cooling agen s in he p o-
duc ion sys em ( ishing), al hough some s udies indica e ha his sou ce
can inc ease he o al alue o GHG. Fo example, acco ding o I iba en
e al. (2011) GHG emissions inc eased by 13% due o e ige an
leakage. Howe e , he R22 e ige an used a he ime has been g ad-
ually eplaced by o he less ha m ul ma e ials and i we we e o coun
he GHG emissions associa ed wi h R22, we would o e es ima e he
weigh o he GHG emission in ou calcula ions.
F om he science-policy in e ace, he esul s o his s udy ha e im-
plica ions in e ms o ishe ies managemen in se e al key di ec ions,
con ibu ing o: (a) ad ancing he managemen o hake ishe ies, (b)
ad ancing he educ ion o en i onmen al impac s om ishing in o de
o mi iga e he e ec s o clima e change, and (c) a icula ing inno a i e
ac ions wi h he po en ial o os e sus ainabili y ans o ma ions o he
Spanish ood sys em in gene al and o he consump ion o hake in
pa icula .
The la es e o m o he EU’s Common Fishe ies Policy (CFP) high-
ligh ed he need o mo e away om adi ional single-s ock ishe ies
managemen and owa ds ope a ionalising he ecosys em app oach o
ishe ies (EAF) (P ellezo and Cu in, 2015). Wi hin he CFP, achie ing
he Maximum Sus ainable Yield (MSY) does no equi e conside ing he
clima e change impac s h ough he inco po a ion o GHG emissions and
he e ained ca bon seques a ion o ca ches (Ma iani e al., 2020).
While ecen indings indica e ha ma ine esou ces h oughou hei
li e cycle con ibu e o p ocesses ha seques e conside able amoun s o
ca bon (Blue Ca bon Ini ia i e, 2021), he MSY-based managemen
objec i e does no ake ha in o accoun , as i is limi ed only o p o-
mo ing op imal comme cial ish ha es . Thus, al hough he new CFP
ad oca es he implemen a ion o some o m o EAF, i is s ill unclea
how o implemen conse a ion objec i es wi hin he managemen
measu es such as he GHG emissions and ca bon seques a ion o
species.
In e ms o ishe ies managemen , aking ac ions owa ds GHG
emissions and clima e change conside a ions would equi e econsi-
de ing he cu en MSY e e ence poin mo ing owa ds ocean man-
agemen ins ead o ishe ies managemen , hus p omo ing clima e
se ices om he oceans (A ag˜
ao e al., 2021). Indeed, Ma iani e al.
(2020) ecen ly showed ha comme cial ishing ac i i ies educed he
ca bon seques a ion o he oceans by dec easing he biomass o ish
s ocks, pa icula ly ega ding op p eda o s (i.e., adul hake), and
highligh ed he impo ance o measu es o p omo e he ebuilding o
ish s ocks, hus inc easing hei capaci y o seques e ing blue ca bon.
In e ms o mi iga ing en i onmen al and clima e change, i is wo h
no ing ha he ishing indus y has a signi ican ca bon oo p in
(Chasso e al., 2021; Hilbo n e al., 2018; Ziegle e al., 2013). Howe e ,
sea ood ca bon oo p in s a e a ely in eg a ed in o sus ainabili y as-
sessmen s in comme cial ishe ies managemen , ei he h ough
eco-labels o h ough sus ainabili y ce i ica ion o sus ainabili y guides
o consume sea ood p oduc s. Thus, en i onmen al analyses o ishing
ac i i y gene ally ocus on ce ain biological conce ns such as esou ce
a ailabili y and s ock conse a ion, while unde es ima ing o he im-
pac s caused by ishing ac i i ies (Hospido and Tyedme s, 2005;
V´
azquez-Rowe e al., 2010). Ene gy and ma e ial use by ishing essels
can gene a e signi ican en i onmen al impac s, mainly ela ed o uel
consump ion (Hospido and Tyedme s, 2005). These analyses, howe e ,
gene ally do no conside he impac s associa ed wi h he en i e ood
chain, hus p e en ing a holis ic unde s anding o he en i onmen al
oo p in associa ed wi h a popula ion’s ood consump ion pa e ns.
The e o e, imp o ing ishe ies managemen should no only be linked o
e o s o educe o e ishing, byca ch and disca ds, he dis u bances
c ea ed in ben hic communi ies by awling and o he ypes o gea , o
al e ed ophic dynamics (Fonseca e al., 2005), bu also o he analysis
and mi iga ion o he impac s o ishe ies and he o ganiza ion o hei
ood chain on GHG emissions and he esul ing global wa ming.
F om he consume pe spec i e, including he ca bon oo p in in
sea ood awa eness campaigns could also gene a e a numbe o key
bene i s o bo h he consume and he sea ood p oduce (Madin and
Mac eadie, 2015). P o iding consume s and businesses (e.g., es au-
an s) wi h in o ma ion on he ela i e con ibu ion o clima e change
associa ed wi h one p oduc compa ed o ano he can p omo e p oduc s
wi h a lowe ca bon oo p in (e.g., by shi ing pu chases o locally
p oduced sea ood), o se e as an indica o o imp o ing he s eps in he
ood chain wi h he g ea es impac s in o de o mo e owa ds mo e
sus ainable scena ios (Al iok e al., 2021). The e o e, a mo e powe ul
e o is needed o inc ease he social accep ance o low-ca bon p oduc s
by consume s (B yan , 2019).
The limi ed e idence sugges s ha gi ing s akeholde s access o in-
o ma ion on o he aspec s o sea ood sus ainabili y may lead o p e -
e en ial pu chase o p oduc s wi h lowe en i onmen al impac (Teisl
e al., 2002). The exis ence o legisla ion linked o ecosocial ansi ion
may also con ibu e o he consump ion o p oduc s wi h lowe en i-
onmen al impac s, bu o he ac o s such as he p ice o he labelled
p oduc in luence consume choice (Aoki and Akai, 2013; G ebi us e al.,
2013; Elo sson e al., 2016). Ano he app oach could be di ec ed a
limi ing consume choice by dis ibu ing sea ood p oduc s ha ul il
speci ic en i onmen al c i e ia (Panzone e al., 2011). To ou knowl-
edge, he e a e ew ini ia i es a an in e na ional le el o aise awa eness
abou sus ainable sea ood. One example would be F iend o he Sea,
which explici ly inco po a es ca bon oo p in in o i s selec ion c i e ia,
o he Swedish na ional eco-label KRAV o small-scale sea ood p oduc s
(Ziegle e al., 2013). Thus, bo h he gene a ion o legisla i e ame-
wo ks capable o p omo ing he adop ion o p ac ices ha mi iga e
clima e change in his con ex , and he p omo ion and awa eness- aising
o consume s and ope a o s in he ood chain h ough labelling should
be op ions o combine o achie ing he sus ainabili y objec i es in he
global ac ion amewo ks.
Unheal hy die s ep esen a se ious challenge o Spanish socie y,
gi en ha he coun y has one o he highes a es o obesi y in adul s
and young people among OECD coun ies (OECD, 2019). In addi ion,
oday’s consume s a e also inc easingly conce ned abou he o igin and
en i onmen al impac o he ood hey ea and alue he good quali y o
he na u al en i onmen s. In e ms o sea ood, he e is s ong e idence
o he bene i s o ish consump ion o human heal h, such as con ib-
u ing o educing ca dio ascula p oblems (Whel on e al., 2004),
imp o ing neu ode elopmen in p egnan women and child en du ing
p egnancy, imp o ing men al heal h, and helping wi h s ess, dep es-
sion and anxie y while p e en ing cance , au oimmune diseases,
as hma, mul iple scle osis and diabe es (EUPHA, 2017). The e is also
obus scien i ic e idence linking die s o human heal h and en i on-
men al sus ainabili y (MacDia mid, 2013).
Howe e , he absence o scien i ic s udies conduc ed a global and
na ional le els o simul aneously assessing heal hy and sus ainable
die s has hampe ed coo dina ed e o s o ans o m he ood sys em
(Wille e al., 2019). In his sense, his pape on GHG emissions om he
hake supply chain p o ides new e idence o link sus ainabili y issues o
o he s udies add essing he heal h e ec s de i ed om ish consump-
ion by he Spanish popula ion. The high dependence on impo s and
ca ches in in e na ional ishing zones, while only 8% o he hake
consumed in Spain comes om na ional ishing zones, and he en i e
ca bon oo p in associa ed wi h in ensi e ishing and i s associa ed
in e na ional anspo make he cu en olumes o hake consump ion
by he Spanish popula ion ala ming. Fu he mo e, nei he simplis ic
app oaches based on la ge-scale ishing e iciency in in e na ional ish-
e ies, no he human heal h o die s based on cu en hake consump ion
olumes should unde pin decision-making and legisla i e amewo ks.
A combina ion o ecommenda ions o sus ainable and heal hy ish
consump ion should ake bo h aspec s in o accoun on an equal oo ing,
i.e., encou aging he ans o ma ion o he ood supply chain by mo ing
o mo e e icien and sus ainable p ac ices wi hou unde mining he
posi i e na u e o hake consump ion in Spanish die s. Fo his same
G.M. A ag˜
ao e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 360 (2022) 131979
8
eason, he ishing indus y, policy make s and socie y a la ge mus
wo k oge he o achie e signi ican ans o ma i e changes in sus ain-
able and heal hy ood p oduc ion and consump ion pa e ns.
To build a new na a i e o ocean healing (Lubchenco and Gaines,
2019) and align wi h he UN Decade o Oceans o Sus ainable De el-
opmen om 2021 (Claude e al., 2020), new na u e-based solu ions a e
needed o educe he impac on oceans. Unlocking cu en ba ie s o
ans o ma i e change owa ds sus ainable oceans and heal hy die s in
line wi h he UN Sus ainable De elopmen Goals o 2030 equi es
inno a i e solu ions (Rosa, 2017). This highligh s he impo ance o
educa ing socie y h ough e ec i e communica ion e o s abou he
eal alue o ood o human heal h and o p omo e en i onmen al
sus ainabili y (Medawa e al., 2019; Nelson e al., 2016; Tomo a e al.,
2019).
5. Conclusions
This s udy p o ides scien i ic e idence and new insigh s ha can be
help ul o he design o possible solu ions o help managing hake
exploi a ion a sus ainable p oduc ion le els (bo h ou side and wi hin
he Eu opean Union), hus suppo ing clima e change mi iga ion and
heal hy die s. The amewo k o his s udy p esen s a sound p oposal on
how o conside he ecosys em impac s no only o ishe ies, bu also o
he en i e ood chain supplying a coun y, which would con ibu e o
imp o ing he app oach o be adop ed in he o hcoming e iew o he
CFP egula o y amewo k, as well as o he egula ions such as he
Ma ine S a egy F amewo k Di ec i e. E idence sugges s he need o
s iking a balance be ween heal hy ish consump ion pa e ns and
associa ed en i onmen al impac s.
The e a e g ea oppo uni ies a ailable o p omo ing he ans-
o ma ion o ood sys ems owa ds a sha ed ision o he Plane ’s heal h
and people’s heal h. The scien i ic a ge s se by he EAT-Lance Com-
mission on die a y change, sus ainable p oduc ion and ood loss and
was e will enable Spanish companies o c ea e science-based solu ions
ha can suppo ood sys em ans o ma ion (Wille e al., 2019). To
lead his ans o ma ion and ensu e he success and con inui y o he
ishe ies sec o , we ad oca e o business leade ship and public policies
aimed a adop ing inno a i e solu ions along he en i e alue chain,
such as (a) educing GHG emissions in ope a ions and supply chains
using na u e-based clima e solu ions, (b) ex ending and s anda dising
ood labelling o include in o ma ion on he heal h and sus ainabili y
implica ions o ood p oduc s, (c) suppo ing he ishe ies sec o in his
ansi ion wi h aining and de elopmen , assis ance and ecogni ion,
(d) encou aging anspa en ma ke ing p ac ices ha p omo e heal hy
and sus ainable ood consump ion, (e) helping consume s educe ood
was e wi h ideas o le o e s and po ion sizes, and ( ) adop ing a
di e se and sus ainable p o ein mix by inc easing di e se plan -based
p o ein sou ces. The u u e o cu en and u u e gene a ions depends
on ou abili y o c ea e a ood sys em ha suppo s heal hy people and a
heal hy Plane .
Da a a ailabili y
The da a unde lying his a icle will be sha ed upon easonable e-
ques s o he co esponding au ho .
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Guilhe me Ma ins A ag˜
ao: Concep ualiza ion, W i ing – o iginal
d a , Da a cu a ion, W i ing – e iew & edi ing. Pablo Sa alegui-Díez:
Me hodology, Valida ion. Sebas i´
an Villasan e: Concep ualiza ion,
W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Valida ion. Lucía L´
opez-L´
opez: Concep u-
aliza ion, Valida ion. Edua do Aguile a: Valida ion. Joan Mo an a:
Concep ualiza ion, W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Valida ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgemen s
The au ho s o his s udy would like o hank all he membe s o
Alimen a o hei suppo , as well as o he oppo uni y o deepen
hei insigh s in o his ield o s udy. We a e also e y g a e ul o he
help p o ided o he IEO-CSIC esea che s (in pa icula Jos´
e Luis del
Río om C.O. Vigo, Lou des Fe n´
andez-Pe al a om C.O. M´
alaga and
he en i e ishing ac i i y moni o ing eam), and he Coope a i a de
A mado es de Vigo (ARVI), who helped us by p o iding in o ma ion,
knowledge and/o by co obo a ing he analyses de eloped he e.
Finally, we hank he Daniel and Nina Ca asso Founda ion o p o iding
unding suppo o Alimen a.
Appendix A. Supplemen a y da a
Supplemen a y da a o his a icle can be ound online a h ps://doi.
o g/10.1016/j.jclep o.2022.131979.
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