sus ainabili y
A icle
Sus ainable Tou ism: A Hidden Theo y o he
Cinema ic Image? A Theo e ical and Visual
Analysis o he Way o S . James
Luc ezia Lopez 1,* , En ico Nicosia 2and Rubén Camilo Lois González 1
1Depa men o Geog aphy, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, P aza da Uni e sidade 1,
15782 San iago de Compos ela, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Educa ion, Cul u al He i age and Tou ism, Uni e si y o Mace a a, P.le Be elli 1,
62100 Mace a a, I aly; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: luc [email p o ec ed]
Recei ed: 28 Augus 2018; Accep ed: 1 Oc obe 2018; Published: 11 Oc obe 2018
Abs ac :
The a ac i eness o a ou is des ina ion is de i ed om mul iple ma e ial and imma e ial
elemen s. Cinema is bo h a ou is communica ion channel and p o ides a a ge ma ke o a
des ina ion. Many egions o e a g ea a ie y o po en ial loca ions desi able o hei scenic
beau y and a is ic and monumen al he i age. The main aim o his pape is o analyze he concep
o sus ainable ou ism as a pilla o he con empo a y cinema ic discou se on pilg image ou es,
combining heo e ical and empi ical me hodologies. I begins by analyzing how, gi en hei powe ,
images a e na a i e ins umen s ha assume a ue pe o ma i e alue o geog aphical eali y. The
esea ch hen ocuses on he cinema og aphic space and isual cinema og aphic discou se. The case
s udy is sus ainable ou ism along he Way o S . James (Spain). The ma e ial is a co pus o wo
documen a y ilms. Thei mo iescapes highligh he p esence o a sus ainable ilmic heo em wi hin
a po en ial cinema ic gen e—pilg image mo ies. Thus, his s udy con ibu es o he in es iga ion o
how sus ainable pilg image ou ism p ac ices a e used in cinema ic p oduc ion as a possible mo ie
heo em. I p esen s a conclusi e c i ical e alua ion o he ole and message o hese mo iescapes.
Keywo ds:
pilg image and eligion ou ism; sus ainable pilg image ou ism; mo iescapes; he Way
o S . James
1. In oduc ion
The impac o isual media on he public is undeniable. Film and ele ision p oduc ions place he
spo ligh on s o ies, a is s, places, li es yles, cus oms, and p ac ices, bo h eal and ac i e. In doing so,
hey a e able o seduce millions o spec a o s. This seduc ion can hen engende he acquisi ion and
he consump ion o goods associa ed wi h a much-lo ed p oduc ion: hink abou he phenomenon
o he p oduc s associa ed wi h blockbus ing se ies, such as he oys and clo hing o S a Wa s and
The Lo d o he Rings. Film and ele ision p oduc ions a e also ools o p omo ing na u al and cul u al
en i onmen s. The iewe is able o ejec hese elemen s o , on he con a y, d eam abou hem and
e en ually endo se hem [1].
The in en ion o he p esen pape is o examine beyond some o hese in oduc o y and
consolida ed issues in o de o p opose new esea ch app oaches ha c ea e a dialogue be ween
ou ism sus ainabili y and he ilm indus y. This wo k is si ua ed wi hin he ealm o ou ism s udies
ha ha e placed hei academic and scien i ic in e es on he Way o S . James. The Way o S . James is a
medie al pilg image ou e and was decla ed he Fi s Eu opean Cul u al Rou e in 1987. Subsequen ly,
he F ench Way was decla ed a Wo ld He i age Si e by UNESCO (Uni ed Na ions Educa ional, Scien i ic
and Cul u al O ganiza ion) in 1993. These ecogni ions ha e assigned he pilg image he ole o a s a
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649; doi:10.3390/su10103649 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 2 o 24
ou is p oduc in he Au onomous Communi y o Galicia, an achie emen ha was eached due o
he cons uc ion and es o a ion o hospi ali y acili ies o pilg ims [
2
,
3
]. Today, he F ench Way is a
e e ence o pilg image ou ism; i s inclusi eness o pilg ims wi h di e en p o iles has ans o med
i in o a popula des ina ion ha can ha e nega i e impac s o he e i o y. Howe e , he pilg im,
unlike he ou is , ac s mo e espec ully and sus ainably owa d he en i onmen , and his is wha
will be isualized h ough he p ima y sou ces analyzed.
F om a his o ical pe spec i e, pilg image ou ism has sha ed ai s wi h sus ainable ou ism. Bo h
a e espec ul o he na u al, u ban, and monumen al en i onmen , and in e p e he ou ism endencies
o he 21s cen u y as well as he beha io al guidelines o he mobile pe son. Acco ding o Saa inen [
4
],
he idea o sus ainable ou ism includes he concep s o esponsible ou ism o mula ed by Goodwin [
5
],
as bo h e e “ o ou ism de elopmen p inciples and p ac ices aiming o make places be e o people
o li e and isi ”. Bo h o ms o ou ism “in end o minimize he nega i e and maximize he posi i e
social, economic, and en i onmen al impac s o ou ism in des ina ion communi ies and en i onmen s,
by p omo ing e hical consump ion and p oduc ion among all s akeholde s” [4] (p. 2).
The p esen s udy is inspi ed by he new app oach demanding e lec ion on he ela ionship
be ween pilg image and eligious ou ism in sus ainable e ms. This ela ionship can be exp essed
in a ious ways; his s udy u ns i s a en ion o one o he mos commonly used isual media ( he
cinema) as a ool o communica ion and sensi i i y owa d hese beha io al p ecep s. The ilmic
language has always been able o na a e he pe manence o ime and his o y. These a ibu es eme ge
in a pilg image ou e ha wan s o p o ide a sus ainable model, e en a e mo e han 12 cen u ies o
exis ence [
6
]. He i age and ec ea ed landscapes a e sus ainable, oo. The e u n o slow mo emen ,
calm con e sa ions wi h o he pilg ims, and i ine a ies unde s ood as a walk e oke he e usal o g ow
and condemn he useless consump ion o ene gy. In o he wo ds, his model minimizes he ecological
oo p in . Finally, any hing he pilg im consumes (whe he ue o alse) is conside ed local, na u al
and heal hy. The gas onomy o he Way o S . James is seen as he esul o an ances al cul u e,
de i ed om peasan s, and associa ed somehow wi h he my h o adi ional ag a ian sus ainabili y.
Un il now, cinema ic esea ch and pilg image ou ism has been neglec ed. Fo ins ance, ew
s udies ha e explo ed he ela ionship be ween he Way o S . James and cinema. P e ious s udies,
such as hose by Lopez e al. [
7
], Rod íguez Campo and F aiz B ea [
8
], Escude o Gómez [
9
] and
Smi h [
10
] ha e add essed his ela ionship by conside ing cinema as a ou is ic esou ce ha is able
o p ojec a local image on o an in e na ional scale. They conside ed cinema og aphic p oduc ion a
space o ( e)p oduc ion o his o ical and local iden i y. This gene al esea ch line con ibu es o media
and ma ke ing s udies as i highligh s he inc easing p omo ional unc ion o cinema. Because o
his, he p esen a icle depa s om a e lec ion on unc ions o he mo ing image, o demons a e
ou wo king hypo hesis: he p esence o a ilmic heo em ela ing o sus ainabili y along he Way o
S . James. This is ansla ed and p ojec ed h ough he many documen a ies a ailable online. We
conside ha he pa adigm o sus ainabili y inspi es and di ec s cinema og aphic p oduc ions and
de e mines he beha io o ou is s, who in some cases a e he spec a o s hemsel es. Ano he ac o
ha di e s wi h espec o p e ious s udies is he sou ces. Amongs he di e en cinema ic gen es, we
choose o quali a i ely analyze wo documen a ies, as hey ep esen he closes p oximi y o eali y. I
oad mo ies a e hema ically domina ed by mo emen [
11
], pilg image mo ies can become a ilmic
gen e p omo ing sus ainable ou ism. By means o cinema og aphic c ea i e ools, mo ie pilg image
mo emen is cha ac e ized by sus ainable ea u es (slow mobili y, local economic ac i i ies, and con ac
wi h local communi y) ha he selec ed mo iescapes highligh . Thus, his s udy con ibu es o he
unde s anding abou how sus ainable pilg image ou ism ea u es a e used in he cinema ic p oduc ion
as a possible mo ie heo em.
This a icle is di ided in o ou sec ions. The i s p o ides a li e a u e e iew di ided in o wo
sec ions. In i , we analyze he cha ac e is ics and ad an ages o conside ing ilm as a cul u al p oduc
and medium o e i o ial s udies [
12
,
13
]. Fo his eason, he main conce n o ilm analysis is o p o e
he au hen ici y o he ep esen a ion o he place in which he ilm is se . Despi e he ac ha he
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 3 o 24
con en o he ilm indus y is now he subjec o in e disciplina y s udies, his analysis ocuses on he
ou ism indus y, which in ecen yea s has u ned i s a en ion on he in luence o he mo ing image
when unde aking a jou ney [
14
–
16
]. In he second pa , we jus i y he easons why ilm p o ides
use ul da a o geog aphical in e p e a ion and becomes an impo an documen o in o ma ion o
he discipline [
17
]. In his sec ion, we explain he quali a i e me hodology used. In he esul s and
discussion sec ions, we suppo an in e p e i e and compa a i e in e p e a ion o he ilmic heo em
acco ding o mo iescapes and a li e a u e e iew on he Way o S . James. In he conclusion, we e iew
he con ibu ions o cinema og aphic p oduc ion o he p omo ion o sus ainable ou ism and highligh
he need o s udying documen a ies and ilmic images.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Mo iescapes
Seeing and a elling a e e oca i e and insepa able elemen s o any ilm lo e , demons a ed by
he ans o ma ion ha o en occu s om he oyeu in o he oyageu . The English language ende s
he mo emen be ween he gaze and he place, sigh and si e, a luid whole ha allows us o pe cei e
he impo ance o he spec a o who becomes he oyageu and a ou is o he places ha ha e been
emo ionally mo ing and made an imp ession. Acco ding o Esche , a cinema ic landscape o landscape
in mo ies may be in e p e ed as he ep esen a ion o ma e ial, eal-wo ld, and subjec i ely o ganized
scene y on he ea h’s su ace, which is loaded wi h cul u al addi ions, o a ic i ious en i onmen in
he day- o-day dimension. Simila o he hemes and subjec s used in pain ing, li e a u e, pho og aphy,
and e en mo ies, his wo ks because he e is no landscape ha has been seen o he i s ime [
18
]
(p. 309) (c . [19]).
The audience pe cei es a landscape i has seen be o e, and hus i is a pu pose ully c ea ed
p oduc , so hey p ocess his as a subs i u e in i s own subjec i e sense o pe cep ion. I is no a
ques ion o whe he he landscape p esen ed ac ually e lec s how he audience sees he physical
wo ld, bu a he o whe he he ecipien us s he ep esen a ion and he manne in which ce ain
landscape elemen s a e selec i ely pe cei ed. These imagina y landscapes con ibu e o he success
o he mo ie h ough a ious posi ions and mechanisms o ac ion. The a ied ep esen a ion and
na a i e unc ion o landscape in mo ies is hus isualized in he a ea o ension be ween se ing and
emo ion [20,21].
The landscape can be e bally, isually, and g aphically desc ibed, bu i can also be na a ed.
In ha case, hey a e ela ional spaces in which he places, subjec s, and e en s do no exis in
a oid bu a e in e sec ed in social ime and space, collabo a ing in he cons uc ion o an image.
The landscape is one o he elemen s ha lead he ilmmake o selec a place in which o se hei
na a i es. To expe ience he landscape and, in pa icula , an u ban landscape, is hus equi alen o i s
cinema og aphic ep esen a ion. In Pa is, Capi al o he Nine een h Cen u y, Wal e Benjamin [
22
] in en s
he con empo a y u ban landscape as a place explo ed by he lâneu , a place ha is a e sable bu
elusi e, a mi o o he social phenomena o he ime. Also, om i s incep ion wi h pano amic ilms,
cinema has been a gen e o media composed o scenog aphic sigh s ha ans o m he jou ney om one
place o ano he , hen in o a di use p ac ice. The dawn o cinema in en ed he pano amic iew, which
included si e-seeing jou neys and he spa ial- isual desi e o ci cula e and mo e, which cha ac e ized
he new mode n imes. Filmic ep esen a ion was no longe s a ic, as i is no only he p o agonis s
ha mo e in he landscape; a he , i is he ep esen a ion echnique i sel ha inspi es mo emen (see,
o example, a ilm such as Pano ama om Times Building, New Yo k o 1905). As o si e-seeing, ilm
c ea es i s own a chi ec u al landscape ha engages he gaze in i s ela ionship o mo emen . When
ilm p oduces a el s o ies, i c ea es a space o seeing and sc u inizing. Beha ing as a a ele , he
i ine an spec a o eads he pano amas in mo emen as exe cises o imagina ion. Be ween geog aphy
and isual na a ion, i is possible o g asp wo-dimensional ela ionships based on he con ic ion ha
spa ial analysis can ob ain assis ance om indi ec sou ces, capable o o e ing a new dimension o
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 4 o 24
eali y o geog aphic knowledge, based on li ed and in e p e able space [
23
–
26
]. I is an analysis o
hose indi idual geog aphies ha shape human e i o iali y. Acco ding o Bu le [
27
], people o en
choose hei ou is des ina ion depending on wha hey ha e seen ia popula audio isual means,
like ele ision and cinema. The in luence o hese images can be olun a y, in olun a y, acciden al,
conscious, o unconscious. He also sugges s ha because people now ead less equen ly, any hing
appea ing in ilms and ele ision pene a es socie y mo e easily.
Speci ic weigh is gi en o he ole o au onomous ac o s like “ he news” and “popula cul u e”.
In con as o eli is o inge cul u e, which in luences a small pe cen age o he popula ion, popula
cul u e s eng hens and e lec s models o communica ion and consump ion o he wide gene al
public. Films a e an impo an agmen o popula cul u e. They can ansmi essen ial in o ma ion
abou a des ina ion in a sho ime and o many people. Rega ding he ole o popula cul u e in
shaping a “des ina ion image” wi hin he amewo k o ou ism, U y (2002) claims ha one o he
basic mo i a ions o ou is s o isi a loca ion is he expec a ion ha hese people may ha e di e en
expe iences o hose hey would ha e in hei home loca ion [23].
Today, howe e , i is e i o ies ha “exploi ” cinema, using i as an ins umen o p omo ing
ou ism (Figu e 1). I is no easy o answe he ques ion o why ilms and ic ions induce ou ism, by
ans o ming a loca ion in o a ou is des ina ion. Fo a long ime, i was hough ha i was because in
some ilms o ic ion you can see images ha en ice he iewe o go and isi he loca ions admi ed
du ing he iewing. In eali y, he phenomenon is mo e complex and also has o do wi h he hemes o
he ilm, he sequences and he ela ionships be ween he cha ac e s: in sho , i is he magic o he
ilm as a whole ha makes he se pala able. Bu his happens when he ilm in all i s elemen s wo ks
because i is a “so sale” o he e i o y, able o appeal no only o a ional elemen s, bu also and
abo e all o emo ional ones [24,25,28,29].
Sus ainabili y 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 24
exe cises o imagina ion. Be ween geog aphy and isual na a ion, i is possible o g asp
wo-dimensional ela ionships based on he con ic ion ha spa ial analysis can ob ain assis ance
om indi ec sou ces, capable o o e ing a new dimension o eali y o geog aphic knowledge,
based on li ed and in e p e able space [23–26]. I is an analysis o hose indi idual geog aphies ha
shape human e i o iali y. Acco ding o Bu le [27], people o en choose hei ou is des ina ion
depending on wha hey ha e seen ia popula audio isual means, like ele ision and cinema. The
in luence o hese images can be olun a y, in olun a y, acciden al, conscious, o unconscious. He
also sugges s ha because people now ead less equen ly, any hing appea ing in ilms and
ele ision pene a es socie y mo e easily.
Speci ic weigh is gi en o he ole o au onomous ac o s like “ he news” and “popula
cul u e”. In con as o eli is o inge cul u e, which in luences a small pe cen age o he
popula ion, popula cul u e s eng hens and e lec s models o communica ion and consump ion o
he wide gene al public. Films a e an impo an agmen o popula cul u e. They can ansmi
essen ial in o ma ion abou a des ina ion in a sho ime and o many people. Rega ding he ole o
popula cul u e in shaping a “des ina ion image” wi hin he amewo k o ou ism, U y (2002)
claims ha one o he basic mo i a ions o ou is s o isi a loca ion is he expec a ion ha hese
people may ha e di e en expe iences o hose hey would ha e in hei home loca ion [23].
Today, howe e , i is e i o ies ha “exploi ” cinema, using i as an ins umen o p omo ing
ou ism (Figu e 1). I is no easy o answe he ques ion o why ilms and ic ions induce ou ism, by
ans o ming a loca ion in o a ou is des ina ion. Fo a long ime, i was hough ha i was because
in some ilms o ic ion you can see images ha en ice he iewe o go and isi he loca ions
admi ed du ing he iewing. In eali y, he phenomenon is mo e complex and also has o do wi h
he hemes o he ilm, he sequences and he ela ionships be ween he cha ac e s: in sho , i is he
magic o he ilm as a whole ha makes he se pala able. Bu his happens when he ilm in all i s
elemen s wo ks because i is a “so sale” o he e i o y, able o appeal no only o a ional elemen s,
bu also and abo e all o emo ional ones [24,25,28,29].
Figu e 1. The ole o cinema in he cons uc ion o he ou is space. Own elabo a ion.
2.2. Film-Induced Tou ism
Pionee ing s udies on he subjec o ilm-induced ou ism ha e been comple ed by Cohen [26]
and Bu le [27], and la e by Riley e al. [14]. In es iga ions in he ield ha e p oceeded slowly, wi h
Bee on, a schola a he Uni e si y o La T obe (Melbou ne, Aus alia), p o iding signi ican
con ibu ion wi h he wo k Film-Induced Tou ism [25]. No ably, bo h Bu le [27] and Bee on [28]
e ealed aces o he o igins o he phenomenon in a el dia ies and pos ca ds om he ime o he
G and Tou , and he desc ip ions, images, and pho og aphs o places made popula by no elis s
du ing he Roman ic pe iod. T a el and cinema, like a el and li e a u e, a e ac i i ies ha allow
people o escape om hei daily ou ine, allowing hem o del e in o new eali ies and con ex s and
hus b oaden hei knowledge and ho izons.
e i o ial
iden i y
e i o ial
image
e i o ial
b anding
Figu e 1. The ole o cinema in he cons uc ion o he ou is space. Own elabo a ion.
2.2. Film-Induced Tou ism
Pionee ing s udies on he subjec o ilm-induced ou ism ha e been comple ed by Cohen [
26
] and
Bu le [
27
], and la e by Riley e al. [
14
]. In es iga ions in he ield ha e p oceeded slowly, wi h Bee on,
a schola a he Uni e si y o La T obe (Melbou ne, Aus alia), p o iding signi ican con ibu ion wi h
he wo k Film-Induced Tou ism [
25
]. No ably, bo h Bu le [
27
] and Bee on [
28
] e ealed aces o he
o igins o he phenomenon in a el dia ies and pos ca ds om he ime o he G and Tou , and he
desc ip ions, images, and pho og aphs o places made popula by no elis s du ing he Roman ic
pe iod. T a el and cinema, like a el and li e a u e, a e ac i i ies ha allow people o escape om
hei daily ou ine, allowing hem o del e in o new eali ies and con ex s and hus b oaden hei
knowledge and ho izons.
Tooke and Bake [
15
] aised he conce n ha he ilm loca ion will no o en ha e he ca ying
capaci y o cope wi h la ge inc eases in isi o s. This could esul in a numbe o po en ial undesi able
consequences, such as inc eased ehicle a ic, pedes ian conges ion, and loss o p i acy and local
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 5 o 24
acili ies o locals. The des uc ion o he na u al en i onmen is also a conce n. Fo example, ilming
o The Beach and he subsequen ilm ou ism esul ed in ex ensi e en i onmen al damage o Phi
Phi Lae Island in Sou he n Thailand. Ano he p oblem ha occu s is when he loca ion appea s
di e en o how i is po ayed in he ilm, esul ing in a dec ease in isi o sa is ac ion [
30
]. Whe eas
Ka po ich [
31
] is one o se e al esea che s o s a e ha ilm ou ism, ele ou ism, and mo ie ou ism
a e he same concep , To chin [
32
] dis inguished be ween mo ie- and ele ision-induced ou ism,
asse ing ha ele ision has a longe , mo e le elled impac on ea u ed locali ies because i has las ing
appeal, d awing isi o s o many yea s [
33
]. P e ious s udies ha e shown ha ele ision p og ams
ac i ely inc ease isi o numbe s o ce ain des ina ions [
16
,
34
–
40
] o cause inc eased in e es in hese
places [
41
]. Qui e possibly, iewing locali ies h ough isual media is e en a des ina ion expe ience
i sel , o e ing he oppo uni y o ga he addi ional in o ma ion [14,40].
In e ms o he impo ance o his sec o o ou ism, esea ch by O’Conno e al. [
37
] sugges ed
ha a i h o inbound U.K. ou is s isi o explo e ilm loca ions. This igu e is expec ed o g ow o e
he coming yea s due o he inc easing amoun s o ime people a e dedica ing o wa ching ele ision,
g ea e in e es in ilm, and con inuous echnological de elopmen s [
42
–
46
]. Tooke and Bake [
15
]
s udied ou ele ision d amas and documen ed hei subsequen e ec s upon numbe s o isi o s
o ea u ed loca ions. In each case, isi o numbe s inc eased d ama ically. The e a e many di e en
o ms o ilm-induced ou ism and Table 1p o ides a comp ehensi e o e iew, along wi h hei
common cha ac e is ics and a ious examples in ela ion o published academic li e a u e:
Table 1. Fo ms and cha ac e is ics o ilm-induced ou ism [25,34,35,43–46].
Type/Fo m Cha ac e is ics Examples
Film loca ion as an a ac ion in i s
own igh
Loca ion is he p ima y a el mo i a o and an
a ac ion in i s own igh
Cap ain Co elli’s Mandolin (Ke alonia);
The Full Mon y (She ield);
T oy (Çanakkale)
Film ou ism as pa o a holiday
Tou is s and isi o s isi ing ilm loca ions; e.g.,
booking s udio ou s as seconda y ac i i ies
wi hin a la ge holiday
On-loca ion Ga in & S acey ou s (Ba y Island);
Il Pos ino (Salina Island)
Film ou ism occu ing due o
special in e es
Such special in e es s include booking holidays
o des ina ions as a di ec esul o hei TV
p o iles, isi ing celeb i y homes, ilm loca ions
wi h celeb i y s a us, and loca ions
ep esen a i e o ano he his o ic pe iod
The Andy G i i h Show (1950s);
Hea bea (1960s);
The Passion o he Ch is (2004)
Film ou ism icons o ou is s o
gaze upon as a ocal poin o hei
isi
Na u al scene y, his o ical backg ound,
s o yline heme, ac o s, mo ie p emie es, ilm
es i als, symbolic con en , and human
ela ionships all se e as mo ie ou ism icons
Cannes Film Fes i al; Lo d o he Rings: Re u n o
he King p emie e
Film ou ism o places whe e
ilming is only belie ed o ha e
aken place
Tou is s and isi o s a el o places
ep esen ed e en i he ilm shows a di e en
ac ual se ing
Chicago, Chicago ( ilmed in To on o);
B a ehea , Sco land ( ilmed in I eland);
Romeo + Julie , I aly ( ilmed in Cali o nia and
Mexico)
Film ou ism as a pa o he
oman ic gaze
Tou is s like o gaze upon TV and ilm loca ions
in soli ude and p i acy, es ablishing an inne
ela ionship
Blue Juice (1995), No h Co nwall;
No ing Hill (1999), London
Film ou ism o pilg image
Nos algic ilm ou ism can ake he o m o
isi ing loca ions ha ep esen ano he ime.
Film ou ism pilg image in ol es isi ing ilm
si es o pay homage o he ilm
S eel Magnolias, Doune Cas le, (Mon y Py hon);
The Lo d o he Rings si es;
P ide and P ejudice, Lyme Pa k in Cheshi e, U.K.
Film-induced ou ism is de ined by he Sco ish Tou ism Boa d as, “ he business o a ac ing
isi o s h ough he po ayal o a place o a place’s s o ylines in ilm, ideo, and ele ision” [
47
].
Bee on, like Buchman e al. [
48
] (p. 233), de ined i as, “ isi s o si es whe e mo ies and TV p og ams
a e ilmed as well as o ou p oduc ion s udios, including mo ie- ela ed heme pa ks [
. . .
] wha is o
in e es is he ou is ac i i y associa ed wi h he ilm indus y” [
25
] (p. 9). Hudson and Ri chie [
49
]
sugges ed ha ilm ou ism is he ou ism ha is gene a ed as a esul o he appea ance o a des ina ion
o a ac ion in ilm, ideo, o ele ision. In hei analysis o his phenomenon, hey iden i ied ou
gene al ields o analysis: he es ima ion o he dis inc in luence o he ilm on a el decisions, he
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 6 o 24
o ma ion o speci ic ca ego ies o ilm ou is s, he measu emen o he e ec s o ilms on he numbe
o incoming ou is s and on he li es o esiden s, and he analysis o des ina ion ma ke ing ac i i ies
connec ed o ilm ou ism.
Ano he e m used pa icula ly in he B i ish media is se -je e s [
50
]— ou is s who choose o
a el o a speci ic place wi h he pu pose o isi ing he su oundings, he a eas, and he loca ions
used o one o mo e ilms. I is he e o e a segmen o ou ism demand pa icula ly cha ac e ized
and de e mined by he in luence o an image on he small and big sc eens, a ma ke ha bene i s om
a elling o places whe e ilm s a s ha e pe o med o s ayed, and is in luenced by wha Anglo-Saxons
de ine as celeb i y cul u e [51].
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
Pa icula ly due o he powe o he images i is capable o p oducing and emo ions i e okes, ilm
can assume a ue pe o ma i e alue in ela ion o i s geog aphic eali y [
29
,
43
]. This is because, once
in e nalized by he local communi y, i is ep oduced in indi idual and collec i e beha io s, p o iding
iden i y e e ences ha guide and cha ac e ize he p ocess o e i o ializa ion. Se ing, loca ion and
deco ep esen some o he essen ial componen s in he p oduc ion o a ilm, a s o y, a TV se ies o a
documen a y. A ilm o se ies eed o he genius o he di ec o s and he cha m o he ac o s, bu also
om he eal o ep oduced loca ions in which he ilms a e sho ; in ac , o many ele ision and ilm
p oduc ions, he se s hemsel es become p o agonis s [
46
]. Shoo ing ac oss di e en egions, c ea ing
and p ojec ing con en wi h e i o ial iden i y alue can be s a egies o pa imonial u elage [
52
]. The
cinema og aphic space possesses a spa ial sys em ha can be compa ed o a ep esen a ional space [
53
]
because i employs he physical space and i s objec s, i is expe ienced and ep esen ed h ough images
and symbols and is a space ha he indus y app op ia es o i s own pu poses. The language o
ilm encompasses all na a i e modali ies: e bal, non- e bal, audio and isual [
54
]. The exp ession
“cinema ic discou se” encompasses all modali ies o cinema og aphic ep esen a ion, meaning and
communica ion [
55
] and is based on wo planes: diege ic (his o y o he ilm, na a i es and ac o s)
and ex a-diege ic ( he ilm as an a is ic p oduc o p o essionals) [54,56].
We op ed o cha ac e ise cinema og aphic space h ough isual cinema og aphic discou se o he
diege ic plane. In 2001, Rose [
57
] published he olume Visual Me hodologies, which mani es ed he
g owing con empo a y impo ance o he isual dimension o he cul u al cons uc ion o Wes e n
social li e. In his ibu e o isi e me hodologies, she highligh ed he impo ance o images in
ansmi ing knowledge, powe , and cul u e. S a o d [
58
] de ended he cons uc ion o knowledge
o he wo ld based on images a he han w i en ex . Thus, he ac o seeing has been ans o med
in o an ac o knowing [
59
], especially in Wes e n cul u es. As a as cinema s udies a e conce ned,
in “E e yday expe ience in Is aeli cinema: The po and he ci y’s ma gin”, Pe i-Bade [
60
] p oposes
a quali a i e in e p e a ion o cinema ic p oduc ion in o de o con i m his wo king hypo hesis. His
cinema og aphic analysis is based on he econs uc ion o u ban spaces depa ing om he p ojec ed
images. D awing on his p eceden , we p opose a quali a i e s udy o cinema ic p oduc ion ela ing o
he Way o S . James, wi h wo documen a ies as ou sou ces. Fo ou quali a i e esea ch, we also
d aw upon s a is ical da a ela ing o pilg image om he Pilg im’s Recep ion O ice and he Way o S .
James Obse a o y. In his la e case, only he se ies up o 2010 is a ailable, as he en i y ceased o
exis o economic and poli ical easons. Fu he mo e, we suppo ou wo king hypo hesis and ou
in e p e a ion o he mo iescapes using Way o S . James li e a u e.
Fi s ly, o explain he me hodology adop ed, we conside ha each image ollows i s p ojec ,
esponding o a igu a i e wo k in which he p oduc ion is bo h a heo e ical p oposi ion and a o mal
demons a ion [
61
,
62
]. Didi-Hube man [
63
] in oduced he idea o heo y in images in ela ion o he
iconog aphical p og am., Images a e also concep ual and pe cep i e: hey a e ehicles o s o ing,
manipula ing, and communica ing he in o ma ion ha allows one o be in con ac wi h he physical
and isual en i onmen [
64
]. The e is a a ie y o elemen s ha compose a wo k and ha can be ea ed
di e en ly, allowing di e en analyses [
65
,
66
]. Analysis o a ilm has an on ological na u e in ha i
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 7 o 24
belongs o he o de o knowledge and i mo es on a double le el: an empi ical space de e mined by
mo emen s and a plane o ideas c ossed by he heme [
67
]. Each cinema og aphic p oduc ion has i s
p imo dial idea and a de e mined o ien a ion ha is e lec ed in i s images [
66
]. The uni e se o he
ilm is unde s ood h ough he ela ionship be ween he changes in places and s a es o he ilm. The
esul is a isual expe ience wi h ep esen a ional and senso y aspec s ha connec he documen a y’s
pilg ims and hei iewe s.
Each isual analysis has i s own me hodology based on he objec i es and message o he
p ojec [
68
], which depends on he c i ical unde s anding o he pe son ad ancing his isual eading.
Fo his eason, o analyze he cinema og aphic isual language o he selec ed ma e ial, we ma k
some quali a i e me hodological guidelines. Ou wo king hypo hesis is he p esence o he new
ilmic heo em o sus ainabili y [
33
] in he Way o S . James documen a ies. To examine his, he
c i e ia o Deleuze a e used: he need o e lec on he hinking o he ilm is shown, he o mali ies
o ep esen a ion a e highligh ed, and he heo e ical igu es o he documen a ies a e in e p e ed
as signi ican elemen s [
69
]. Fo his eason, we assume he ole o ilm analys s, deciding which
documen a ies and which images o selec [
65
]. We se a scale o in e p e a i e ocuses ha co espond
o he message heo ized in he documen a ies. These images ha e a ange o d i ing o ces o ilmic
syn ax; in using hem, a ce ain cohe ence is p oduced in he decodi ied message. They a e quali a i e
indexes used o ead and in e p e sus ainabili y [68,70].
We hink ha hese p esen pa icula i ies allow us o speak o an iconic ecogni ion h ough which
iden i ica ion equi es concep ual knowledge [
64
]. The igu es selec ed a e” heo e ical igu es” [
63
],
ha is, igu es able o p oduce and in e p e he hema ic axis (Figu e 2). We ecognize he mo iescapes
ha con ain iconic signi ie s [
71
], which, when ep esen ing speci ic sociocul u al objec s, become key
ac o s o sus ainable u ban ou ism. Likewise, i mus be possible o ecognize an equi alen o eali y.
As s a ed, he ela ionship wi h ou ism sus ainabili y is he selec ion c i e ia o hese isual messages,
which a e p esen ed below h ough a selec ion o cinema og aphic images. The amewo k used in
sampling he images in he wo documen a ies included hei le el o ep esen a ion o sus ainable
aspec s ha a e de ailed in he ollowing pa ag aph. Images we e selec ed acco ding o he p esence o
heo e ical iconic images. Th ough his p ocess, he quali a i e analysis o an audio isual p oduc ion is
based on a semio ics o he images, h ough which a g amma and semio ics o he mo emen ha
o ganizes he meaning is achie ed [
70
]. Th ough heo e ical images, social dynamics and e i o ial
phenomena a e obse ed and in e p e ed and linked o u ban ou ism sus ainabili y. Th ough
his in e p e i e exe cise, we highligh he po en iali ies o he isi e language when in es iga ing
knowledge and heo ies hiding behind he came a. Thei immedia e alue is an ally o he p omo ion
and lea ning o cus oms and habi s.
Sus ainabili y 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 24
an equi alen o eali y. As s a ed, he ela ionship wi h ou ism sus ainabili y is he selec ion c i e ia
o hese isual messages, which a e p esen ed below h ough a selec ion o cinema og aphic images.
The amewo k used in sampling he images in he wo documen a ies included hei le el o
ep esen a ion o sus ainable aspec s ha a e de ailed in he ollowing pa ag aph. Images we e
selec ed acco ding o he p esence o heo e ical iconic images. Th ough his p ocess, he quali a i e
analysis o an audio isual p oduc ion is based on a semio ics o he images, h ough which a
g amma and semio ics o he mo emen ha o ganizes he meaning is achie ed [70]. Th ough
heo e ical images, social dynamics and e i o ial phenomena a e obse ed and in e p e ed and
linked o u ban ou ism sus ainabili y. Th ough his in e p e i e exe cise, we highligh he
po en iali ies o he isi e language when in es iga ing knowledge and heo ies hiding behind he
came a. Thei immedia e alue is an ally o he p omo ion and lea ning o cus oms and habi s.
Figu e 2. Me hodological s eps. Own elabo a ion d awn om [61–66,69,72].
The se o exis ing ela ionships be ween geog aphy and ilm is based on he p emise ha
spa ial analysis can d aw on indi ec sou ces, o e ing geog aphic unde s anding a new ision o
eali y based on he expe ienced and in e p e able space [73]. Documen a ies a e conside ed he
o igins o cinema and he i s sequence in he his o y o F ench cinema is a documen a y [74,75].
Each documen a y is a unique wo k ha p esen s a ela ionship wi h eali y. Unlike a ilm, no hing
needs o be in en ed o s aged, as he in o ma ion i ansmi s is based on eali y. Those who
pa icipa e in i s p oduc ion a e closely linked o eali y. They a e no playing a ole, and hey a e
ee in on o he came a [74]. The documen a y cha ac e and accessibili y o he sou ces a e wo
aspec s o conside i we a e o measu e he de e mina ion capaci y o a ilm. A documen a y implies
a g ea e le el o eali y and he desi e o he p oduce , which o en coincides wi h he p o agonis ,
o ep oduce de ails and emo ions o each a le el o empa hy wi h i s spec a o s. Accessibili y is a
g ea ad an age as i con ibu es owa d achie ing he objec i e o democ a izing he sou ces and
in o ma ion.
In Table 2, we p esen he documen a ies e e ing o he Way o S . James ha a e a ailable
online.
Table 3 summa izes he wo ilms analyzed, which a e:
Camino de San iago Pilg image—The Way Film is a documen a y ilm p oduced by Ma k Shea, who
comple es he F ench Way be ween Ap il and May 2004 o e 34 days. The documen a y is he
esul o his pilg image, which he documen s and sha es wi h o he s. He is he p esen e and
ac s as a guide and p oduce o he ilm. His documen a y is a guide as i accompanies he
jou ney wi h explana ions and in e iews.
Uma Jo nada pelo Caminho de San iago is a documen a y ilm abou he F ench Way ha akes place
o e 35 days. The languages employed a e music and isuals. I is a sequence o images
ep esen ing he Way o S . James and he pilg ims. The music is he only sound in he ilm, and
his places all he spec a o ’s a en ion on o wha is being seen. I is an excellen and ca e ully
Figu e 2. Me hodological s eps. Own elabo a ion d awn om [61–66,69,72].
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 8 o 24
The se o exis ing ela ionships be ween geog aphy and ilm is based on he p emise ha spa ial
analysis can d aw on indi ec sou ces, o e ing geog aphic unde s anding a new ision o eali y based
on he expe ienced and in e p e able space [73]. Documen a ies a e conside ed he o igins o cinema
and he i s sequence in he his o y o F ench cinema is a documen a y [
74
,
75
]. Each documen a y is
a unique wo k ha p esen s a ela ionship wi h eali y. Unlike a ilm, no hing needs o be in en ed
o s aged, as he in o ma ion i ansmi s is based on eali y. Those who pa icipa e in i s p oduc ion
a e closely linked o eali y. They a e no playing a ole, and hey a e ee in on o he came a [
74
].
The documen a y cha ac e and accessibili y o he sou ces a e wo aspec s o conside i we a e o
measu e he de e mina ion capaci y o a ilm. A documen a y implies a g ea e le el o eali y and he
desi e o he p oduce , which o en coincides wi h he p o agonis , o ep oduce de ails and emo ions
o each a le el o empa hy wi h i s spec a o s. Accessibili y is a g ea ad an age as i con ibu es
owa d achie ing he objec i e o democ a izing he sou ces and in o ma ion.
In Table 2, we p esen he documen a ies e e ing o he Way o S . James ha a e a ailable online.
Table 2. Online documen a ies on he Way o S . James.
Ti le Du a ion Yea
El Camino di San iago no un camino de osas 00:09:59 2006
Camino de San iago Documen a y Film—The Way 01:15:38 2010
El Camino de San iago 00:44:00 2011
Walking he Wo ld—Cammino de San iago 1◦week 00:51:51 2013
Walking he Wo ld—Cammino de San iago 2◦week 00:51:54 2013
Walking he Wo ld—Cammino de San iago 3◦week 00:51:04 2013
Walking he Wo ld—Cammino de San iago 4◦week 00:51:10 2013
Walking he Wo ld—Cammino de San iago 5◦week 00:52:21 2013
Walking he Wo ld—Cammino de San iago 6◦week 00:51:26 2013
Uma Jo nada pelo Caminho de San iago 02:08:48 2014
Sei ie pe San iago 01:24:20 2015
Camino de San iago 2015—La Via de la Pla a 00:33:58 2015
Dia io di iaggio 00:56:03 2015
In Cammino|S ada pe San iago 2016 00:54:22 2016
San iago—Anime in Cammino 03:13:26 2016
Il Cammino di San iago—La ia ancese 00:50:13 2018
Table 3summa izes he wo ilms analyzed, which a e:
Camino de San iago Pilg image—The Way Film is a documen a y ilm p oduced by Ma k Shea, who
comple es he F ench Way be ween Ap il and May 2004 o e 34 days. The documen a y is he esul o
his pilg image, which he documen s and sha es wi h o he s. He is he p esen e and ac s as a guide
and p oduce o he ilm. His documen a y is a guide as i accompanies he jou ney wi h explana ions
and in e iews.
Uma Jo nada pelo Caminho de San iago is a documen a y ilm abou he F ench Way ha akes place o e
35 days. The languages employed a e music and isuals. I is a sequence o images ep esen ing he
Way o S . James and he pilg ims. The music is he only sound in he ilm, and his places all he
spec a o ’s a en ion on o wha is being seen. I is an excellen and ca e ully sho ideo abou he Way,
in which good, high-de ini ion images s and ou . The scenes a e in e es ing, wi h mo emen in he
ligh , and a ull ou o he Way and places o in e es in he ci ies along he pilg image. The Way is he
eal p o agonis , wi h i s na u al landscape and he i age easu es. This echnique allows he spec a o
o be e e lec on wha hey a e wa ching. Pe haps his combina ion o images and music ein o ces
he sense and desi e o he jou ney.
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 9 o 24
Table 3. Resea ch sou ces [76,77].
Ti le Camino de San iago Pilg image
The Way Film
Uma Jo nada pelo Caminho
de San iago
Gen e Documen a y Documen a y
Yea 2010 2014
Coun y Aus alia Po ugal
Du a ion 01:15:38 2:08:48
S a ing Poin Sain -Jean Pied de Po Sain -Jean Pied de Po
P o agonis s Ma k Shea And e Luiz
Sou ce h p://www.o e lande . / he-
way-camino-de-san iago- ilm/
h ps://www.you ube.com/wa ch? =
DLsPX2K9 0mo ie= 2406422
A e he collec ion o da a abou he online documen a ies (Table 2), we selec ed wo o hem, as
indica ed in Table 3. The c i e ia o hei selec ion a e:
(1)
Thei p oduce s come om wo di e en coun ies: Po ugal and Aus alia, a close and a
dis an coun y. This geog aphical dis ance migh de e mine a di e en e i o ial pe cep ion
and ep esen a ion.
(2)
The s a ing poin o he wo documen a ies is Sain -Jean-Pied-de-Po . Thus, he ep esen ing
e i o ies would coincide h oughou he p ojec ion. Documen a ies we e downloaded om he
In e ne and sa ed on a pe sonal compu e .
They we e wa ched by using a media playe ep oduce , which allows s opping he p ojec ion
and copying he cu en mo iescape. We iewed he documen a ies h ee imes. The i s ime was
mean o unde s and i s main con en and o con i m he cohe ence o he choice. Du ing he second
iewing, we p oceeded o selec hose mo iescapes ha esponded o ou analy ical amewo k aimed
a showing he sus ainable aspec s o he pilg image ou ism (mobili y, accommoda ion, sociabili y,
local he i age and gas onomy). In e ms o he he i age and local o e , we p opose some o hei
po en ial mo iescapes ha esponded o well-known a ac ions along he Way o S . James, such as
he Ca hed als o Bu gos and As o ga, in o de o poin ou he ma ke ing powe o cinema ic images.
In he case s udies, he cinema og aphic na a i es in mo emen gene a e a sense o meaning, as one
o he pilla s o analysis is p ecisely ha he slow mo emen o pilg image gi es way o signi ican
p ac ices ha can be used o unde s and he ea u es o ou ism sus ainabili y. Some o he heo e ical
igu es a e in oduced in he ollowing pa ag aph, h ough which dialec ics be ween eali y and
p oduc ion make he p oduc ion’s discou se explici .
4. Resul s and Discussion
As was asse ed in he in oduc ion, ou wo king hypo hesis is o ecognize and make explici
he ilmic heo em o sus ainabili y (slow mobili y, pilg ims’ heal hy p ac ices, and pe manence o he
Way), which inspi es documen a y p oduc ions abou he Way o S . James pilg image. As a pionee in
e ms o heo e ical and hema ic esea ch in o audio isual sou ces abou he Way, we link he esul s
wi h o he Way o S . James s udies which, being ela ed o mo e han only cinema, a e si ua ed wi hin
he con ex o e i o ial s udies on pilg image. We highligh e y gene al esul s, and o he s ha a e
mo e speci ic. In gene al, bo h documen a ies demons a e an in en ion o highligh he alue o he
Way, especially he F ench Way, which, as is shown in Figu e 3, is he mos popula ou e amongs
pilg ims and is he ou e ha ecei e he mos a en ion.
The alua ion o he Way occu s on wo le els: spa ial and expe ien ial. A he spa ial le el, he
Way o S . James is he p o agonis ; i is he eal space o he Way ha coincides wi h he se ing o he
documen a ies. This ein o ces he sense o space and he capaci y o he spec a o o expe ience i
as a isual expe ience. Le us look a he second aspec in which he isual expe ience o he Way is
exp essed h ough images in mo emen . I is a slow mo emen ha acili a es he ela ionship and he
ecogni ion o heo e ical igu es, o ilmic igu es ha we employ o decodi y p oduc ion. Wi h ega d
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 16 o 24
Sus ainabili y 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 24
Figu e 12. Ca hed al o As o ga [77].
Figu e 13. Main easons o unde ake he Way (2007–2010) [89].
Figu e 14. Social momen s along he Way [76].
Figu e 12. Ca hed al o As o ga [77].
Sus ainabili y 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 24
Figu e 12. Ca hed al o As o ga [77].
Figu e 13. Main easons o unde ake he Way (2007–2010) [89].
Figu e 14. Social momen s along he Way [76].
Figu e 13. Main easons o unde ake he Way (2007–2010) [89].
Sus ainabili y 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 24
Figu e 12. Ca hed al o As o ga [77].
Figu e 13. Main easons o unde ake he Way (2007–2010) [89].
Figu e 14. Social momen s along he Way [76].
Figu e 14. Social momen s along he Way [76].
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 17 o 24
Sus ainabili y 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 24
Figu e 15. Social momen s along he Way [76].
Pilg image is an expe ience ha elici s in e es because i is ano he p ocess o unde s anding
humans and hei ela ionship wi h he land. Fu he mo e, slow mobili y eaches us o unde s and
he land and i s esou ces [91]. The p oduc ions analyzed, like many o hose linked o he Way,
unc ion as a display ha allows wine and gas onomy o he egion o be p omo ed (Figu e 16). As
displayed in he documen a ies, pilg ims p e e o consume local p oduc s and he e o e hose
based on gas onomic adi ions ha allow hem o ha monize wi h he su ounding land. The
pos -con empo a y ou is ’s cu iosi y and desi e o acqui e new knowledge also inspi es he pilg im,
who ully expe iences he Way. One o hese expe iences is linked o local esou ces ha a e used by
audio isual p oduc ions. Gi en ha a ilm needs a loca ion [25,29], an ac i e collabo a ion be ween
cinema and local esou ces is necessa y [4,5]. The cases analyzed a e p oo o geog aphical app aisal
h ough cinema, as hey isualize he Way’s ich o e ings: cul u al, social, e hnog aphic and
culina y he i age.
Figu e 16. Local esou ces and cinema p oduc ion [77].
Figu e 15. Social momen s along he Way [76].
Pilg image is an expe ience ha elici s in e es because i is ano he p ocess o unde s anding
humans and hei ela ionship wi h he land. Fu he mo e, slow mobili y eaches us o unde s and he
land and i s esou ces [
91
]. The p oduc ions analyzed, like many o hose linked o he Way, unc ion as
a display ha allows wine and gas onomy o he egion o be p omo ed (Figu e 16). As displayed in
he documen a ies, pilg ims p e e o consume local p oduc s and he e o e hose based on gas onomic
adi ions ha allow hem o ha monize wi h he su ounding land. The pos -con empo a y ou is ’s
cu iosi y and desi e o acqui e new knowledge also inspi es he pilg im, who ully expe iences he
Way. One o hese expe iences is linked o local esou ces ha a e used by audio isual p oduc ions.
Gi en ha a ilm needs a loca ion [
25
,
29
], an ac i e collabo a ion be ween cinema and local esou ces
is necessa y [
4
,
5
]. The cases analyzed a e p oo o geog aphical app aisal h ough cinema, as hey
isualize he Way’s ich o e ings: cul u al, social, e hnog aphic and culina y he i age.
Sus ainabili y 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 24
Figu e 15. Social momen s along he Way [76].
Pilg image is an expe ience ha elici s in e es because i is ano he p ocess o unde s anding
humans and hei ela ionship wi h he land. Fu he mo e, slow mobili y eaches us o unde s and
he land and i s esou ces [91]. The p oduc ions analyzed, like many o hose linked o he Way,
unc ion as a display ha allows wine and gas onomy o he egion o be p omo ed (Figu e 16). As
displayed in he documen a ies, pilg ims p e e o consume local p oduc s and he e o e hose
based on gas onomic adi ions ha allow hem o ha monize wi h he su ounding land. The
pos -con empo a y ou is ’s cu iosi y and desi e o acqui e new knowledge also inspi es he pilg im,
who ully expe iences he Way. One o hese expe iences is linked o local esou ces ha a e used by
audio isual p oduc ions. Gi en ha a ilm needs a loca ion [25,29], an ac i e collabo a ion be ween
cinema and local esou ces is necessa y [4,5]. The cases analyzed a e p oo o geog aphical app aisal
h ough cinema, as hey isualize he Way’s ich o e ings: cul u al, social, e hnog aphic and
culina y he i age.
Figu e 16. Local esou ces and cinema p oduc ion [77].
Figu e 16. Local esou ces and cinema p oduc ion [77].
The esul s ha ha e been p esen ed coincide wi h p e ious s udies and wi h he s a is ics
a ailable ela ing o he Way o S . James. Wi h hese as ou basis, we ad ance a isual heo iza ion o
ou is sus ainabili y ha eme ges om he case s udies, which allows o a ilm-induced sus ainable
ou ism o be alked abou , cha ac e ized as ollows:
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 18 o 24
•
Slow mobili y: inspi ed by con empo a y ends ha impose new holiday hy hms and s yles [
91
],
he cinema di ec o s and p oduce s exploi he slow mobili y o he Way o S . James o ilms
p omo ing his p ac ice and o each o he s how o ge close o he loca ion.
•
Film-speci ic aspec s: he cinema p oduc ions (especially hose a ailable online) a e pa ne s in
c ea ing success ul on-loca ion ma ke ing [
37
]. The ac o s’ expe iences a e a so o isual guide
h ough which he iewe lea ns abou he loca ion, looks ahead o hei expe ience, o can ela e
o i . Fu he mo e, cinema ou ism can be conside ed an e icien ool o u ban egene a ion and
economic e i aliza ion.
•
Economic bene i s: he cinema og aphic ep esen a ion no only ep esen s a c ea i e o a is ic
exp ession, bu also de ines a se o complex economic ac i i ies based on logic and economic
de e minan s ha in luence i s de elopmen and e olu ion. The local communi y ealizes bene i s
in he sho e m, as ilm imp o es he des ina ion’s image and inc eases ou is p esence, as well
as income [
25
,
30
]. In he mid- o-long e m, ilms boos he a ea’s popula i y, and hey can econ e
o ein o ce he loca ion’s image, o imp o e he in as uc u e, op imize he ecep i e s uc u es,
and enhance local a is ic and cul u al he i age [
45
]. Fo he e i o y and he a eas in which
i ope a es, he company ha manages he economic ac i i y gene a ed by a cinema og aphic
p oduc ion ep esen s a di ec , indi ec , and induced economy, able o gene a e immedia e gains
in e ms o spending du ing he p ocessing o he ilm as well as media ed o induced gains in
e ms o popula i y, posi i e inc ease in he image o he des ina ion, occupa ion, and a i al o
lows o ou is s and isi o s. In he case s udy, a cinema ou is decides whe e o s ay o s op
depending on wha hey ha e seen.
•
Tou is policies: hey should be ocused on managing his ype o cinema ou ism as a compe i i e
geog aphical s a egy [
1
,
36
]. Some policies could add ess he need o a load capaci y s udy
(possibili ies, p os, and cons, e c.), and he p omo ion o coope a ion be ween public and p i a e
ac o s, so ha he enhancemen p ocess in ol es all s akeholde s [
46
]. Also, o he smalle own
cen e s, p oducing mo ie maps o complemen he i ine a y maps) would allow he Way o S .
James o be expe ienced di e en ly, ocusing hei a en ion on less conges ed own cen e s. We
mus no o ge o conside he ou is sus ainabili y o he des ina ion in ela ion o p o ec ing and
espec ing he e i o y and en i onmen , as well as he place’s his o y, iden i y, and communi y.
Public and p i a e en i ies do no ye seem o ully pe cei e he ex en o he p oblem, since
policies a e no always ou lined o con ol he e ec s on he e i o y esul ing om he in ensi e
de elopmen o ou ism. A eal change in cou se in hese new des ina ions will occu only when
hese places a e conside ed as eal, in eg a ed sys ems whe e he in e es s o public and p i a e
ac o s can con e ge.
•
Sus ainabili y aspec s: a en ion mus be paid o he loca ion-communi y ela ionship [
4
,
46
]. The
communi y could eel h ea ened by he a i al o huge in luxes o ou is s, and hen migh no be
able o seize all he po en ial ad an ages ha hey would b ing o he local economy. In o de
o a oid hese undesi able e ec s, hose esponsible o local policies mus y o an icipa e and
assess he consequences ha he inc ease in ou ism could in ol e o he loca ion.
5. Conclusions
Tou ism is a mode n me amo phosis o a el and pilg image [
86
,
87
]. This secula iza ion has
changed i s symbolic meaning, ans o ming places in o ou is loca ions [
80
,
88
,
90
]. The g owing
dimension o con empo a y ou ism, i s cha ac e is ics and he ans e sal dimension o i s indus y
a e he main d i ing o ces ha ha e led he sea ch o new ou ism app oaches. The p esen wo k
sough o examine he de elopmen o a new sus ainable ou ism app oach ela ed o ilm-making
p omo ion o a well-es ablished global pilg image, such as he Way. The ilm-induced ou ism e ec
plays a pi o al ole o a e i o y. To cap u e i s alue and consolida e i s e ec s, ou ism o e ings
mus ma ch he expec a ions c ea ed by he ilmic na a ion and app ecia e and lo e he e i o y’s
esou ces and iden i y, and aise awa eness.
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 19 o 24
As “ ilm gen es a e p oduced by he discou ses which desc ibe hem” [
11
] (p. 2), ilmic
p oduc ions ep esen ing pilg images a e engende ing a p omo ional discou se ha migh slowly
u n in o a p ope gen e. Gi en he o iginal essence o pilg image, documen a y cinema og aphic
p oduc ions coincide in he di usion o a ilmic heo em based on sus ainabili y. As a consequence,
his p oduces p ac ices and egula ions o p oduc ion and con igu ing he space ha a e ep oduced
on an in e na ional le el. Documen a ies abou he Way a e, he e o e, consolida ing a amewo k o
signi ying space. These documen a ies ep esen he space and hey wan o c ea e sensa ions. The
mo ing images ampli y hese senso y p ope ies as hey allow expe iences ha s eng hen he sense o
he place o be eli ed. The ep esen a ional powe o he images is also due o hei abili y o ep oduce
he same expe ience in iewe s. I is h ough his expe ien ial ecogni ion ha images ha e mos
success. Due o cinema isibili y, he Way’s own cen e s, especially hose ha a e smalle in size, could
ake ad an age o he ilm-induced ou ism o hei sus ainable de elopmen (Table 5). Tu ning hese
small ci ies and owns in o cinema loca ions would ha e an immedia e, di ec economic impac and an
inc ease in occupancy o ho els. I would inc ease he p o essionalism o human esou ces and ou is
consump ion, which would equi e he loca ion o ha e p oduc s, goods, se ices, p o essionalism,
specialized companies, and acili ies. Along he Way o S . James, and h oughou he ou e seen in he
ilms ( he F ench Rou e), he e a e al eady se ices and acili ies linked o ou ism (accommoda ion,
es au an s, e c.).
Table 5. Socio-economic impac s o ou is lows in he places o he Way.
Cohesion o Local
Communi y Economic Bene i s Social Incen i es Social Impac s
Income gene a ion o
ci il p ojec s
Inc ease in seasonal
employmen
oppo uni ies
Inc eased leisu e
oppo uni ies T a ic inc ease
Enhancemen o local
image and iden i y
De elopmen o he
ou ism sys em
P omo ion o
o ganiza ions in he a ea Load capaci y exceeded
Building he sense o
belonging o he
communi y
Inc ease o he induced
ou ism
G ow h oppo uni ies o
cul u al exchange Inc eased pollu ion
The impac s o ilm ou ism on he communi y ha e been he subjec o some discussion,
p ima ily by Bee on [
25
]. Al hough mos impac s a e a he simila o ou ism in gene al (inc ease in
e enue, modi ica ion o communi y s uc u e, in a-communal con lic s o e ou ism de elopmen ,
employmen oppo uni ies, imp o emen o quali y o li e, con lic s be ween local communi y and
ou is s, cul u al exchange, commodi ica ion and loss o au hen ici y and e i aliza ion o local cul u e),
impac s speci ic o ilm ou ism ha e ye o be esea ched in de ail, as a e iew o exis ing li e a u e
sugges s li le di e ence be ween he wo. Howe e , how ilm ou ism speci ically impac s he local
communi y is a guably he issue o au hen ici y and ep esen a ion.
One o he ad an ages ha o he ac i e collabo a ion be ween ou ism and cinema is he
enhancemen o he e i o y h ough he cinema og aphic medium, which has he powe o enhance
he cul u al, social and e hnog aphic he i age mo e e ec i ely han an image and b and campaign, as
a ilm is, by i s e y na u e, p omo ion, and communica ion. A ilm o se ies needs a e i o y o a
pu ely ma e ial eason, o p o ide a con ex o he na a ion and o an aes he ic eason o ensu e ha
he e i o y is cohe en wi h and possibly exal s he sc eenplay. The cinema og aphic ep esen a ion
does no ep esen only a c ea i e o a is ic exp ession, bu also de ines a se o complex economic
ac i i ies based on logic and economic de e minan s, which in luence i s de elopmen and e olu ion.
The company ha manages he economic ac i i y gene a ed by a cinema og aphic p oduc is he
p oduc ion ha c ea es a di ec , indi ec , and induced economy o he e i o y and he a eas in
which i ope a es, able o gene a e immedia e gains in e ms o spending du ing he p ocessing o he
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 20 o 24
ilm, and media ed o induced gains in e ms o popula i y, posi i e image g ow h o he des ina ion,
occupa ion, and a i al o ou is and isi o lows (Table 5).
A ilm p oduc ion equi es he use o specialized and he e ogeneous goods and se ices
o p ocessing. The p oduc ion p ocess in e ac s wi h he e i o y on wo di e en le els: one
o ganiza ional and managemen , he o he pu ely aes he ic and a is ic. The e i o y is a undamen al
esou ce o p oduc ion, since i is simul aneously en i onmen , landscape, his o ical, and a is ic
he i age, local cul u e, clima e, socie y and olklo e. The aes he ic mo i a ions, such as he uniqueness
o he e i o y as he sum o esou ces sui able o he subjec , he plo , he a mosphe e, and he
sc eenplay o he ilm; and he economic-o ganiza ional mo i a ions o p ojec managemen , such as
ime, cos s, and esou ces; cons i u e he decisi e mix o choosing one se a he han ano he . The
aes he ic mo i a ions p e ail e e y ime he e i o y necessa y o he c ea ion o he a is ic p oduc is
ecognizable in a single loca ion wi hou al e na i es. When he ilm p esen s a ious possibili ies o
se ing, he p oduc ion ies o ind he leas expensi e loca ion in e ms o cos s, ime, and esou ces.
Fo he e i o y ha is chosen, he e a e signi ican oppo uni ies o he economy o he a ea: di ec
and immedia e economic impac , inc ease in employmen , business specializa ion, p o essionaliza ion
o human esou ces, and ou is consump ion. The p oduc ion equi es he p esence o p oduc s,
goods, se ices, p o essionalism, specialized companies, and s uc u es. The mos eques ed a e hose
ha cha ac e ize he ou ism sec o , such as hospi ali y, anspo , and ca e ing. The p esence in
he same e i o y o all hese esou ces oge he , in addi ion o de e mining he p e e ence o one
loca ion o e ano he , allows he p oduc ion o wo k wi hou mo ing om he locali y, sa ing ime
and money and wi h di ec , indi ec , and induced economic impac s on he hos e i o y. Among
hese, he occupa ional epe cussions, bo h du ing he p ocessing pe iod and pe manen ly, a e pe haps
he mos impo an , as hey allow he specializa ion o a la ge numbe o people and he possibili y
o local en ep eneu ial eali ies o g ow and acqui e use ul knowledge. Wha he p oduce s expec
om he e i o y is adequa e p oblem-sol ing capaci y, so hose places ha gua an ee hese se ices
a e p e e ed.
Despi e he ele ance o s akeholde s, no esea ch has examined on he heo e ical and isual
explo a ion o hese sou ces, which a e accessible and a e equen ly consul ed online by po en ial
pilg ims. Likewise, his wo k ad ances a new line o esea ch ha in i es e lec ion on possible
heo izing in he audio isual indus ies. The wo documen a ies highligh how ou is sus ainabili y
joins wi h he simplici y o pilg image, in ha he pilg im and/o ou is does no need much o
h i e [
84
,
86
,
91
]. B inging he pilg im igu es close o ou is p ac ices con i ms he g owing o e lap
o beha io s and he need o in es iga e he pilg image expe ience om new pe spec i es. Rega ding
ad e ising and communica ion ools, cinema has e olu ionized pe cep ions when ep oducing
geog aphical spaces and i s mo emen s [
93
]. A p esen , we limi ou sel es o de ending heo e ical
possibili ies o he documen a ies, which a e ools o dissemina ing a ilmic heo em ha is ampli ied
when hey can be consul ed ia he in e ne . I is ue ha his esea ch has i s limi a ions, as di ec
con ac wi h p oduce s and pa icipa ing pilg ims would allow ou esul s o be con i med, bu we
hink ha in his p elimina y s age, he scien i ic backing o he p e ious in es iga ions is impo an
in o de o con i m ou hypo hesis. The communica ion po en ial o cinema highligh s geog aphical
esou ces and, in he case s udies, con ibu es o unde s anding he ilms as ools o e lec ion on he
po en ial o own cen e des ina ions. Fo his eason, as a as u u e esea ch di ec ions a e conce ned,
des ina ion managemen o ganiza ions mus conside he economic ad an ages o ilm-induced
ou ism along wi h i s nega i e economic, social, and en i onmen al impac s. Ne wo king be ween
s akeholde s ep esen ing di e en in e es s can help wi h planning and con olling ilm-induced
ou ism wi hin a mo e e hical and sus ainable con ex . The e o e, ilm-induced ou ism mus be an
ins umen capable o ac i a ing in e en ions and gene a ing long- e m bene i s o he o e ings o
des ina ions, wi h he aim o no only o inc easing a i als in he sho - e m, bu also encou aging
ips o be epea ed, o ou is s o ex end hei isi s (Table 5). The e i o y’s ask is o specialize in
supplying quali y esou ces, se ices, and in e en ions in a o o p oduc ions, and ha e he abili y
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3649 21 o 24
o espond o he oppo uni y ha his demand is able o p o ide. In his sense, i ele ision can a ac
iewe s and make hem awa e o a place, i can be conside ed an ins umen o indi ec p omo ion,
so i is impo an ha he loca ion assigned o ou is des ina ions is e ec i ely equipped and eady
o welcome isi o s. Thus, he e is a need o e lec mo e deeply on he local and beha io al impac s
o mo ing images. The new o ma o e i o ial p omo ion ha has used cinema and ele ision in
ecen yea s can ep esen , o San iago de Compos ela, an oppo uni y o he eju ena ion o he
a ge o isi o s, ou is s, and use s and o i s ou is image ha has been expanded o he domes ic
and in e na ional ma ke s. The po en ial o he cinema og aphic medium is mani old. I is a ehicle
o a ac ion o ou is s who would no ha e o he wise isi ed he place, encou ages he e u n o
p io isi o s, and gene a es longe s ays and g ea e expendi u es. Mo eo e , i is a ool ha is able
o expand he a ge ma ke o a des ina ion and o implemen place ma ke ing ac ions. In e p e ing
ou ism in his new ligh allows ope a o s in he sec o o use he ilm p oduc u he o igge a
p ocess o socio-economic g ow h, especially in hose local a eas ha need o c ea e oppo uni ies o
younge gene a ions.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Th ee au ho s con ibu ed o his esea ch and join ly wo k on he publica ion p o iding
li e a u e e iew and w i ing i . L.L. w o e and e iewed he sec ions: “3. Ma e ials and Me hods” and “4. Resul s
& Discussion”. E.N. w o e and e iewed he sec ion: “2. Li e a u e Re iew” and “5. Conclusions”. R.C.L.G. w o e
and e iewed he sec ions: “1. In oduc ion”.
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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