Patent Law and TRIPS: Refining the Patent Law of Iraq to Ensure Compliance with TRIPS

TESIS DE DOCTORADO
PATENT LAW AND TRIPS: REFINING THE PATENT LAW OF
IRAQ TO ENSURE COMPLIANCE WITH TRIPS
Saman Abdul ahman Ali
ESCUELA DE DOCTORADO INTERNACIONAL
PROGRAMA DE DOCTORADO EN
DERECHO
SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA
2018
DECLARACIÓN DEL AUTOR DE LA TESIS
PATENT LAW AND TRIPS: REFINING THE PATENT LAW OF
IRAQ TO ENSURE COMPLIANCE WITH TRIPS
D. Saman Abdul ahman Ali
P esen o mi esis, siguiendo el p ocedimien o adecuado al
Reglamen o, y decla o que:
1) La esis aba ca los esul ados de la elabo ación de mi abajo.
2) En su caso, en la esis se hace e e encia a las colabo aciones
que u o es e abajo.
3) La esis es la e sión de ini i a p esen ada pa a su de ensa y
coincide con la e sión en iada en o ma o elec ónico.
4) Con i mo que la esis no incu e en ningún ipo de plagio de
o os au o es ni de abajos p esen ados po mí pa a la
ob ención de o os í ulos.
En San iago de Compos ela, 24 de Mayo de 2018
Fdo.
Saman Abdul ahman Ali
AUTORIZACIÓN DEL DIRECTOR DE LA
TESIS
PATENT LAW AND TRIPS: REFINING THE PATENT LAW
OF IRAQ TO ENSURE COMPLIANCE WITH TRIPS
D. Ángel Ga cía Vidal
INFORMA:
Que la p esen e esis, co esponde con el abajo ealizado
po D. Saman Abdul ahman Ali, bajo mi di ección, y au o izo su
p esen ación, conside ando que eúne los equisi os exigidos en el
Reglamen o de Es udios de Doc o ado de la USC, y que como
di ec o de és a no incu e en las causas de abs ención
es ablecidas en Ley 40/2015.
En San iago de Compos ela, 24 de Mayo de 2018
Fdo. P o . Ángel Ga cía Vidal

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All p aises be o Allah (God), he Almigh y o His blessings and
spi i ual suppo .
Du ing he p ocess o pu suing my PhD, I ha e ecei ed massi e
suppo s and encou agemen s om a numbe o indi iduals and
ins i u ion, wi hou hem his hesis would ha e been impossible.
Fi s and o emos , I would like o exp ess my since e
app ecia ion o my supe iso P o . Ángel Ga cía Vidal o his
con inuous suppo and mo i a ion. His immense knowledge,
guidance and insigh ul eedback du ing he p ocess o esea ch and
w i ing has made his hesis possible.
I would like o hank he E asmus Mundus Ma haba o he
ou s anding inancial schola ship and suppo i e eam. Indeed,
wi hou hei oppo uni y his PhD would ha e no become a eali y.
I would like o hank my mo he , b o he s and sis e s o hei
con inuous suppo s and p aye s. I am e y indeb ed o my wi e o
being wi h me h oughou he p ocess o w i ing his hesis. I hank
he e y much and ne e o ge he suppo and a en ion. Likewise, I
am indeb ed o my wo beau i ul angels Sid a and Niga who a i ed
in o his wo ld a he ea ly s ages o his hesis. They a e sou ces o
inspi ing me all he ime.
Las bu no leas I would like o ask my dea es iend D . Yadga
Kamal Ahmmad o accep my since e hanks o all his suppo s and
encou agemen s ha I ecei ed om him. His belie ing in me o
comple ing his hesis was s onge han mine.
I would like also o hank all hose who ha e suppo ed, helped
and con ibu ed in comple ing his hesis.
9
Table o Con en :
ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................... 15
SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 17
RESUMEN ................................................................................................... 31
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 47
2 OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................ 53
3 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................. 55
4 RESULTS ............................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER I: TRIPS AGREEMENT AND IRAQI PATENT
LEGISLATION ...................................................................................... 59
1 TRIPS HISTORY, BACKGROUND, NEGOTIATION:
DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES STAND
DURING NEGOTIATIONS. ................................................................... 61
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 61
1.2 REASONS BEHIND THE EXISTENCE OF THE TRIPS
AGREEMENT ............................................................................................. 63
1.3 STEPS TAKEN BY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (UNITED STATES OF
AMERICA IN PARTICULAR): .................................................................... 66
1.4 DEVELOPING COUNTRIES PERSPECTIVE TO THE TRIPS
AGREEMENT AND ITS SHAPING .............................................................. 74
1.5 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................ 80
2 NATURE, SCOPE, OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES OF THE
TRIPS AGREEMENT ............................................................................. 81
2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 81
2.2 PURPOSE, NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE TRIPS AGREEMENT ............ 82
2.2.1 Pu poses and Objec i es o he TRIPS Ag eemen
Acco ding o he P eamble ......................................................... 82
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
16
TPRG T ade policy Re iew G oup
TPSC T ade Policy S a Commi ee
TRIPS Ag eemen on T ade-Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual
P ope y Righ s
UNCTAD Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen
UNEP Uni ed Na ions En i onmen P og amme
UNESCO Uni ed Na ions Educa ional, Scien i ic and Cul u al
O ganiza ion
UPOV In e na ional Con en ion o he P o ec ion o New
Va ie ies o Plan s
USTR Uni ed S a es T ade Rep esen a i e
WIPO Wo ld In ellec ual P ope y O ganiza ion
WTO Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion

17
SUMMARY
1. One o he mos impo an in e na ional ea ies ha I aq is no
pa o is he TRIPS ag eemen . I aq is no one o he membe s o
WTO, bu i is in he p ocess and igh now is in he lis o obse e
go e nmen s. In he same way I aq is no a membe o he mos
ea ies and unions unde WIPO excep o Pa is Con en ion (1976)
and WIPO Con en ion (1976). Howe e , i is he TRIPS ag eemen
ha p o ides o he wide ange o p o ec ions o in ellec ual p ope y
igh s. The e o e, i is he pu pose o his esea ch o analyse all
possibili ies o implemen ing he TRIPS ag eemen , especially in he
a ea o pa en by he I aqi go e nmen .
The e o e, he key hypo hesis o his esea ch is ha I aq should
implemen a law ha ul ils he equi emen s o he TRIPS Ag eemen
and a he same ime include all he legal lexibili ies ha help o
de elop he coun y wi h minimum cos s and sac i ices. Fo his
eason, he main ques ion ha his esea ch asks is whe he he CPA
O de No. 81 a e i s d ama ical amendmen s has achie ed his goal.
The main objec i e o his esea ch is o examine and analyse he
o iginal I aqi Pa en and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o 1970 (The
Pa en Laws only) in compa ison o he amendmen s in pa icula he
CPA O de No. 81, hen compa e hese wi h he p o isions o he
TRIPS Ag eemen in o de o ind ou he con i ma ions and
con adic ions among hem.
The main esul s achie ed a e summa ized below:
2. TRIPS Ag eemen is one o he mos impo an ag eemen
which ha e s anda dized he in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion by s a ing
he minimum equi emen . The e a e o he in e na ional con en ions
which we e es ablished long be o e he TRIPS Ag eemen such as
Pa is and Be ne Con en ions. Ne e heless, colonial coun ies
exe cised p essu es and d o e hei colonies and o eign possessions
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
18
in o he Be ne Con en ion h ough i s A icle 19. The e o e, many
leas de eloped and de eloping coun ies joined he Be ne Con en ion
wi hou hei ee will, and e en he new independen coun ies ha
did no ha e any economic and cul u al expe ience joined he
con en ion based on hei colonial coun ies.
O he de eloping coun ies ha ied o enac na ional laws in
hei own in e es we e opposed by de eloped coun ies and hei
companies. The eason was ha many o he de eloping coun ies in
hei na ional laws p o ided o li le p o ec ion, o example in he
a ea o pha maceu icals.
Be o e he TRIPS Ag eemen , he coun ies a ound he wo ld
we e unhappy abou he exis ing con en ions and ag eemen s ha
egula e in ellec ual p ope y igh s and we e ying o amend hem.
The eason was ha he de eloping coun ies we e always ying o
be e egula ions ha allow hem o access o o eign echnologies
and de eloped coun ies we e condemning hem o lacking
en o cemen mechanism and no being able o sanc ion he non-
compliance coun ies e ec i ely.
In o de o he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica o be able o en o ce i s
in e es in he new ag eemen ha egula e he in ellec ual p ope y
igh s, i chose he GATT o um as i has s ong posi ion in he GATT.
This was a new s ep because up o ha momen in ellec ual p ope y
igh s we e looked a as an obs acle o ee ade. Wi hin GATT he
de eloped coun ies could es ablish a single ag eemen ha
inco po a e all in ellec ual p ope y igh s. The de eloping coun ies
did no ha e a choice excep o accep he TRIPS Ag eemen wi h he
hope o bene i om GATT (WTO) o e all.
Ne e heless, he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica used i s en i ies such
as he O ice o he Uni ed S a es T ade Rep esen a i e (USTR) and
he Uni ed S a es In e na ional T ade Commission (ITC). These
en i ies p o ided necessa y in o ma ion o go e nmen and en o ced
he eques s o cong ess and in e es g oups. USTR has aken many
ac ions unde sec ion 301 and special 301 o he T ade Ac 1974 such
as imposing ade sanc ions on o eign coun ies, impose du ies on
hei goods o h ea o using unila e al e alia ion i no e o ming
hei in ellec ual p ope y p ac ices. USTR’s p essu ed de eloping
Summa y
19
coun ies such as Chile and Indonesia, and also p essu ed de eloped
coun ies such as Japan. Ano he ad an age o Uni ed S a es o
Ame ica ha had o e o he coun ies du ing he nego ia ion p ocess
a GATT was con inuously ecei ing in o ma ion om associa ions
such as In e na ional In ellec ual P ope y Alliance (IIPA) and
Business So wa e Alliance (BSA), in which housands o companies
we e hei membe . Accep ing high s anda d o p o ec ion e used by
he de eloping coun ies (in G oup Ten) as i was no in hei bes
in e es s and esis ed he GATT o um, bu hey did no succeed due
o economic h ea ening and poli ical p essu es om he Uni ed S a es
and e en ually he TRIPS Ag eemen came in o exis ence.
3. The main pu poses and objec i es o he TRIPS Ag eemen
ha can be in e ed om he P eamble a e; p esen a ion o in ellec ual
p ope y p o ec ion in a manne ha educe dis o ions and
impedimen s o in e na ional ade; and ecogni ion o in ellec ual
p ope y igh s as p i a e igh s so ha can be p o ec ed agains any
a bi a y and unjus ac s o go e nmen s. C ea ing connec ion be ween
in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion and in e na ional ade was due o he
a emp s o he Uni ed S a es and i s big co po a ions so ha inse
in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion in o he U uguay ound as i is an
impo an p inciple o he WTO Ag eemen as well. Though, he
P eamble o he TRIPS Ag eemen has no legal powe as any o he
A icles o he Ag eemen , ne e heless, i is e y use ul in cla i ying
he ambigui y o he A icles and help ul in in e p e ing hem.
A icle 1 o he TRIPS Ag eemen p o ides o he na u e and
scope o he Ag eemen by s a ing he TRIPS Ag eemen is no sel -
execu ing and he minimum s anda d o p o ec ion p o ided o ha e
o be gi en e ec by he membe coun ies in hei own ju isdic ions.
The TRIPS Ag eemen does no s a e any p ocedu es on how his
p ocess o be ca ied ou , he e o e his may cause p oblems o he
de eloping coun ies as i equi es e o m in many domes ic
legisla ions. E en hough he membe coun ies a e gi en eedom o
choose he bes me hod o implemen a ion, bu hey ha e o p o e ha
i was he bes me hod a ailable a he ime. Howe e , he TRIPS
Ag eemen p o ides o oppo uni y o he membe coun ies o
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
20
implemen mo e ex ensi e p o ec ion han wha p o ided o by he
Ag eemen . A icle 1 also de e mines he scope o he TRIPS
Ag eemen by including all ca ego ies ha a e s a ed in sec ion 1 o 7
o Pa II o he TRIPS Ag eemen wi hin he e m o ‘in ellec ual
p ope y’.
A icle 7 o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es he objec i es o he
Ag eemen by emphasizing ha he TRIPS Ag eemen should ha e
posi i e e ec s on p og essing echnological and economic
de elopmen and social wel a e o he de eloping coun ies. This was
p oposed by de eloping coun ies so ha he TRIPS Ag eemen
should no be in a ou o he de eloping coun ies only h ough high
s anda d o p o ec ion. I his objec i e is no achie ed he de eloping
coun ies ha e igh o objec he exclusi e igh s o he igh holde s.
I is also he objec i e o he TRIPS Ag eemen ha in all ypes o
in ellec ual p ope y igh s he balance o igh s and obliga ions has o
be kep , and he in e es o he igh holde s and use s ha e o be
balanced. E en hough his objec i e inse ed on he eques o he
de eloping coun ies, bu ne e heless, he balance be ween igh s and
obliga ions conside ed supe seding objec i e o he WTO sys em.
The impo an p inciples o he TRIPS Ag eemen can be ound in
A icle 8. Acco ding o his A icle membe coun ies a e allowed o
adop measu es ‘ o p o ec public heal h and nu i ion, and o p omo e
he public in e es in sec o s o i al impo ance o hei socio-
economic and echnological de elopmen ’. These measu es can be
aken om he p o isions o he TRIPS Ag eemen such as excep ions
o exclusi e igh s and compulso y licences, o o he measu es ha
ha e no base in he TRIPS Ag eemen bu consis en wi h he
p o isions o he Ag eemen . P omo ing public in e es can include
many a eas and he membe coun ies a e allowed o de e mine hei
own sec o s o i al impo ance. The e o e, he membe coun ies in
gene al, and he de eloping coun ies ha e g ea chance o adop ing
measu es ha bene i hei socie ies by p e en ing abuse o
in ellec ual p ope y igh s by he igh holde s, p ac ices which
un easonably es ain ade o p ac ices which ha e ad e se e ec on
he in e na ional ans e o echnology.
Summa y
21
4. Pa en Law No. 61 o 1935 was enac ed du ing he Kingdom o
I aq. Howe e , his law egula ed he law o pa en in a e y basic
manne such as ha ing a simple and plain de ini ion o in en ion ha
includes me e disco e y. Besides ha , i excludes some a eas om
pa en abili y o example pha maceu ical o mula ions and medicines
which made i o he nex Law No. 65 o 1970. Law No. 61 o 1935
g an ed pa en o an in en ion wi hou making any in es iga ion o he
use ulness, co ec ness, u h ulness o co ec ness o i s da a o
compa e he da a wi h he in en ion ha submi ed o pa en o make
su e i ma ches he in en ion. The law also s a ed ha he go e nmen
will no gua an ee any o hese ma e s. E en hough his law wen
h ough a ew amendmen s by law No. 64 o 1940, law No. 27 o
1949 and he las amendmen was du ing he Republic o I aq by law
No. 210 o 1968.
A e all hese amendmen s he law No. 61 o 1935 was no up o
he s anda d o p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y igh s. The e o e,
Pa en and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o 1970 o he i s ime
enac ed du ing he Republic o I aq o epeal he law No. 61 o 1935.
The new law also has unde gone ew amendmen s in o de o keep
wi h he in e na ional s anda d o p o ec ion. The mos impo an o
hose amendmen s we e by law No. 28 o 1999 and CPA O de No.
81. The CPA has issued many egula ions, memo anda, public no ices
and o de s, in o de o ebuild a s ong I aq economically and es ablish
jus ice a e he long un o dic a o ship. Th ough O de No. 81 he
CPA has changed he i le o he law No. 65 o 1970 o ‘Pa en ,
Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and
Plan Va ie y Law’. This O de has added a ew mo e chap e o he
o iginal law including a chap e on ‘P o ec ion o New Va ie ies o
Plan s’. The O de made 22 amendmen s on he i s chap e (Pa en ),
in which some o hem we e simple amendmen s while some o he
epealed he whole sec ion and eplaced hem wi h new ones.
5. The e m ‘in en ion’ in he o iginal law No. 65 o 1970 and i s
amendmen s has gone h ough some changes. The law de ined he
in en ion in sec ion 1.4 as ‘e e y new inno a ion ha indus ially
exploi able whe he ela es o new indus ial p oduc s o inno a i e

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
22
me hods and means o bo h o hem oge he ’. This de ini ion included
and could be used o iden i y he majo impo an c i e ia o
pa en abili y because he law did no s a e he c i e ia o pa en abili y
in o he sec ions o he law. Then he law No. 28 o 1999 added he
wo ds o (achie e some speci ic de elopmen ). E en hough all he
adi ional c i e ia o pa en abili y could be ound in his de ini ion,
bu s ill he CPA O de No. 81 epealed his de ini ion and in oduced
ano he one. The new de ini ion con ains all he elemen s o he old
one bu changed he wo ds. A e examining ele an ac o s, his
hesis a gues ha since he TRIPS Ag eemen does no de ine he e m
‘in en ion’ and i is le o he membe coun ies o de ine hem in he
bes way ha sui hei legal sys em, he e o e, one can say ha he
bo h o he de ini ions a e in compliance wi h he equi emen o he
TRIPS Ag eemen .
The hesis u he mo e examines he o iginal law No. 65 o 1970,
in which sec ion 2 s a es ha ‘Pa en s o in en ion shall be g an ed
acco ding o he p o isions o his Law’. Howe e , he CPA O de
No. 81 epealed his sec ion and eplaced i wi h new sec ion o
include all he c i e ia o pa en abili y in much clea and simila
manne o he TRIPS Ag eemen . The new sec ion 2 s a es ha
‘Pa en s o in en ion shall be g an ed pu suan o he p o isions o his
Law o each in en ion ha is indus ially applicable, no el and
in ol es an in en i e s ep, ei he conce ning new indus ial p oduc s,
new indus ial me hods, o new applica ion o known indus ial
me hods’. This is clea ly an imp o emen o he I aqi pa en law ha
elimina e any doub s in non-compliance o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
6. Exclusion om pa en abili y is ano he impo an p inciple ha
he TRIPS Ag eemen which will be ano he impo an opic o he
hesis o co e . Bo h subpa ag aphs o numbe 2 and 3 o a icle 27
p o ide op ions o he membe coun ies o exclude some a eas om
pa en abili y. A icle 27.2 p o ides ha he membe coun ies may
exclude any in en ion ha i s exploi a ion in he e i o y o a membe
coun y goes agains o d e public and mo ali y. Including hese wo
ypes o exclusion was based on he p oposals by he EEC, Japan and
de eloping coun ies, because i was common o exclude in en ion on
Summa y
23
hese bases by he membe coun ies and o he in e na ional
con en ions long be o e he TRIPS Ag eemen . Howe e , he TRIPS
Ag eemen does no p o ide o de ini ion o hese e ms. In his
con ex , he esea che a gues ha he membe coun ies a e ee o
de e mine wha si ua ions lead o a ise he implemen a ion o hese
exclusions.
O d e public can be de e mined by e e ing o some si ua ions
such as io s and public diso de . Ne e heless, membe coun ies a e
ee o apply he o d e public o new si ua ions ha do no ha e p io
applica ion and no known a in e na ional le el. I can be applied i
he comme cial exploi a ion o he in en ion endange s he s uc u e
o ci il socie y o simply disha monize he li elihood o indi iduals o
li e in peace and secu i y. The e m mo ali y in he TRIPS Ag eemen
is e e ing o public mo ali y and no indi idual mo ali y. A icle
XX(a) o GATT o 1947 unde he gene al excep ion e e s o ‘public
mo al’. Hence, he esea che sugges s ha i he comme cial
exploi a ion o an in en ion in he e i o y o a membe coun y
caused collec i e immo ali y o has nega i e e ec on he mo ali y o
he communi y a la ge, hen ha membe coun y is allowed o
exclude such in en ion om pa en abili y.
To compa e he abo e ma e wi h he o iginal I aqi pa en law
No. 65 o 1970, sec ion 3.1 p o ides o exclusions o ‘In en ions in
which hei exploi a ions cause b eaches o public mo al o o d e
public o con adic he public in e es ’. The e m exploi a ion e e s o
exploi a ion in any ‘ ields o wo k ela ed o indus y, ag icul u e,
p o ession, and se ices in b oade unde s anding’. He e in same way
o he TRIPS Ag eemen , he I aqi pa en law p o ides o exclusion
base on public mo al and o d e public. These exclusions a e e y
impo an o I aqi socie y because o e hnic and eligious di e si y o
I aq. Howe e , his p o ision p o ides o one mo e base o exclusion
which is public in e es . Public in e es is much wide concep han he
o d e public and public mo al, as i can include hese wo concep s
and mo e. I has no been used by A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen . Ne e heless, he p o ec ion o public in e es is allowed
unde A icle 8.1 which allow he membe coun ies o ake measu es
o p omo e hei ‘public in e es in sec o s o i al impo ance o hei
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
24
socio-economic and echnological de elopmen ’. The e o e, he
esea che sugges s ha he I aqi pa en law is in compliance wi h he
TRIPS Ag eemen . F om he silence o he CPA O de No. 81 on his
issue by no epealing o amending his sec ion i can be in e ed ha
he CPA was o he opinion ha his sec ion does no iola e he
p o isions and p inciples o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
7. Subsequen ly, he hesis u ns in o ano he ele an opic which
is co e ed by A icle 27.3 (a) o he TRIPS Ag eemen . This p o ision
s a es ha he membe coun ies may exclude om pa en abili y he
‘diagnos ic, he apeu ic and su gical me hods o he ea men o
humans o animals’. The e o e, me hods o ea men o humans and
animals a e excluded om pa en abili y. This exclusion canno be
ex ended o p oduc s and p ocess ha a e pa o humans and animals
ea men s. Many coun ies a ound he wo ld ha e excluded such
me hods and some coun ies ha e excluded me hods o ea men om
pa en abili y base on he lack o indus ial applicabili y. On he o he
hand, some de eloped coun ies such as Aus alia, New Zealand and
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica a e allowing hese me hods o be pa en ed as
long as hey sa is y he c i e ia o pa en abili y.
In compa ison he I aqi pa en law No. 65 o 1970 does no
con ain any p o ision in ega d o he me hod o ea men o humans
and animals o exclude hem om pa en abili y. This silence can be
in e p e ed so ha hese me hods a e pa en able as a gene al ule.
None o he amendmen s ha passed on added egula ion in his
ega d. The CPA O de No. 81 epealed and amended many
p o isions o he law No. 65 o 1970 bu kep silence on his issue.
Maybe i is due o he ac ha in he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica me hod
o ea men is pa en able. The e o e, he CPA in his issue ollowed
he Uni ed S a es pa en law a he han using he op ion o exclusion
s a ed in he TRIPS Ag eemen , which supposed o enhance he I aqi
pa en law o he in e na ional s anda d (TRIPS Ag eemen ).
8. The TRIPS Ag eemen has been blamed o allowing pa en ing
medicines and d ugs which caused ising o p ices o medicines
beyond capaci y o leas de eloped and de eloping coun ies. These
Summa y
25
coun ies elying on gene ic d ugs o sol e hei public heal h c ises
bu once hey joined he TRIPS Ag eemen hey will no be allowed o
do so any mo e, and he p oblem is ha hese coun ies a e no able o
access pa en ed d ugs due o hei high p ices. The e o o hese
coun ies led o he adop ion o he Doha Decla a ion on he TRIPS
Ag eemen and Public Heal h (14 No embe 2001). The Doha
Decla a ion add esses he issue o public heal h and ies o ind
solu ions o he de eloping coun ies o sol e hei public heal h
issues. This decla a ion emphasizes ha he TRIPS Ag eemen should
no p e en membe coun ies om adop ing necessa y measu es o
p o ec hei public heal h and eques ed he Gene al Council o ind a
solu ion o hose membe coun ies ha canno bene i om he
compulso y licence due o insu icien o no manu ac u ing capaci ies
in he pha maceu ical sec o s. Ne e heless, he CPA O de No. 81 did
no add any p o ision in his ega d o help I aq o ha e access o
inexpensi e medicines o suppo public heal h in c ises, o o ake
necessa y measu es o p o ec I aqi public heal h.
9. Nex , due o he impo ance o plan s and sa ing seeds, he e
a e many in e na ional con en ions and ag eemen s ha egula e his
issue, such as UPOV Con en ion, TRIPS Ag eemen , In e na ional
T ea y on Plan Gene ic Resou ces o Food and Ag icul u e and
CBD. UPOV Con en ion is one o he impo an con en ion in his
a ea especially a e he TRIPS Ag eemen eques ed all membe
coun ies o p o ec plan a ie ies whe he h ough a pa en o sui
gene is sys em.
In e es ingly, A icle 27.3 (b) o he TRIPS Ag eemen p o ides
o excluding plan s and animals om pa en abili y. Ne e heless, his
p o ision equi es ha he membe coun ies p o ide o some o m o
p o ec ion o plan a ie ies h ough pa en , an e ec i e sui gene is
sys em o any combina ion o he eo . This causes p oblem o he
de eloping coun ies because many o hem ne e had any o m o
p o ec ion o plan a ie ies. This p o ec ion will ha e huge impac on
hei a ming p ac ices in he a ea o sa ing seeds, gene ic di e si y
and ood secu i y. As socie ies in hese coun ies s ill a m on he
adi ional way o sa ing seeds o nex yea plan ing and exchange
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
32
p o ección de los de echos de p opiedad indus ial e in elec ual
exigiendo una u ela mínima. Con an e io idad al Acue do ADPIC se
conce a on o os a ados in e nacionales, como las con enciones de
Pa ís y Be na, a las cuales se suma on muchos países menos
desa ollados y países en ías de desa ollo, a los que al aba la
adecuada expe iencia económica y cul u al, pe o que lo hicie on po la
p esión de los países coloniales. Así sucedió, po ejemplo, con el
Con enio de Be na, al que muchos países se adhi ie on po medio de
su a ículo 19 en con a de su lib e olun ad.
En ese con ex o, los países en desa ollo que in en a on p omulga
leyes nacionales que a endían a sus in e eses nacionales se
encon a on con la oposición de los países desa ollados y sus
emp esas, po que es os países en desa ollo o ecían en sus
legislaciones nacionales un educido ni el de p o ección de los
de echos de p opiedad indus ial e in elec ual, po ejemplo, en el
ámbi o de los p oduc os a macéu icos.
En consecuencia, en el pe íodo an e io a la celeb ación del
Acue do ADPIC, dis in os países a lo la go del mundo es aban
insa is echos con los con enios y acue dos exis en es en ma e ia de
p opiedad indus ial e in elec ual e in en a on modi ica los. Los países
en ías desa ollo p e endían una mejo egulación que le pe mi ie a
accede a ecnologías ex anje as, mien as que los países
desa ollados les impu aban una al a de mecanismos de de ensa y
aplicación de dichos de echos, sin que pudiesen sanciona
e ec i amen e a esos países po no cumplimien o.
Pa a pode hace ale sus in e eses en el nue o acue do que
egula los de echos de p opiedad indus ial e in elec ual, Es ados
Unidos de Amé ica eligió el o o del GATT, donde ya enía una
posición ue e. Es e ue un paso no edoso po que has a ese momen o
los de echos de p opiedad indus ial e in elec ual se conside aban un
obs áculo pa a el lib e come cio. Den o del GATT, los países
desa ollados pudie on es ablece un acue do único que inco po ase
odos los de echos de p opiedad indus ial e in elec ual. Y los países
en desa ollo no u ie on o a opción que acep a el Acue do sob e los
ADPIC con la espe anza de bene icia se del GATT (OMC).

Resumen
33
Los Es ados Unidos de Amé ica u iliza on sus en idades, ales
como la O icina del Rep esen an e de Come cio de los Es ados Unidos
(O ice o he Uni ed S a es T ade Rep esen a i e, USTR) y la
Comisión de Come cio In e nacional (Uni ed S a es In e na ional
T ade Commission, ITC). Es as en idades p opo ciona on la
in o mación necesa ia al gobie no y aplica on las pe iciones del
cong eso y los g upos de p esión. La USTR adop ó dis in as medidas
en i ud de la sección 301 y 301 de la Ley de Come cio de 1974,
como impone sanciones come ciales a países ex anje os, impone
a anceles a sus p oduc os o amenaza con u iliza ep esalias
unila e ales si no modi icaban sus p ác icas de p opiedad in elec ual.
En e los países p esionados po la USTR se encuen an países en
desa ollo como Chile e Indonesia, y ambién países desa ollados
como Japón. Asimismo, o a en aja de los Es ados Unidos de
Amé ica du an e el p oceso de negociación en el GATT ue ecibi
con inuamen e in o mación de asociaciones como la Alianza
In e nacional de la P opiedad In elec ual [In e na ional In ellec ual
P ope y Alliance (IIPA)] y la Alianza de So wa e Emp esa ial
(Business So wa e Alliance, BSA), in eg adas po miles de
compañías. Finalmen e, los países en desa ollo u ie on que acep a
los al os ni eles de p o ección de la p opiedad indus ial e in elec ual
(que inicialmen e echaza on en el G upo 10), debido a amenazas
económicas y p esiones polí icas de los Es ados Unidos, y el Acue do
sob e los ADPIC se con i ió en una ealidad.
3. Los p incipales p opósi os y obje i os del Acue do sob e los
ADPIC pueden in e i se ya del P eámbulo y son la p o ección de la
p opiedad in elec ual ( é mino con el que se engloban an o los
de echos de p opiedad indus ial como los del p opiedad in elec ual en
sen ido es ic o) de mane a que se eduzcan las dis o siones y los
obs áculos al come cio in e nacional; y el econocimien o de los
de echos de p opiedad in elec ual como de echos p i ados pa a que
puedan p o ege se con a ac os a bi a ios e injus os de los gobie nos.
La conexión en e la p o ección de la p opiedad in elec ual y el
come cio in e nacional se debió a los in en os de los Es ados Unidos y
sus g andes emp esas de inse a la p o ección de la p opiedad
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
34
in elec ual en la Ronda de U uguay, ya que ambién es un p incipio
impo an e del Acue do sob e la OMC. Con odo, aunque es de g an
u ilidad a los e ec os in e p e a i os, el P eámbulo del Acue do sob e
los ADPIC no iene un alo ju ídico equipa able al de los a ículos
del Acue do.
El a ículo 1 del Acue do sob e los ADPIC es ablece la na u aleza
y el alcance de las obligaciones del Acue do, disponiendo que no es
de aplicación au omá ica y que los miemb os espe a án en sus
legislaciones el ni el mínimo de p o ección p e is o. El Acue do
sob e los ADPIC no es ablece ningún mé odo pa a que los miemb os
apliquen sus disposiciones en el ma co de su p opio sis ema y p ác ica
ju ídicos, lo que puede causa p oblemas pa a los países en desa ollo,
cuyas legislaciones nacionales debe án se e o madas. En odo caso,
aunque los países miemb os ienen libe ad pa a elegi el mejo
mé odo de implemen ación, deben demos a que ue el mejo mé odo
disponible en ese momen o. Po lo demás, el Acue do sob e los
ADPIC pe mi e que los países miemb os implemen en una p o ección
más amplia que la p e is a en el Acue do. El a ículo 1 ambién
de e mina el alcance del Acue do sob e los ADPIC al inclui odas las
ca ego ías que igu an en las secciones 1 a 7 de la Pa e II del Acue do
sob e los ADPIC den o del é mino de «p opiedad in elec ual».
El a ículo 7 del Acue do sob e los ADPIC es ablece los obje i os
del Acue do al hace hincapié en que és e debe á ene e ec os
posi i os en la p omoción de la inno ación ecnológica y el bienes a
social y económico de los países en desa ollo. Es a disposición ue
p opues a po los países en desa ollo pa a que el Acue do no
bene iciase únicamen e a los países desa ollados es ableciendo un
es ánda ele ado de p o ección. Si no se log a es e obje i o, los países
en desa ollo ienen de echo a opone se a los de echos exclusi os de
los i ula es de los de echos. Asimismo, o o obje i o del Acue do es
que en odos los ipos de de echos de p opiedad in elec ual se
man enga el equilib io de de echos y obligaciones, equilib ando el
in e és de los i ula es de de echos y los usua ios. Aunque es e
obje i o ambién se inse ó a pe ición de los países en desa ollo, el
equilib io en e los de echos y obligaciones es conside ado un
obje i o gene al del sis ema de la OMC.
Resumen
35
Po su pa e, los p incipios del Acue do sob e los ADPIC se
ecogen en su a ículo 8. De con o midad con es e a ículo, los países
miemb os pueden adop a medidas «pa a p o ege la salud pública y la
nu ición de la población, o pa a p omo e el in e és público en
sec o es de impo ancia i al pa a su desa ollo socioeconómico y
ecnológico». Es as medidas pueden consis i en medidas
exp esamen e ecogidas en el Acue do sob e los ADPIC, como las
excepciones a los de echos exclusi os y las licencias obliga o ias, o en
o as medidas que no se ecogen exp esamen e en el Acue do pe o que
son cohe en es con sus disposiciones. En es e sen ido, la p omoción
del in e és público puede inclui muchas á eas y los países miemb os
pueden de e mina sus p opios sec o es de i al impo ancia. Po lo
an o, los países miemb os en gene al, y los países en desa ollo en
pa icula , ienen g andes posibilidades de adop a medidas que
bene icien a sus sociedades, p e iniendo el abuso de los de echos de
p opiedad in elec ual po pa e de sus i ula es, las p ác icas que
es injan injus i icadamen e el come cio o las p ác icas que ienen un
e ec o nega i o en la ans e encia in e nacional de ecnología.
4. La Ley i aquí de Pa en es n.º 61 de 1935 se p omulgó du an e
el Reino de I aq. Sin emba go, es a ley egulaba las pa en es de una
mane a muy básica, has a el pun o de con ene una de inición de
in ención que incluía los me os descub imien os. Además, es ablecía
de e minadas p ohibiciones de pa en abilidad, como las e e en es a
las ó mulas a macéu icas y los medicamen os, p ohibiciones que
llega on has a la siguien e Ley n.º 65 de 1970. Po lo demás, de
acue do con la Ley n.º 61 de 1935 las pa en es se concedían sin
ealiza ningún ipo de examen sob e la u ilidad, co ección, e acidad
o la exac i ud de los da os y sin compa a los da os suminis ados con
la in ención pa a la que se solici aba la pa en e. De hecho, la ley
decla aba exp esamen e que el Gobie no no ga an izaba ninguno de
es os ex emos. Es a ley ue some ida a algunas enmiendas po la ley
n.º 64 de 1940 y la ley n.º 27 de 1949. Y la úl ima modi icación u o
luga du an e la República del I aq po medio la ley n.º 210 de 1968.
Aún después de odas es as enmiendas, la ley n.º 61 de 1935 no
es aba a la al u a del ni el de p o ección de los de echos de p opiedad
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
36
in elec ual. Es o hizo que uese de ogada po la Ley de Pa en es y
Diseño Indus ial n.º 65 de 1970, p omulgada du an e la República del
I aq, nue a ley que ambién ha sido obje o de algunas modi icaciones
pos e io es pa a cumpli con el es ánda in e nacional de p o ección.
Los más impo an es de esos cambios ue on los ealizados po la Ley
n.º 28 de 1999 y po la O den n.º 81 de la Au o idad P o isional de la
Coalición (CPA).
La CPA ap obó nume osas eglamen aciones, memo andos,
a isos públicos y ó denes pa a econs ui económicamen e a I aq y
es ablece jus icia después del la go pe íodo de dic adu a. A a és de
la O den n.º 81, la CPA cambió el í ulo de la ley n.º 65 de 1970, que
pasó a denomina se Ley de «pa en es, diseño indus ial, sec e o
emp esa ial, opog a ías de p oduc os semiconduc o es y de
a iedades ege ales». Además, la O den añadió algunos capí ulos
nue os a la ley o iginal, incluido un capí ulo sob e «P o ección de
nue as a iedades ege ales», e hizo 22 enmiendas en el p ime
capí ulo (Pa en es), algunas de las cuales ue on simples
modi icaciones meno es mien as que o as implica on la de ogación
de secciones y la sus i ución po o as nue as.
5. La de inición del é mino «in ención» con enida en la ley
o iginal n.º 65 de 1970 y sus enmiendas ha su ido algunos cambios.
La ley de inía la in ención en la sección 1.4 como « oda inno ación
nue a suscep ible de aplicación indus ial, consis en e en nue os
p oduc os indus iales, mé odos o medios inno ado es, o en ambos
ipos de inno ación». Po lo an o, es a de inición incluía y pod ía
u iliza se pa a iden i ica los p incipales equisi os de pa en abilidad,
po que la ley no los es ablecía en o as secciones. Pos e io men e, la
ley n.º 28 de 1999 ag egó la e e encia a la necesidad de log a algún
desa ollo especí ico. A pesa de que odos los equisi os adicionales
de pa en abilidad se podían encon a en es a de inición, la O den de
CPA n.º 81 de ogó dicha de inición e in odujo o a que con iene
odos los elemen os del an iguo ex o legal, pe o cambiando las
palab as u ilizadas.
Después de examina los ac o es ele an es, en es a esis sea
a gumen a que, dado que el Acue do sob e los ADPIC no de ine el
Resumen
37
é mino «in ención» y se pe mi e que los países miemb os lo de inan
de la mejo mane a que se adap e a su sis ema legal, se puede conclui
que ambas de iniciones espe an en es e pun o el Acue do sob e los
ADPIC.
La p esen e esis ambién examina los equisi os de
pa en abilidad. La ley n.º 65 de 1970, en su e sión inicial, es ablecía
en su sección 2 que «las pa en es de in ención se o o ga án de acue do
con las disposiciones de es a Ley». Sin emba go, la O den n.º 81 de la
CPA de ogó dicha sección y la eemplazó po o a pa a inclui odos
los c i e ios de pa en abilidad de una mane a muy cla a y simila al
Acue do sob e los ADPIC. Así, la nue a sección 2 es ablece que «las
pa en es de in ención se o o ga án de con o midad con las
disposiciones de es a Ley pa a cada in ención suscep ible de
aplicación indus ial, no edosa y que implique una ac i idad
in en i a, ya sea en elación con nue os p oduc os indus iales,
nue os mé odos indus iales o una nue a aplicación de mé odos
indus iales ya conocidos». Se a a, cla amen e, de una mejo a de la
ley i aquí de pa en es que elimina cualquie duda sob e la coincidencia
con lo dispues o en el Acue do sob e los ADPIC.
6. Las exclusiones de pa en abilidad cons i uyen o o de los
p incipios impo an es del Acue do sob e los ADPIC y es, en
consecuencia, o o de los emas examinados con de alle en la p esen e
esis doc o al.
Los dos subpá a os de los núme os 2 y 3 del a ículo 27 del
Acue do pe mi en que los países miemb os es ablezcan algunas
exclusiones de pa en abilidad. El a ículo 27.2 dispone que los países
miemb os pod án exclui de la pa en abilidad las in enciones cuya
explo ación come cial en su e i o io deba impedi se necesa iamen e
pa a p o ege el o den público o la mo alidad. La inclusión de es os
dos ipos de exclusión obedeció a las p opues as de la CEE, Japón y
los países en desa ollo, po que e a común la exis encia de es e ipo de
exclusiones en los países miemb os, al ampa o de o os con enios
in e nacionales an e io es al Acue do sob e los ADPIC. Sin emba go,
el Acue do sob e los ADPIC no p e é la de inición de es os é minos.
Y en es e con ex o, en la esis se a gumen a que los países miemb os

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
38
son lib es de de e mina qué si uaciones conducen a la
implemen ación de es as exclusiones.
Así, el o den público se puede delimi a po e e encia a algunas
si uaciones como dis u bios y deso denes públicos. Sin emba go, los
países miemb os son lib es de aplica el o den público a si uaciones
nue as que no ienen aplicación p e ia y no se conocen a ni el
in e nacional. Así, se puede aplica si la explo ación come cial de la
in ención pone en pelig o la es uc u a de la sociedad ci il o
simplemen e a ec a a las condiciones de las pe sonas pa a i i en paz
y segu idad.
Po su pa e, el é mino mo alidad en el Acue do sob e los
ADPIC se e ie e a la mo al pública y no a la mo al indi idual. De
hecho, el apa ado a) del a ículo XX del GATT de 1947 se e ie e a la
«mo al pública». En es e sen ido, en la esis se sugie e que, si la
explo ación come cial de una in ención en el e i o io de un país
miemb o p o oca inmo alidad colec i a o iene un e ec o nega i o
sob e la mo alidad de la comunidad en gene al, en onces ese país
miemb o puede exclui dicha in ención de la pa en abilidad.
Analizando es a cues ión en la legislación nacional i aquí, se
cons a a que en la ley de pa en es i aquí n.º 65 de 1970, la sección 3.1
excluye la pa en abilidad de las «in enciones cuya explo ación iola
la mo al o el o den públicos o con adice el in e és público». El
é mino explo ación se e ie e a la explo ación en cualquie «campo de
abajo elacionado con la indus ia, la ag icul u a, la p o esión y los
se icios en sen ido amplio». En es e pun o, de la misma mane a que
el Acue do sob e los ADPIC, la ley i aquí de pa en es u iliza la mo al
pública y el o den público como base pa a la exclusión de la
pa en abilidad. Y es as exclusiones son muy impo an es pa a la
sociedad i aquí debido a la di e sidad é nica y eligiosa del país. Pe o
además es a disposición añade un mo i o adicional pa a la exclusión
de la pa en abilidad, a sabe : que la in ención sea con a ia al in e és
público, el cual es un concep o mucho más amplio que el de o den
público y mo al pública, ya que puede inclui más elemen os además
de esos.
El a ículo 27.2 del Acue do sob e los ADPIC no alude al «in e és
público». Sin emba go, la p o ección del in e és público es á pe mi ida
Resumen
39
po el a ículo 8.1, que acul a a los países miemb os pa a oma
medidas pa a p omo e su «in e és público en sec o es de impo ancia
i al pa a su desa ollo socioeconómico y ecnológico». Po lo an o,
en la esis se concluye que la ley i aquí de pa en es cumple con el
Acue do sob e los ADPIC. Del silencio de la O den n.º 81 sob e es a
cues ión, al no de oga ni modi ica es a sección, se puede in e i que
la CPA conside ó que es a sección no iola las disposiciones y
p incipios del Acue do sob e los ADPIC.
7. Pos e io men e, la esis analiza o o ema ele an e, egulado
po el a ículo 27.3 (a) del Acue do sob e los ADPIC; a sabe : la
posibilidad de exclui la pa en abilidad de «los mé odos de
diagnós ico, e apéu icos y qui ú gicos pa a el a amien o de pe sonas
o animales»; exclusión que no se puede ex ende a los p oduc os y
p ocesos que son pa e de los a amien os de humanos y animales.
Muchos países de odo el mundo han excluido ales mé odos,
algunos basándose en la al a de aplicación indus ial. En cambio,
o os países desa ollados como Aus alia, Nue a Zelanda y los
Es ados Unidos de Amé ica pe mi en que es os mé odos sean
pa en ados siemp e que sa is agan los c i e ios de pa en abilidad.
Po su pa e, la ley de pa en es i aquí n.º 65 de 1970 no con iene
ninguna disposición excluyendo la pa en abilidad de es e ipo de
mé odos, lo cual puede in e p e a se en el sen ido de que es os
mé odos son, como egla gene al, pa en ables. A es e espec o,
ninguna de las modi icaciones pos e io es de la ley in odujo cambios
en es e pun o. La O den n.º 81 de la CPA de ogó y enmendó muchas
disposiciones de la ley n.º 65 de 1970, pe o gua dó silencio sob e es e
ema. Tal ez se deba al hecho de que en los Es ados Unidos de
Amé ica el mé odo de a amien o es pa en able. Po lo an o, la CPA
en es a cues ión siguió la ley de pa en es de los Es ados Unidos en
luga de acoge la posibilidad es ablecida en el Acue do ADPIC de
exclui la pa en abilidad de es os mé odos.
8. Una de las c í icas que se ha o mulado con a el Acue do sob e los
ADPIC es que pe mi e la concesión de pa en es sob e medicamen os,
o iginando el aumen o de su p ecio po encima de la capacidad de los
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
40
países menos adelan ados y en desa ollo. Es os países dependen de
medicamen os gené icos pa a esol e sus c isis de salud pública, pe o
una ez que a i ican al Acue do sob e los ADPIC ya no pueden
hace lo, y el p oblema es que es os países no pueden accede a
medicamen os pa en ados debido a sus al os p ecios. El es ue zo de
es os países condujo a la adopción de la Decla ación de Doha sob e el
Acue do sob e los ADPIC y la Salud Pública (14 de no iemb e de
2001). La Decla ación de Doha abo da el p oblema de la salud pública
e in en a encon a soluciones pa a que los países en desa ollo
esuel an sus p oblemas de salud pública. Es a decla ación en a iza
que el Acue do ADPIC no debe impedi que los países miemb os
adop en medidas necesa ias pa a p o ege su salud pública y en ella se
solici a al Consejo Gene al que encuen e una solución pa a aquellos
países miemb os que no pueden bene icia se de la licencia obliga o ia
debido a capacidades de ab icación insu icien es o inexis en es en el
país en el sec o a macéu ico.
Sin emba go, la O den n.º 81 de la CPA no añadió ninguna
disposición a es e espec o pa a ayuda a I aq a ene acceso a
medicinas de bajo cos o pa a apoya la salud pública en c isis o pa a
oma las medidas necesa ias pa a p o ege la salud pública i aquí.
9. Po o a pa e, debido a la impo ancia de las plan as y a la
p ác ica de los ag icul o es consis en e en conse a semillas de su
p opia p oducción pa a p ocede a semb a las en el siguien e ciclo de
cul i o, exis en muchos con enios y acue dos in e nacionales que
egulan es a cues ión, como el Con enio de la UPOV (Con enio
in e nacional pa a la p o ección de las ob enciones ege ales, i mado
en Pa ís el 2 de diciemb e de 1961 y pos e io men e modi icado po
las Ac as de 10 de no iemb e de 1972, 23 de oc ub e de 1978 y 19 de
ma zo de 1991), el Acue do sob e los ADPIC, el T a ado in e nacional
sob e los ecu sos i ogené icos pa a la alimen ación y la ag icul u a y
el Con enio sob e la Di e sidad Biológica, hecho en Río de Janei o el
5 de junio de 1992. El Con enio de la UPOV es uno de los con enios
impo an es en es a á ea, especialmen e después de que el Acue do
sob e los ADPIC haya es ablecido que los Miemb os o o ga án
p o ección a odas las ob enciones ege ales median e pa en es,
Resumen
41
median e un sis ema e icaz sui gene is o median e una combinación
de aquéllas y és e.
En e ec o, el a ículo 27.3 (b) del Acue do sob e los ADPIC
pe mi e la exclusión de la pa en abilidad de las plan as y animales. Sin
emba go, es a disposición equie e que los países miemb os
p opo cionen alguna o ma de p o ección a las ob enciones ege ales a
a és de pa en es, un sis ema sui gene is e ec i o o cualquie
combinación de los mismos. Es o causa un p oblema pa a los países
en desa ollo, po que muchos de ellos nunca u ie on ninguna o ma
de p o ección de a iedades ege ales, y la p e isión de la p o ección
end á un g an impac o en las p ác icas ag ícolas de conse ación de
semillas pa a p ocede a semb a las en el siguien e ciclo de cul i o, así
como en la di e sidad gené ica y segu idad alimen a ia. Po que, en
e ec o, los ag icul o es en es os países oda ía cul i an en la o ma
adicional de gua da semillas pa a el p óximo año, plan ando e
in e cambiando buenas semillas en e ellos. Además, I aq es uno país
en desa ollo que iene una g an ie a é il, pe o debido a las gue as
inin e umpidas, la mayo ía de sus ie as ag ícolas y bancos de
semillas han sido des uidos.
La ley de pa en es i aquí n.º 65 de 1970 no con iene, en su e sión
inicial, ninguna e e encia a la p o ección de animales y plan as ni a la
exclusión de su pa en abilidad. Sin emba go, después de la in asión de
I aq, la O den n.º 81 de la CPA añadió el capí ulo esqua e pa a la
p o ección de a iedades ege ales. La mayo ía de las disposiciones
de es e nue o capí ulo se oma on del Con enio de la UPOV de 1991.
Po ejemplo, la de inición de a iedad ege al es la misma de inición
del Con enio de la UPOV y odos los equisi os pa a la p o ección de
las a iedades ege ales son los de la UPOV (no edad, dis inción,
uni o midad y es abilidad).
Sin emba go, en 2013 se p omulgó una nue a ley bajo el í ulo de
«Ley de Regis o, Ac edi ación y P o ección de Va iedades
Ag ícolas», Ley n.º 15 de 2013, que de ogó y eemplazó el
mencionado capí ulo esqua e .
La O den n.º 81 de la CPA impidió la eu ilización de semillas de
a iedades p o egidas. Pe o la nue a ley n.º 15 de 2013 in odujo la
excepción opcional ecogida en el Con enio de la UPOV que pe mi e
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
48
o he s a us i dese es. A law ha help he coun y o access
necessa y echnology o build a echnological coun y ha be able o
ely on i sel o e e y ype o p oduc ion including medical p oduc s.
A echnology o ebuilding ag icul u al sec o so ha i can secu e
ood p oduc ion o he need o he whole coun y ins ead o elying
on impo a ion.
Righ now, I aq is conside ed o be de eloping apidly
comme cially, he e o e, i is necessa y o impo all kinds o
equipmen , ma e ials and p oduc s wi hou knowing hei IP igh s and
being able o espec hese igh s. The e may be many easons o his;
howe e , one o he easons is due o I aq’s nonpa icipa ion in he
in e na ional con en ions and ea ies ha ela ed o IPR. One o he
mos impo an in e na ional ea ies ha I aq is no pa o is he
TRIPS ag eemen . I aq is no one o he membe s o WTO, bu i is in
he p ocess and igh now is in he lis o obse e go e nmen s. In he
same way I aq is no a membe o he mos ea ies and unions unde
WIPO excep o Pa is Con en ion (1976) and WIPO Con en ion
(1976). Howe e , i is he TRIPS ag eemen ha p o ides o he wide
ange o p o ec ions o in ellec ual p ope y igh s. The e o e, i is he
pu pose o his esea ch o analyse all possibili ies o implemen ing
he TRIPS ag eemen , especially in he a ea o pa en by he I aqi
go e nmen .
The e o e, he key hypo hesis o his esea ch is ha I aq should
implemen a law ha ul ils he equi emen s o he TRIPS Ag eemen
and a he same ime include all he legal lexibili ies ha help o
de elop he coun y wi h minimum cos s and sac i ices. Fo his
eason, he main ques ion ha his esea ch asks is whe he he CPA
O de No. 81 a e i s d ama ical amendmen s has achie ed his goal.
The TRIPS Ag eemen is no he i s in e na ional ag eemen in
he a ea o in ellec ual p ope y igh s, o he in e na ional con en ions
such as he Pa is Con en ion and he Be ne Con en ion exis ed long
be o e he TRIPS Ag eemen . Howe e , he de eloped coun ies and
in pa icula he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, we e no happy wi h he
ou come o hese in e na ional con en ions. The e o e, hei e o was
o es ablish a s ong in e na ional ag eemen ha be able o educe
dis o ions and impedimen s o in e na ional ades and can ake he

In oduc ion
49
membe coun ies accoun able o hei b eaches o he ag eemen .
Ne e heless, he de eloping coun ies c ea ed hei own on ie wi h
he aim o inse ing some p o isions in hei own in e es . The
en o cemen o he TRIPS Ag eemen should be o he mu ual
ad an ages o bo h p oduce s and use s in he same ime and balance
o igh s and obliga ions should be kep a all he imes. De eloping
coun ies ha e igh o p o ec hei public heal h and public in e es
wi hin he scope o he TRIPS Ag eemen , as long as he minimum
s anda d which is equi ed by he TRIPS Ag eemen is implemen ed.
Pa en law is e y impo an o he de elopmen o socie y as i
will g an exclusi e igh o he pa en owne s. Pa en owne will
ecei e exclusi e igh o use, make and exploi his in en ion so ha
gain economic p o i . This is an incen i e o e e y in en o s and
go e nmen will gua an ee pa en ee’s igh s. In e u n his in en ion
will be disclosed o public o s udy and esea ch, and e en a e he
expi y o he pa en e e yone will be able o use he in en ion o
economic bene i s as will.
In o de o a pa en o be g an ed o an in en ion, i should ha e
some equi emen s. E en hough he TRIPS Ag eemen does no
de ine he e m in en ion ne e heless i s a es he adi ional
equi emen s o pa en abili y which hey a e no el y, in en i e s ep
and indus ial applicabili y. The e o e, his esea ch will discuss he
equi emen s o pa en abili y o he o iginal I aqi pa en law No. 65 o
1970 and i s amendmen o he CPA O de No. 81, in o de o see
whe he he amendmen has b ough he I aqi pa en law close o he
TRIPS Ag eemen o no . Whe he such amendmen s we e necessa y
o no .
The TRIPS Ag eemen p o ides some exclusions om
pa en abili y. This is one o he mos impo an a ea o he de eloping
coun ies. A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen p o ides an op ion
ha he membe coun ies can exclude in en ions om pa en abili y,
i he exploi a ion o such in en ions goes agains he p inciples o
public o d e and mo ali y. The TRIPS Ag eemen does no de ine any
such p inciples and le o membe coun ies o de ine hem and
implemen hem. Howe e , i exploi a ion o any in en ion endange s
he s uc u e o ci il socie y and i s ins i u ions, o nega i ely a ec
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
50
he communi y’s immo ali y hen membe coun ies a e allowed o
exe cise i s igh s unde his p o ision o he TRIPS Ag eemen and
exclude such in en ion om pa en abili y. he e o e, his esea ch will
discuss in de ail hese exclusions and he ele an p o isions unde he
o iginal I aqi pa en law and i s amendmen by he CPA O de No.81.
The TRIPS Ag eemen also p o ides ano he op ion o excluding
om pa en abili y ha ela e o me hod o ea men which hey a e
he diagnos ic, he apeu ic and su gical me hods o ea men o
humans o animals. The esea ch will examine his p o ision in o de
o ind ou wha can be excluded om pa en abili y. Posi ions o
membe coun ies on his ype o exclusion will be analysed e en
be o e he exis ence o his p o ision and posi ion o hose membe
coun ies ha allow pa en ing such me hods o ea men . Then
posi ion o I aqi pa en law and CPA O de will be analysed as well.
Access o medicines and ul illing he public heal h needs a e
always one o he p oblems o he leas de eloped and de eloping
coun ies. The sou ces o hese medicines a e usually he de eloped
coun ies and hei highe p ices has always been p oblem o poo
coun ies especially wi h he highe s anda d o p o ec ion o he
TRIPS Ag eemen . Because i will p e en he leas de eloped and
de eloping coun ies om ha ing access o gene ic d ugs.
No wi hs anding, he ac he highe s anda d o p o ec ion will help
he pha maceu ical companies o make be e p o i s and in e u n his
encou age hem o conduc expensi e esea ch and de elopmen o
disco e ing new medicines. E en ually, he leas de eloped and
de eloping coun ies a emp o balance he esul o he U uguay
Round, led o he adop ion o he Doha Decla a ion on he TRIPS
Ag eemen and Public Heal h (14 No embe 2001). This decla a ion
o acknowledge he p oblem o hese coun ies and emphasizes ha
he TRIPS Ag eemen should no be an obs acle in sol ing hei public
heal h p oblems. The e o e, his esea ch will discuss he Doha
Decla a ion in de ail o ind ou o wha ex end i has sol ed he public
heal h conce ns and access o medicines by he membe coun ies, and
he I aqi pa en law posi ion will be discussed as well.
The TRIPS Ag eemen also p o ides o exclusion om
pa en abili y o plan s and animals. This is ano he impo an a ea o
In oduc ion
51
exclusion; howe e , he TRIPS Ag eemen equi e om he membe
coun ies o p o ide o he p o ec ion o plan a ie ies. This
p o ec ion can be h ough a pa en o an e ec i e sui gene is sys em
o bo h o hem. The esea ch has discussed his a ea o exclusion in
de ail wi h e e ence o some o he impo an in e na ional ag eemen s
ha ha e egula ed he p o ec ion o plan a ie ies including sa ing
seeds. I aq has as a ea o e ile land ha can be used o ag icul u e.
The e o e, p o iding p o ec ion o plan a ie ies and seeds will a ec
he a me s signi ican ly. The I aqi laws in his ega d will be
examined and analysed wi h e e ence o he amendmen s as well.
The las pa o he esea ch will ocus on he excep ions o
exclusi e igh s o pa en owne s in he TRIPS Ag eemen and I aqi
pa en law. The TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ha membe coun ies ha e
igh o p o ide o limi ed excep ions o igh con e ed, wi hou
naming any ype o excep ions. Howe e , long be o e he TRIPS
Ag eemen coun ies a ound he wo ld we e used o limi he
exclusi e igh s o he pa en holde s by in oducing some impo an
excep ions acco ding o hei needs. By no naming speci ic ype o
excep ion he TRIPS Ag eemen o e s lexibili ies o he membe
coun ies o include he excep ions in hei domes ic law ha bes
se e ci cums ances. Howe e , he condi ions in he TRIPS
Ag eemen ha e o be abide by he membe coun ies.
Beside he abo e excep ion, he TRIPS Ag eemen p o ides o
ano he ype o excep ion which names i ‘O he Use Wi hou
Au ho iza ion o he Righ Holde ’, as commonly known as
(Compulso y licence). compulso y licence is e y powe ul ool a he
hand o he local au ho i ies o ec i y any unbalanced ci cums ances
c ea ed due o he exclusi e igh s o he pa en owne s. This ype o
licence imposed on he igh holde s wi hou hei consen . The e o e,
he TRIPS Ag eemen has s a es a lis o condi ions and es ic ions
ha ha e o be ollowed be o e any membe coun ies be able o g an
a compulso y licence unde he TRIPS Ag eemen . The esea ch will
examine and analyse in de ail he condi ions and ci cums ances in
which his excep ion can be applied in.
Howe e , due o he s ic condi ions o applying he compulso y
licence, ha made many membe coun ies especially he leas
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
52
de eloped and de eloping coun ies unable o u ilise he compulso y
licence o supply he needs medicines o hemsel es. This e en ually
leads o an amendmen o he TRIPS Ag eemen and in oducing
special compulso y licence o he pu pose supplying pha maceu ical
p oduc s o he need o he membe coun ies. The esea ch will
discuss his new compulso y licence in de ail and explain he
si ua ions ha can be applied on.
The o iginal I aqi pa en law p o ided o compulso y licence.
Howe e , he amendmen o he CPA O de No. 81 eplaced all he
p o isions ha ela ed o compulso y licence. he esea ch will
examine all he p o isions o he o he I aqi pa en law be o e he
amendmen and a e he amendmen by he CPA and analyse he
weaknesses and ad an ages ha in oduced by he CPA O de No. 81.
53
2 OBJECTIVES
The main objec i e o his esea ch is o examine and analyse he
o iginal I aqi Pa en and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o 1970 (The
Pa en Laws only) in compa ison o he amendmen s in pa icula he
CPA O de No. 81, hen compa e hese wi h he p o isions o he
TRIPS Ag eemen in o de o ind ou he con i ma ions and
con adic ions among hem.
Apa om he abo e main objec i e, he e is a signi ican
numbe o o he objec i es as ollows:
Fi s : To ind ou whe he he TRIPS Ag eemen es ablished on
bases o ai nego ia ions and wi hou any coe cion om he powe ul
de eloped coun ies and hei companies such as big pha maceu ical
companies.
Second: Analyse and examine he na u e, scope, pu poses,
objec i es and p inciples o he TRIPS Ag eemen in o de o he
membe coun ies (leas de eloped, de eloping and de eloped
coun ies, and pa icula ly he I aqi law make s) ha e clea ision on
how o deal wi h he TRIPS Ag eemen and be able o bene i om i .
Thi d: Examine he his o ical de elopmen o he I aqi pa en law
and assess he equi emen o pa en abili y unde he o iginal I aqi
pa en law and i s amendmen s o ind ou o wha ex end compa ible
wi h he equi emen o pa en abili y unde he TRIPS Ag eemen .
Fou h: Analyse he p o isions o he TRIPS Ag eemen ha
p o ide o excep ions and exclusion om pa en abili y and compa e
hem o he I aqi pa en law and i s amendmen s made by he CPA
O de No. 81 in o de o ind compa ibili y among hem, and o ind
ou o wha ex en hey ha e been u ilised by he I aqi pa en law.

55
3 METHODOLOGY
The hesis me hodology is comp ised o legal compa a i e and
analy ical app oaches o all exis ing signi ican p o isions o he I aqi
pa en law be o e and a e amendmen s among hemsel es and in
compa ison, o he p o isions o he TRIPS Ag eemen . The
jus i ica ion o he esea ch analyses is o iden i y he easons behind
he exis ence o he TRIPS Ag eemen and he nego ia ions ha
occu ed be ween he de eloped and de eloping coun ies. Analysing
he p ocess o s anda dizing he minimum p o ec ion o pa en igh s
be o e he TRIPS Ag eemen and ac ics used by he each de eloped
and de eloping coun ies o gain mos ou o he TRIPS Ag eemen
and easons made he de eloping coun ies o accep he TRIPS
Ag eemen .
The esea ch compa es and analyses he p o isions o he o iginal
I aqi pa en law wi h he amendmen s ha ollowed by he CPA. In
his way he esea ch will be able o a i e o conclusion whe he he
p og esses and amendmen s we e made o he bene i s o I aq as a
coun y. Fo a i ing a his conclusion, examining he his o y o
c ea ing he TRIPS Ag eemen and he p o isions o his ag eemen is
necessa y. Compa ing he o iginal I aqi pa en law and CPA O de
No. 81 o he p o isions o he TRIPS Ag eemen will be he bes way
o ind disc epancies among hem and a good a emp o make
ha moniza ion among hem.
4 RESULTS
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
64
In he same way he de eloped coun ies we e unhappy abou he
in e na ional s anda ds p o ec ion, as hey we e aiming o s onge
p o ec ion and ealized ha such p o ec ion canno be achie ed by
Wo ld In ellec ual P ope y O ganiza ion (he eina e he “WIPO”)
and o he o ums like he Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and
De elopmen (he eina e he “UNCTAD”) and he Uni ed Na ions
Educa ional, Scien i ic and Cul u al O ganiza ion (he eina e he
“UNESCO”) because i s posi ion in hese o ums is weak and can
easily be de ea ed by de eloping coun ies.
10
Uni ed S a es’ ailed
a emp s lead o hink abou shi ing o a o um whe e i is he
s onges in luen ial pa y and can impose i s in e es wi hou e ec i e
opposi ion. This o um was he GATT o um. This made Uni ed
S a es o hink again and p opose ha he issue o in ellec ual p ope y
p o ec ion has o be conside ed as an issue o mul ila e al ade
nego ia ion.
11
Since de eloping coun ies we e no sympa he ic o he
Uni ed S a es in ellec ual p ope y needs, i had no choice bu o c ea e
a link be ween in e na ional ade egime and en o cemen o
in ellec ual p ope y s anda ds so ha be able o s op ee iding and
‘ ebalance he equa ion’.
12
In ac up o ha momen in ellec ual
p ope y igh s we e looked a as an obs acle o ee ade, bu due o
he Uni ed S a es and Uni ed S a es big businesses, he con ac ing
pa ies o he GATT mee ing in Pun a del Es e (U uguay) ag eed ha
in he nex ound (which is known as U uguay Round) o include ade
ela ed aspec s o in ellec ual p ope y igh s as a subjec o
nego ia ions.
13
This p ocess was no sudden bu i was planned long
be o e U uguay Round. Some a emp s we e made du ing he Tokyo
Round on he issue o ade in coun e ei goods which was led by he
Le i S auss Co po a ion, e en hough he a emp was unsuccess ul
o ame he in ellec ual p ope y igh s a ade ela ed issue, bu i was
10
C owne, p. 79.
11
D ahos, ‘De eloping Coun ies and In e na ional In ellec ual P ope y S anda d-Se ing’,
p. 769.
12
Pe e D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION: The S o y o TRIPS
a he GATT’, P ome heus, 13.1 (1995), 6–19 (p. 8).
13
C owne, p. 79.

T ips his o y, backg ound, nego ia ion: de eloped and de eloping coun ies s and du ing nego ia ions
65
a good ini ia ion.
14
This ollowed by c ea ing he G oup o Expe on
T ade on Coun e ei Goods by con ac ing pa ies a hei Fou h
Session in 1984. The G oup was o he opinion ha join ac ion was
necessa y, bu some coun ies we e agains p oducing addi ional
no ms and s anda ds and o he s we e o he belie ha WIPO was a
be e o um o dealing wi h hese issues and no GATT.
15
Howe e ,
he e a e o he easons ha encou aged de eloped coun ies o push
o GATT. One o he easons was ha hey can inco po a e all
in ellec ual p ope y igh s in o a single documen and any coun y
wan s o bene i om WTO has o a i y his single documen ( he
TRIPS Ag eemen ) as well.
16
E en hough he de eloping coun ies
we e awa e ha TRIPS was a loss bu hey we e o he opinion ha
joining WTO will be bene icial o e all.
17
GATT was conside ed o be
a place whe e con ac s and pac s we e eely aded a he han
concen a ion on ee ades.
18
Ano he s ong eason ha led he
de eloped coun ies o p e e GATT o e WIPO was ha he o me
had a well-es ablished en o cemen and dispu e se lemen
mechanisms.
19
Ano he eason o chosen GATT by Uni ed S a es as a
o um o in ellec ual p ope y was ha he GATT’s backg ound and
dealings wi h he de eloping coun ies was no pe ec as supposed o
be. The ep esen a i es o de eloping coun ies we e no exis ed
con inuously du ing he p ocess o c ea ing he TRIPS Ag eemen and
du ing d a ing he (F amewo k o Unde s anding) and se ing he
ounda ions o he inal ag eemen hey we e le ou .
20
14
G aham Du ield, In ellec ual P ope y Righ s and he Li e Science Indus ies: A Twen ie h
Cen u y His o y, Globaliza ion and Law (Alde sho , Hampshi e, England ; Bu ling on,
VT: Ashga e, 2003), p. 197.
15
Daniel J. Ge ais, The TRIPS Ag eemen : D a ing His o y and Analysis, 3 d ed (London:
Swee & Maxwell, 2008), pp. 8–9.
16
C owne, pp. 79–80.
17
Du ield, p. 197.
18
D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION’, p. 13.
19
Du ield, p. 199.
20
D ahos, ‘De eloping Coun ies and In e na ional In ellec ual P ope y S anda d-Se ing’,
p. 770.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
66
1.3 STEPS TAKEN BY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (UNITED STATES OF
AMERICA IN PARTICULAR):
Uni ed S a es go e nmen had a g ea ole in he ac ual exis ence
o he TRIPS Ag eemen . Alone wi h all he powe s i had could
pe suade mo e han 100 coun ies ha hey should pay mo e o he
impo a ion o in o ma ion.
21
The Uni ed S a es go e nmen was
backing up he in e es g oups especially hose o pha maceu icals and
b and name goods on one side and o he a ious high echnology
sec o s on he o he . Fea s sp ead wide ha he Uni ed S a es economy
was declining and weakening. Base on his pessimism among poli ical
eli es led he Uni ed S a es go e nmen hink ha his is highly due o
in ellec ual p ope y pi acy by o he coun ies.
22
Many Ame ican big
co po a ions like IBM, P ize and Mic oso which la gely elying on
in ellec ual p ope y asse s, we e wo ied abou losing p o i s due o
pi acy.
23
Da a collec ed by he Uni ed S a es In e na ional T ade
Commission (he eina e he “ITC”) showed ha Uni ed S a es
co po a ions losing some US$ 50 billion a yea due o weak
in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion ab oad.
24
Fu he mo e, some
de eloping coun ies we e eme ging as po en ial egional economic
powe such as B azil and India. While Uni ed S a es looking a hei
de eloping as a h ea and un iendly economic i als.
25
Long be o e
he Pun a del Es e Minis e ial Con e ence, bo h o he pa en and
copy igh in e es g oups we e o he opinion ha s ong and
en o ceable in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion is necessa y. Pa en
indus ies wan ed o achie e his h ough mul ila e al app oach wi h
he aim o globalizing Uni ed S a es s anda ds o in ellec ual p ope y
p o ec ion. On he o he hand, he copy igh indus ies we e
conce ned mo e wi h hei le el o en o cemen . Bu be o e he
21
D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION’,p. 7.
22
Du ield, p. 199.
23
D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION’, p. 7.
24
Ad onico O Adede, ‘O igins and His o y o he TRIPS Nego ia ions’, in T ading in
Knowledge: De elopmen Pe spec i es on TRIPS, T ade, and Sus ainabili y, ed. by
Ch is ophe Bellmann, G aham Du ield, and Rica do Meléndez-O iz (Ea hscan, 2003), p.
24.
25
D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION’, p. 7.
T ips his o y, backg ound, nego ia ion: de eloped and de eloping coun ies s and du ing nego ia ions
67
Con e ence bo h pa ies ag eed ha hei app oaches we e
complemen a y.
26
The e a e wo main en i ies ha had g ea in luence on he Uni ed
S a es go e nmen decision on p e e ing s ong and high s anda d o
in ellec ual p ope y igh s. The i s and mos impo an o hese
en i ies is he O ice o he Uni ed S a es T ade Rep esen a i e
(he eina e he “USTR”). USTR was c ea ed by Cong ess and placed
in he Execu i e O ice o he P esiden o coo dina e ade policy, bu
in eali y, i was a means h ough which he Cong ess and in e es
g oups pu p essu e on he Execu i e o inco po a e hei in e es s in
he coun y’s in e na ional ade policy. The o he en i y was he
Uni ed S a es ITC. ITC aimed a p o iding ade expe ise o bo h
b anches o go e nmen (Legisla i e and Execu i e) by iden i ying he
e ec s o impo s on US indus ies and ac ions necessa y o be aken
agains ‘un ai ade p ac ice’ including in ellec ual p ope y pi acy.
The in e es s o o he de eloped coun ies we e simila o hose o
Uni ed S a es. The e o e, i was easy o Uni ed S a es o acqui e
suppo o Eu opean Union, Japan, Canada and o he de eloped
coun ies. Howe e , be o e ecei ing such suppo , Uni ed S a es
h ough majo mul ina ional co po a ions es ablished In ellec ual
P ope y Commi ee (he eina e he “IPC”) in 1986. IPC did i s bes
o ga he suppo s o Eu opean and Japanese go e nmen s and
businesses. IPC could wi h help om o he local and in e na ional
business and ade associa ion u n he issue o in ellec ual p ope y
in o a ade ela ed issue in a package and e en ually de eloped in o
he TRIPS ag eemen .
27
Howe e , de eloping coun ies esis ed his
a emp and Uni ed S a es had o deal wi h opposi ion in i s own way.
Since he Uni ed S a es can be conside ed as a mas e mind o
exis ence o he TRIPS ag eemen and mos ly will be bene icial o
he Uni ed S a es, i was he Uni ed S a es ha s ongly opposed all
he esis ance. Dealing wi h so e eign s a es was no easy o he
Uni ed S a es because hey had igh s unde p e ious in e na ional
con en ions o egula e laws wi h lowe p o ec ion om wha Uni ed
S a es wishes o . Some o hese coun ies we e no cul u ally eady o
26
Du ield, p. 201.
27
C owne, pp. 81–83.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
68
accep in ellec ual p ope y and some looked a i as a new o m o
decoloniza ion o economic impe ialism.
28
As has al eady been said, one o he main coun ies ha
con ibu ed o he exis ence o TRIPS Ag eemen and s ongly
epulsed any esis ance agains c ea ion o he TRIPS was Uni ed
S a es o Ame ica. The Uni ed S a es had aken some measu es o
ensu e ha na ions and in pa icula de eloping na ions would ollow
he s anda ds ha USA p e e s. IPC adop ed a s a egy o dialogue o
di ide be ween he de eloping coun ies. In 1988 a delega ion om
IPC isi ed newly indus ialized coun ies like Ko ea, Hong Kong and
Singapo e, wi h he in en ion sepa a e hem om India and B azil by
pe suading hem ha hei issues and in e es s a e no same as o India
and B azil. The IPC delega ion also isi ed ASEANS wi h he
in en ion o pe suade hem ha India and B azil a e no sui able
coun ies o ep esen you as hey don’ ca e abou in es men
clima e.
29
The o igin o he O ice o he Uni ed S a es T ade Rep esen a i e
(USTR) goes back o he ime o P esiden Kennedy. Du ing his ime
and unde he T ade Expansion Ac o 1962, Cong ess eques ed he
P esiden o c ea e a Special Rep esen a i e o T ade Nego ia ions o
conduc Uni ed S a es ade nego ia ion, which up o ha ime i was
he esponsibili y o he Depa men o S a e.
30
In he beginning he
o ice was called Special T ade Rep esen a i e (he eina e he
“STR”), bu la e on acco ding o sec ion 1 (a) o he Reo ganiza ion
Plan No. 3 o 1979, he o ice enamed as he O ice o he Uni ed
S a es T ade Rep esen a i e (USTR). Reo ganiza ion Plan No. 3 o
1979 b oadened USTR esponsibili ies. The p ima y esponsibili ies
o USTR as s a ed in Sec ion 1 (b) (1) a e de eloping and coo dina ing
he implemen a ion o Uni ed S a es in e na ional ade policy,
including commodi y ma e s and di ec in es men policy and
o e seeing nego ia ions wi h o he coun ies. USTR se e as he
p incipal ad iso o he P esiden on in e na ional ade policy and on
28
D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION’, p. 9.
29
Pe e D ahos and John B ai hwai e, In o ma ion Feudalism: Who Owns he Knowledge
Economy? (London: Ea hscan, 2002), p. 129.
30
h ps://us .go /abou -us/his o y. Seen on 03/11/2016
T ips his o y, backg ound, nego ia ion: de eloped and de eloping coun ies s and du ing nego ia ions
69
he impac o o he policies o he Uni ed S a es Go e nmen on
in e na ional ade.
E en hough he e a e o he commi ees and g oups such as T ade
Policy S a Commi ee (he eina e he “TPSC”) and T ade policy
Re iew G oup (he eina e he “TPRG”), howe e i is he USTR ha
domina es he bu eauc a ic p ocess and i is all due o USTR’s
p ima y esponsibili y o ade policy o ma ion and implemen a ion.
Mos o he ac ions by USTR, among o he s a e unde Sec ion 301 o
T ade Ac 1974 ega ding un ai o eign ade p ac ices and Sec ion
182 (which is called special 301 and in oduced in 1988 amendmen s)
on in ellec ual p ope y igh s.
31
These new laws we e come in o
exis ing in o de o Uni ed S a es p epa e i sel o wo ld domina ion
o in ellec ual p ope y and en o ce i s own in e es s by coe cing o he
so e eign s a es.
32
This is no di e en om wha he B i ish
go e nmen had done when i had dominan powe . Fo example,
when i s ade monopoly ended wi h china, he B i ish go e nmen
p essu ed by Lancashi e manu ac u e s, ship owne s and o he
comme cial in e es s o ex end he monopoly h ough wha e e means
is necessa y. E en ually h ough using mili a y powe he monopoly
u he ex ended while he Chinese go e nmen ag eed o mo e ade
ag eemen s. Then a e a while u he ag eemen en o ced on china,
bu his ime B i ish go e nmen aided by he F ench.
33
Sec ion 301 is he i s sec ion unde Ti le III, Chap e 1 o he
T ade Ac o 1974. Ti le III specialised o elie om un ai ade
p ac ices and i s chap e one dedica ed o en o cemen o igh s o
Uni ed S a es and esponses o ce ain o eign ade p ac ices. The i s
sec ion which is Sec ion 301 i led ‘Ac ions by Uni ed S a es T ade
Rep esen a i e’. O iginally Sec ion 301 enac ed o gi e he P esiden
he huge lexible powe o sol e ade dispu es and also enhanced he
P esiden ’s au ho i y o impose sanc ions unila e ally wi hou
obse ing in e na ional obliga ions. Howe e , cu en ly his
esponsibili y ans e ed o USTR and i has inal decision in cases
31
Ma cus Noland, ‘Chasing Phan oms: The Poli ical Economy o USTR’, In e na ional
O ganiza ion, 51.3 (1997), 365–87 (p. 367).
32
D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION’, p. 9.
33
Edwa d Goldsmi h, ‘The U uguay Round: Gunboa Diplomacy by Ano he Name’,
Ecologis , 1990, 202–4 (p. 202-203).

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
70
ela ed o sec ion 301 and i has au ho i y o ini ia ing in es iga ions
as well.
34
Sec ion 301 is no di ec ly ela ed o in ellec ual p ope y igh s
bu gi es g ea powe o USTR o ake ac ions, and in ac i is
manda o y ac ion when “ he igh s o he Uni ed S a es unde any
ade ag eemen a e being denied o an ac , policy, o p ac ice o a
o eign coun y (i) iola es, o is inconsis en wi h, he p o isions o ,
o o he wise denies bene i s o he Uni ed S a es unde , any ade
ag eemen , o (ii) is unjus i iable and bu dens o es ic s Uni ed
S a es comme ce”.
35
Sec ion 301 speci ied he au ho i y ha USTR
has, which in eali y is a e y b oad ha includes suspension,
wi hd awal o p e en ion o bene i s om ade ag eemen s.
Fu he mo e USTR has au ho i y o impose du ies o o he impo
es ic ions on he goods.
36
Also, USTR has he igh o ake
disc e iona y ac ion when (1) an ac , policy, o p ac ice o a o eign
coun y is un easonable o disc imina o y and bu dens o es ic s
Uni ed S a es comme ce, and (2) ac ion by he Uni ed S a es is
app op ia e.
37
The e o e, USTR has au ho i y o ake ac ion and
impose ade sanc ion and punish o eign coun ies and Sec ion 301
has gi en Uni ed S a es unila e al powe o punish any o eign
coun ies ha h ea en Ame ican in e es s, whe he Uni ed S a es has
bila e al o mul ila e al ag eemen s wi h hese o eign coun ies o
simply hei ac ions conside ed un easonable, unjus i iable o
disc imina o y ha es ic o bu den he Uni ed S a es ade.
38
E en
hough sec ion 301 in e p e ed in such a way as o be applied o all
kind o ade p ac ice including ades ela ed o in ellec ual p ope y.
Howe e , o u he s eng hen he p o ec ion o Uni ed S a es
in ellec ual p ope y ades Special 301 added o he T ade Ac o
1974 in 1988. Special 301 pa icula ly designed o p o ec he
in ellec ual p ope y igh s.
34
A. Lynne Pucke and William L. Reynolds, ‘Rules, Sanc ions and En o cemen unde
Sec ion 301: A Odds wi h he WTO?’, The Ame ican Jou nal o In e na ional Law, 90.4
(1996), 675–89 (pp. 676–77).
35
Sec ion 301 (a)(1)(A) &(B) T ade Ac o 1974
36
Sec ion 301 (c)(1)(A) &(B) T ade Ac o 1974
37
Sec ion 301 (b) T ade Ac o 1974
38
Pucke and Reynolds, p. 675.
T ips his o y, backg ound, nego ia ion: de eloped and de eloping coun ies s and du ing nego ia ions
71
The i le o special 301 (sec ion 182) o T ade Ac o 1974 eads
as “Iden i ica ion o Coun ies Tha Deny Adequa e P o ec ion, O
Ma ke Access, Fo In ellec ual P ope y Righ s”. The main pu pose
o he Special 301 as can be unde s ood om he i le is o p omo e he
adequa e and e ec i e p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y igh s in
o eign coun ies. This can be achie ed by Special 301 (sec ion 182)
h ough using a o eseeable h ea o unila e al e alia ion by he
Uni ed S a es o induce ading pa ne s o e o m hei in ellec ual
p ope y p ac ices.
39
This e alia ion was he esul o he eali y as
s a ed by he Uni ed S a es In e na ional T ade Commission ha in
1986 alone Uni ed S a es companies los be ween $43 and $61 billion
due o he pi acy p ac ices ab oad. The P esiden and he Cong ess
we e i mly commi ed and eady o do e e y hing o adequa ely
p o ec in ellec ual p ope y igh s h ough in e na ional ade
nego ia ions and e isions o he Uni ed S a es ade laws.
40
P o ec ing
he Uni ed S a es businesses and in e es s and sa is ying he policies o
bo h he p esiden and he Cong ess we e he easons o enac ing and
designing he Special 301 in i s cu en o m. Base on his
de e mina ion, Special 301 equi es he USTR ha wi hin 30 days
a e submission o a epo o (Na ional T ade Es ima e) o he
P esiden , he Commi ee on Finance o he Sena e, and app op ia e
commi ees o he House o Rep esen a i e,
41
o iden i y hose o eign
coun ies ha ‘deny adequa e and e ec i e p o ec ion o in ellec ual
p ope y igh s, o deny ai and equi able ma ke access o Uni ed
S a es pe sons ha ely upon in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion’.
42
Fu he mo e USTR can iden i y some o eign coun ies as ‘p io i y
o eign coun ies’. Howe e , some s ipula ions a e s a ed in Special
301 (sec ion 182 o he T ade Ac 1974) in hose coun ies in o de
USTR be able o lis as p io i y o eign coun ies, such as i hey ‘ha e
he mos one ous o eg egious ac s, policies, o p ac ices ha (i) deny
adequa e and e ec i e in ellec ual p ope y igh s, o (ii) deny ai and
equi able ma ke access o Uni ed S a es pe sons ha elay upon
39
Judi h H. Bello and Alan F. Holme , ‘Special 301: I s Requi emen s, Implemen a ion, and
Signi icance’, Fo dham In e na ional Law Jou nal, 13 (1989), 259 (p. 259).
40
Bello and Holme , p. 260.
41
Sec ion 181(b)(1) T ade Ac o 1974.
42
Special 301(Sec ion 182) (a)(1)(A) & (B) T ade Ac o 1974.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
72
in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ions.
43
Special 301 does no s op he e bu
u he au ho ised USTR o pu any s a es in p io i y o eign coun ies
‘whose ac s, policies o p ac ices desc ibed in subpa ag aph (A) ha e
he g ea es ad e se impac (ac ual o po en ial) on he ele an Uni ed
S a es p oduc s, and ha a e no (i) en e ing in o good ai h
nego ia ions, o (ii) making signi ican p og ess in bila e al o
mul ila e al nego ia ions, o p o ide adequa e and e ec i e p o ec ion
o in ellec ual p ope y igh s’.
44
Special 301 enac ed exclusi ely o p o ec he in ellec ual
p ope y igh s o Uni ed S a es companies and businesses in o eign
coun ies. I gi es a g ea au ho i y o USTR o in es iga e in a e y
sho ime, much as e han in es iga ion conduc ed acco ding o
no mal sec ion 301.
45
USTR admi ed ha Special 301 has g ea
impac on changing ac s and policies o in ellec ual p ope y igh s o
o eign coun ies. Fo example, du ing 1989, People’s Republic o
China and Taiwan commi ed and ag eed o amend hei copy igh
laws ha b ing hem in o line wi h wha is accep able in ellec ual
p ope y igh s acco ding o he Uni ed S a es. Colombia also changes
i s policy ega ding pe mission p oblems o mo ion pic u e and Saudi
A abia enac ed a new pa en law en i ely. USTR also admi ed ha
bo h Chile and Indonesia yield o he p oposed pa en law
amendmen s o anew pa en law including inc eased p o ec ion o
pha maceu icals. Bu s ill USTR was no sa is ied and belie ed ha
du ing U uguay Round none o he Uni ed S a es ading pa ne
happy wi h he in ellec ual p ope y s anda ds p oposed by U.S.
46
USTR did no s op by a ge ing de eloping coun ies only, bu
a he USTR used sec ion 301 o pu p essu e on a de eloped coun y
such as Japan in o de o di ec i s in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion
s anda ds o he same o hose o Uni ed S a es. Japanese ma ke in
Uni ed S a es was blooming and c ea ing bad image o he Uni ed
S a es economic capabili ies. The e o e, public was made o
unde s and ha i is he Uni ed S a es ideas and knowledge ha ha e
43
Special 301(Sec ion 182) (b)(1)(A) T ade Ac o 1974
44
Special 301(Sec ion 182) (b)(1)(B) & (C) T ade Ac o 1974
45
Bello and Holme , p. 263.
46
Bello and Holme , pp. 265–66.
T ips his o y, backg ound, nego ia ion: de eloped and de eloping coun ies s and du ing nego ia ions
73
been s olen by he Japanese.
47
E en ually, he Uni ed S a es
go e nmen wo ked on his poin and in 1984 he Uni ed S a es ade
o icials pu p essu e on Japan’s Minis y o In e na ional T ade and
Indus y o gi e up i s p oposals o a sui gene is o m o p o ec ion
o compu e so wa e.
48
This may be he easons why Japan s ayed
away om a ge ing de eloping coun ies bila e ally in in ellec ual
p ope y issues.
49
E en hough sec ion 301 and special 301 had a g ea ole in
assis ing USTR in pe o ming i s ask, bu wi hou epo s and da a
om in ellec ual p ope y lobbies such as In e na ional In ellec ual
P ope y Alliance (he eina e he “IIPA”) and Business So wa e
Alliance (he eina e he “BSA”), USTR could no pe o m i s du y.
Thousands o companies a e ga he ed o c ea e hese associa ions and
hey we e ac i e in coun ies all o e he wo ld and con inuously
eeding in o ma ion o USTR. Wi h he help o all hese big
co po a ions, USTR was capable o pe suading ample numbe o
coun ies, majo i y o hem we e de eloping coun ies, o enac o
amend hei in ellec ual p ope y laws so ha sa is y Uni ed S a es
needs.
50
This clea ly helped and pu Uni ed S a es in ad an ageous
posi ion compa ing o o he coun ies while nego ia ing and
submi ing i s idea a GATT. Bu his was no enough as some
de eloped coun ies p io i y was no inclusion o in ellec ual p ope y
in o he ade domain, i.e. o be pa o GATT. The e o e, Uni ed
S a es had o do i s bes o in luence i s alliance wi hin he de eloped
coun ies and s a ed wi h he mos dis inc g oup which was Quad
g oup. Quad g oup was one o he essen ial g oups which had g ea
in luence on TRIPS nego ia ions. Quad consis ed o he Uni ed S a es,
he Eu opean Communi y (he eina e he “EC”), Japan and Canada.
Some imes he g oup ex ended o include Swi ze land and Aus alia,
47
D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION’, p. 8.
48
D ahos, ‘De eloping Coun ies and In e na ional In ellec ual P ope y S anda d-Se ing’,
p. 773.
49
C owne, p. 85.
50
D ahos, ‘GLOBAL PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INFORMATION’, pp. 10–12.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
80
coun ies nego ia o s call he p ocess he Black Room consul a ions.
E en ually, by 1990 onwa ds he discussions and nego ia ions we e
ocused on how a he inal d a o TRIPS ag eemen de ia e om
he o iginal p oposal submi ed in 1988 by P ize , IBM, DuPon and
o he membe s o he in e na ional business communi y. Then he
ba le on he language o he TRIPS ag eemen s a s as e e y coun y
wan ed he language o be cons ued in he way ha desc ibe he deals
a ou s by he coun y. I a pa icula issue is no in hei a ou , he
nego ia o s y o cons uc he a icle in an ambiguous language so
ha o be able o open a backdoo exi and be able o un away om
esponsibili y o ha pa icula issue. Bu i was a di icul ask o
nego ia o s as hey all en angled in a complex web o ela ionships.
E e y nego ia o was conside ed inside o some g oups and ou side
o o he s. Fu he mo e, some nego ia o s we e ul illing he wish o
hei coun ies, which hey ha e o he ambi ions. Fo example, Sou h
Ko ea did no suppo India and B azil ully because Sou h Ko ea was
ying o join he O ganiza ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and
De elopmen (he eina e he “OECD”) and inally in 1996 became a
membe .
71
1.5 CONCLUSION
F om he his o ical pe spec i e and nego ia ion p ocess o
c ea ing he TRIPS Ag eemen , i can be concluded ha he TRIPS
Ag eemen as an in e na ional ag eemen did no come in o exis ence
o he bene i s o all coun ies equally. Du ing he p ocess many
coe cion mechanisms implemen ed by de eloped coun ies and in
pa icula he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica. The de eloping coun ies
we e awa e o his ac bu accep ed he ag eemen pa ially because
hey did no ha e any choice bu submi o he will o de eloped and
indus ialized coun ies, and also hoping o gain some ad an ages
om joining he WTO.
71
D ahos and B ai hwai e, pp. 133–40.

81
2 NATURE, SCOPE, OBJECTIVES
AND PRINCIPLES OF THE
TRIPS AGREEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The TRIPS Ag eemen like many o he in e na ional con en ions
and ag eemen s es ablished o ce ain pu pose and has i s own
speci ic na u e and scope o obliga ions, objec i es and p inciples. In
o de o unde s and he na u e, pu poses, scopes, objec i es and
p inciples o he TRIPS Ag eemen , one has o look a he p o isions
and a icles o he TRIPS Ag eemen as hey c ea e obliga ions upon
he membe coun ies o implemen hem. E en hough he e is one
pa icula p o ision in he TRIPS Ag eemen ha dedica ed o
cla i ying he objec i es o he Ag eemen , bu s ill he e is a deba e in
ega d o wha is he main objec i e o he TRIPS Ag eemen . C i ics
belie e ha he main objec i e o he TRIPS Ag eemen is o enhance
he p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y, howe e his is conside ed as a
common misunde s anding by Nuno Pi es de Ca alho. NP de
Ca alho belie es ha “ he main - i no he only - objec i e o he
TRIPS Ag eemen as well as ha o he whole WTO Ag eemen is o
p omo e ee in e na ional ade”.
72
P inciple o an ag eemen is
conside ed o be a cen al pa o he sys em by being he spi i o he
whole ag eemen and ep esen he di e en ules ha c ea e one
single ag eemen . I no o he p inciples o he TRIPS Ag eemen he
social, en i onmen al and economic aims o he WTO and TRIPS
Ag eemen may be jeopa dised by he scope o he in ellec ual
72
Nuno Pi es de Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, Fou h edi ion
(Alphen aan den Rijn, The Ne he lands: Kluwe Law In e na ional, 2014), p. 46.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
82
p ope y igh s.
73
In his pa he objec i es and p inciples o he
TRIPS Ag eemen will be discussed a e looking a he pu pose,
na u e and scope o he obliga ions o he Ag eemen .
2.2 PURPOSE, NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE TRIPS AGREEMENT
The TRIPS Ag eemen s a es minimum s anda d o in ellec ual
p ope y igh s h ough ules and p inciples in o de o ensu e
p o ec ion o he igh s. I is conside ed o be he mos comp ehensi e
ag eemen in he in e na ional le el compa e o o he ag eemen in he
a ea o in ellec ual p ope y igh s.
74
The scope o such igh s de ined
h ough he a icles o he ag eemen by con e ing igh s o he i le
holde s. Righ s in he TRIPS Ag eemen conside ed o be nega i e
igh s in he sense ha i is equi ed om o he s no o deal wi h he
p o ec ed subjec ma e s wi hou pe mission om he igh holde s.
75
2.2.1 Pu poses and Objec i es o he TRIPS Ag eemen
Acco ding o he P eamble
The e a e wo main pu poses and objec i es ha can be deduced
om he P eamble which a e consis en wi h he ounda ion o he
WTO. Fi s ; p esen ing he in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion in a be e
way ha educe dis o ions and impedimen s o in e na ional ade.
And second; ecogni ion o in ellec ual p ope y igh s as p i a e
igh s which can be p o ec ed agains any a bi a y and unjus ac s o
go e nmen s.
76
I is no necessa y ha all in e na ional ag eemen s and
con en ions ela ing o in ellec ual p ope y ha e a p eamble, o
example some o hose ag eemen s abled by he Uni ed S a es o
Ame ica and he Eu opean Communi y. Be o e 1990 ha ing P eamble
73
Rod igues J and Edson Beas, The Gene al Excep ion Clauses o he TRIPS Ag eemen :
P omo ing Sus ainable De elopmen (Camb idge, U.K.: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess,
2015), pp. 44–45.
74
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 32.
75
Ca los Ma ía Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s: A
Commen a y on he TRIPS Ag eemen , Ox o d Commen a ies on In e na ional Law
(Ox o d ; New Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2007), p. 7.
76
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 39.
Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
83
in he cu en o m was no conside ed o be use ul.
77
The P eamble
does no ha e same legal powe as hose o he A icles and i is no
conside ed o be c ea ing speci ic igh s and obliga ions. Howe e , i
can be e e ed o while in e p e ing he p o isions o he TRIPS
Ag eemen .
78
No all he A icle o he TRIPS Ag eemen a e clea
enough o a oid in e p e a ion. Some o he a icles may ca y mo e
han one meaning and can be in e p e ed in mo e han one ways,
he e o e he P eamble can be e e ed o in many in e p e a i e
con ex s.
79
The TRIPS Ag eemen in he i s sen ence o he P eamble s a es
ha membe s ‘Desi ing o educe dis o ions and impedimen s o
in e na ional ade’ and his is di ec ly connec ed o he in ellec ual
p ope y when he nex pa o he pa ag aph o he P eamble s a es
ha ‘ aking in o accoun he need o p omo e e ec i e and adequa e
p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y igh s, and o ensu e ha measu es
and p ocedu es o en o ce in ellec ual p ope y igh s do no
hemsel es become ba ie s o legi ima e ade’. This p o es ha
acco ding o he TRIPS Ag eemen he e is a s ong connec ion
be ween in ellec ual p ope y igh s and in e na ional ade. The
exis ence o such connec ion was due o he a emp s by he Uni ed
S a es o Ame ica and Uni ed S a es’ big co po a ions o include he
ade- ela ed aspec s o in ellec ual p ope y igh s as one pa o
nego ia ion in he U uguay T ade Round which was launched by
Minis e ial Decla a ion in 1986.
80
Despi e he e o s o de eloping
coun ies o less de eloped coun ies o s op his a emp bu s ill
made i o he U uguay Round. E en hough some analys s a e o he
opinion ha he TRIPS Ag eemen was discussed in w ong place as i
is no abou he ee ade bu a he c ea ing new domes ic ules and
77
Pe e -Tobias S oll, Jan Busche, and Ka in A end, WTO: T ade-Rela ed Aspec s o
In ellec ual P ope y Righ s (BRILL, 2009), p. 65.
78
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 67.
79
Resou ce Book on TRIPS and De elopmen , ed. by Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade
and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and Sus ainable De elopmen , and
UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable De elopmen (Camb idge; New Yo k:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2005), p. 10.
80
D ahos, ‘De eloping Coun ies and In e na ional In ellec ual P ope y S anda d-Se ing’,
p. 769.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
84
egula ions, and legal egimes.
81
Howe e , by ela ing in ellec ual
p ope y igh s o ee ades, he TRIPS Ag eemen is ecognizing he
same pu pose ha s a ed in he P eamble o he WTO Ag eemen
‘subs an ial educ ion o a i s and o he ba ie s o ade and o he
elimina ion o disc imina o y ea men in in e na ional ade
ela ions’. I was he same in e es ha he GATT o 1947 was
ounded on, which was ‘libe aliza ion o in e na ional ade’.
82
T ade
in his con ex e e o bo h a eas o ade o he WTO which hey a e
ade in goods and in se ices.
83
The TRIPS Ag eemen is pa o he WTO (GATT) and he e o e
i is concen a ed only on hose pa s o in ellec ual p ope y igh s
ha hei p o ec ions conside ed o be dis o ions and ba ie o ade.
Those a eas ha he pa ies o he GATT conside ed we e ade ela ed
aspec s o in ellec ual p ope y igh s such as copy igh and ade
ela ed pa s, wi h some o he a eas o indus ial p ope y ha ha e
independen A icles wi hin he TRIPS Ag eemen which a e;
adema ks, geog aphical indica ions, indus ial designs, pa en s, and
layou designs ( opog aphies) o in eg a ed ci cui s. Some o he a eas
ha ela ed o indus ial p o ec ion bu no gi en an independen
A icles bu join wi h o he a eas, and hey a e p o ec ion o
undisclosed in o ma ion and plan a ie ies. P o ec ion o undisclosed
in o ma ion hough men ioned in Sec ion 7 o Pa II o he TRIPS
Ag eemen bu in A icle 39.1 o he TRIPS Ag eemen i is s a ed ha
undisclosed in o ma ion is me ely o gi e ‘e ec i e p o ec ion agains
un ai compe i ion as p o ided in A icle 10bis o he Pa is
Con en ion (1967)’. Plan a ie ies also men ioned in A icle 27.3 (b)
wi hin Sec ion 5 o Pa II o he TRIPS Ag eemen which dedica ed
o pa en s. Acco ding o he said a icle plan a ie ies shall be
p o ec ed by he membe coun ies h ough pa en o an e ec i e sui
gene is sys em as an al e na i e pa en p o ec ion o sui gene is
81
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 3.
82
Paul Ka zenbe ge and Anne e Ku , ‘TRIPS and In ellec ual P ope y’, in F om GATT o
TRIPs: The Ag eemen on T ade-Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, ed. by
F ied ich-Ka l Beie and Ge ha d Sch icke , IIC S udies, . 18 (Weinheim; New Yo k:
VCH, 1996), pp. 2–3.
83
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 66.
Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
85
sys em can be combined wi h pa en p o ec ion.
84
The e o e, i
becomes clea ha he eason behind he wo ds o he i s pa ag aph
o he P eamble o he TRIPS Ag eemen ha in e na ional ade
conside ed as an impo an elemen in he TRIPS Ag eemen and
concen a ion will be on hose in ellec ual p ope y igh s ha hei
measu es and p ocedu es o en o cemen will no lead o ba ie o
in e na ional ade.
The i s pa ag aph o he P eamble did no neglec he
equi emen in which he TRIPS Ag eemen es ablished o
essen ially, in he i s pa ag aph o he P eamble while concen a ing
on ade he membe s should ake ‘in o accoun he need o p omo e
e ec i e and adequa e p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y igh s’. This
is an acknowledgemen ha e ec i e and adequa e p o ec ion o
in ellec ual p ope y igh s is necessa y in e e y indi idual coun y in
o de o ha e ee in e na ional ade wi h educed dis o ions and
impedimen s. In case hese e ec i e and adequa e p o ec ion is absen ,
hen i is belie ed ha dis o ions and impedimen s subsequen ly
occu in in e na ional ade and achie emen s o indi iduals and
co po a es will be abused as well, while in es men s will lead as ay.
The e o e, i is no he high s anda d o in ellec ual p ope y igh o
i s e ec i e and adequa e p o ec ion ha h ea ens he in e na ional
ade, bu he abuse o such igh s will do. This is an opinion ha
ha moniza ion o s ong in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion is necessa y
and should be an impo an objec i e o he TRIPS Ag eemen . O he
abuses o in ellec ual p ope y igh s can be ound in o he places in
he TRIPS Ag eemen such as A icle 8.2 and A icle 40. A icle 8.2
s a es ha i is necessa y o p e en any abuse o in ellec ual p ope y
igh s by igh holde s h ough needed measu es by he TRIPS
Ag eemen membe coun ies. Such measu es can be adop ed ‘ o
p e en he abuse o in ellec ual p ope y igh s by igh holde s o he
eso o p ac ices which un easonably es ain ade o ad e sely
a ec he in e na ional ans e o echnology’. A icle 40 o he
TRIPS Ag eemen concen a es on an i-compe i i e p ac ices ha
ela e o in ellec ual p ope y igh s. The e o e, any abuse in p ac ice
o in ellec ual p ope y igh s ha ha e ad e se e ec on compe i ion
84
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 33.

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
86
in he ele an ma ke can be deal wi h by he membe coun ies in
hei legisla ion.
85
As A icle 31.1 o he Vienna Con en ion in ega d o
in e p e a ion o ea ies s a ed ha ‘A ea y shall be in e p e ed in
good ai h in acco dance wi h he o dina y meaning o be gi en o he
e ms o he ea y in hei con ex and in he ligh o i s objec and
pu pose’, he e o e he P eamble se es as a pu pose o in e p e a ion
since he P eamble iden i ies he objec and pu pose o he TRIPS
Ag eemen . This u he s eng hened by he Doha Decla a ion on he
TRIPS Ag eemen and public heal h,
86
as in pa ag aph 5 (a) s a es ha
he p o isions o he TRIPS Ag eemen shall be ead wi h he pu pose
and objec o he TRIPS Ag eemen and especially objec i es and
p inciples. This clea ly e e s o he P eamble and A icles o 7 and 8
o he TRIPS Ag eemen . E en hough i s belie ed ha he p o isions
o he TRIPS Ag eemen canno be u he b oadened o na owed in
he ligh o he P eamble and A icle 7 and 8, because any al e a ions
would mean a new nego ia ion on wha ha e al eady ag eed on.
87
2.2.2 Need o New Rules and Disciplines
The second pa ag aph o he P eamble is conce ned wi h passing
new ules and disciplines ha a e needed o accomplish he objec i es
o he i s pa ag aph. In he second pa ag aph i e subpa ag aphs
numbe ed in which he new ules and disciplines should be egula ed
o acco dingly. The i s one is Subpa ag aph (a) ha s a es ‘ he
applicabili y o he basic p inciples o GATT 1994 and o ele an
in e na ional in ellec ual p ope y ag eemen s o con en ions’. The e
a e some impo an p inciples in he GATT 1994 which hey a e
na ional ea men , mos a ou ed na ion, anspa ency and
so e eign y,
88
which he TRIPS Ag eemen needs o abide by. Since
85
Ka zenbe ge and Ku , p. 5-7.
86
‘WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2 -WTO | Minis e ial Con e ences - Doha 4 h Minis e ial -
Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h - Adop ed 14 No embe 2001’,
2001 <h ps://www.w o.o g/english/ hew o_e/minis _e/min01_e/mindecl_ ips_e.h m>
[accessed 22 Decembe 2017].
87
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, pp. 37–38.
88
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 5; S oll, Busche, and
A end, p. 68.
Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
87
he TRIPS Ag eemen is in eg al pa o he GATT/WTO, he e o e
i ’s unde s andable ha comply wi h he GATT’s p inciples. In many
si ua ions he Panels and Appella e Body ha e e e ed o he
p inciples and p e ious GATT ju isp udence in cases o he TRIPS
Ag eemen .
89
None heless, he ques ion o wha ex en he GATT
p inciples apply in he TRIPS Ag eemen is no clea ye , hough hese
p inciples should no unde mine he TRIPS Ag eemen . Howe e ,
subpa ag aph (a) goes u he han he GATT p inciples and equi es
he in eg i y o he applicabili y o o he in ellec ual p ope y
ag eemen s and con en ions, such as Be ne Con en ion,
90
Pa is
Con en ion and he Washing on T ea y.
91
In subpa ag aph (b) new ules and disciplines should be egula ed
conce ning ‘ he p o ision o adequa e s anda ds and p inciples
conce ning he a ailabili y, scope and use o ade- ela ed in ellec ual
p ope y igh s’. The equi emen o adequa e s anda ds and p inciples
is necessa y in o de o balance he p o ec ion igh s o he igh
holde s and he in e es o public and use s in gene al. I was no he
in en ion o he nego ia o s o impose highly s anda ds o m o
p o ec ions, bu i was he adequa e s anda ds and p inciples ha a e
enough o achie e he objec i e o he TRIPS Ag eemen as s a ed in
he i s pa ag aph o he P eamble, which is o educe dis o ions and
impedimen s o in e na ional ade.
92
Then wha cons i u es adequa e
s anda ds and p inciples is a ma e o opinion, as wha may be an
adequa e s anda ds and p inciples o he de eloped coun ies many
no be he same o less de eloped coun ies, and his may change
h ough imes as well. The de eloped coun ies ha e changed hei
s anda d o p o ec ion h ough imes and du ing hei de elopmen
s ages. Howe e , he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es minimum s anda d o
p o ec ion and equi es om he membe coun ies o inco po a e
hese minimum s anda ds ha pu o h in he Ag eemen in o hei
na ional legal sys em. This has been conside ed as he highly c i icised
89
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 6.
90
S oll, Busche, and A end, pp. 68–69.
91
Ge ais, p. 155.
92
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , pp. 10–11.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
88
aspec o he TRIPS Ag eemen because ‘one size does no i all’
no wi hs anding some limi ed pe iod o ansi ion gi en by pa VI o
he TRIPS Ag eemen .
93
Subpa ag aph (c) emphasis on ‘ he en o cemen o ade- ela ed
in ellec ual p ope y igh s, aking in o accoun di e ences in na ional
legal sys ems’. The P eamble wan ed o s ess on ano he impo an
poin as well which is he elemen o en o cemen o he TRIPS
Ag eemen ha canno be ound in he p e ious con en ions on
in ellec ual p ope y igh s. This was one o he impo an poin ha
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica and o he de eloped coun ies emphasised
on du ing he nego ia ion because acco ding o hem he p e ious
con en ions such as Pa is Con en ion and Be ne Con en ion lacked
e ec i e binding en o cemen me hod o deal wi h non-compliance
membe coun ies. Fo his eason, hese con en ions we e called ee h
less con en ion by he de eloped coun ies.
94
Howe e , he second
pa o his subpa ag aph added an impo an elemen o he
en o cemen measu e which is conside ing he di e ences in na ional
legal sys ems. This b ings lexibili y o he en o cemen measu e.
95
Because his gi es an oppo uni y o he membe coun ies as o how
implemen he obliga ions equi ed by he TRIPS Ag eemen .
96
In ac , subpa ag aphs (d) and (e) men ion wo impo an and
necessa y poin s o he de eloped and de eloping coun ies
espec i ely. De eloped coun ies we e suppo ing he high s anda ds
o minimum p o ec ion and en o cemen p o isions, he e o e in he
case o any dispu es a ising om non-compliance should be esol ed
acco ding o he mul ila e al p ocedu es o he WTO.
97
A icle 64 o
he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ha ‘The p o isions o A icles XXII and
XXIII o GATT 1994 as elabo a ed and applied by he Dispu e
Se lemen Unde s anding shall apply o consul a ions and he
93
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, pp. 7–8.
94
C owne, p. 78.
95
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 11.
96
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 9.
97
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 9.
Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
89
se lemen o dispu es unde his Ag eemen excep as o he wise
speci ically p o ided he ein’.
Since he p o isions o he TRIPS Ag eemen equi e e y
ex ensi e legisla i e and adminis a i e measu es ha a e abo e he
capaci y o less de eloped coun ies, hence, i p o ides o ansi ional
a angemen s in subpa ag aph (e) o help hose coun ies in o de o be
able o implemen he minimum s anda d p o ec ions o he TRIPS
Ag eemen . In wo occasions he ansi ional pe iod ex ended. The
i s ime was on 27 June 2002 when he Council o he TRIPS
Ag eemen ex ended he ansi ional pe iod un il 2016 o leas
de eloped coun y membe s in ega d pha maceu ical p oduc s. The
second ime was on 19 No embe 2005 in he same way he
ansi ional pe iod was ex ended o leas de eloped coun ies un il 1
July 2013 in ega d he applicabili y o he whole TRIPS Ag eemen .
98
The e a e ou mo e pa ag aphs in he P eamble ha ecognize
impo an poin s, such as dealing o in e na ional ade in coun e ei
in pa ag aph h ee, as his was he wishes o Uni ed S a es o Ame ica
wi h he suppo o EC. Then, he P eamble ecognizes he in ellec ual
p ope y igh s as p i a e igh s in he ou h pa ag aph. This was
included in o de o ea i m ha he ma e s o in ellec ual p ope y
igh s should be le o p i a e pa ies o deal wi h, hough he TRIPS
Ag eemen in some occasion allowed he in e e ence o s a es
pa icula ly in cases o c iminal sanc ion o balancing he public igh s
and igh s o in ellec ual p ope y igh holde s.
99
The impo ance o
his pa ag aph is ha i gi es igh s holde s o ake bu den o hei
igh s and be able o de end hei igh s wi hou necessi y o s a es
in e e ence and aken ac ion o ex o icio.
100
The i h pa ag aph ecognizes an impo an elemen which is
‘Recognizing he unde lying public policy objec i es o na ional
sys ems o he p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y, including
de elopmen al and echnological objec i es’. Implemen a ion o high
s anda d o in ellec ual p ope y igh s may cause g ea changes o he
na ional sys ems and policies especially o he less de eloped
98
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 70.
99
Ge ais, p. 156.
100
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 10.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
96
p o ision a e he Pa is Con en ion (1967), he Be ne Con en ion
(1971), he Rome Con en ion and he T ea y on In ellec ual p ope y
in Respec o In eg a ed Ci cui s. I can be concluded ha he wo d
‘na ionals’ has been gi en e y wide meaning in o de o p o ec
in ellec ual p ope y igh s as p i a e igh s o e y wide anges o
pe sons, whe he a in e na ional o domes ic le els, o na u al o legal
pe sons as long as hey hold in ellec ual p ope y igh s in hose a eas
men ioned in he TRIPS Ag eemen .
2.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE TRIPS AGREEMENT
The TRIPS Ag eemen con ain one a icle which is i led he
‘Objec i es’ (A icle 7 o he TRIPS Ag eemen ) and o dina ily
should ep esen he objec i es o he whole Ag eemen . The con en
o he A icle was p oposed by wel e de eloping coun ies o he
U uguay Round Nego ia ing G oup, howe e , he o iginal p oposal
was unde he i le ‘A icle 2 P inciples’ o he Anell D a .
122
Pa ag aphs 1 and 3 o he o iginal p oposal o A icle 2 o he Anell
D a summa ised in o A icle 7 o he TRIPS Ag eemen . Main
pu pose o he inse ion o A icle 7 o he TRIPS Ag eemen was he
conce ns o he de eloping coun ies ha he TRIPS Ag eemen and in
pa icula he s anda d p o ec ions o pa en s should be in a manne o
ha e posi i e e ec on ad ancing hei echnological and economic
de elopmen , and social wel a e.
123
The de eloping coun ies we e
wo ied ha he objec i es o he TRIPS ag eemen a e di ec ed only
owa d he s ong p o ec ion o he in ellec ual p ope y igh s by
de eloped coun ies.
124
To he de eloping coun ies he wo dings o
A icle 7 o he TRIPS Ag eemen will balance be ween igh s and
obliga ions and hei in e es s will be aking in o accoun , e en hough
122
Du ing he nego ia ions on he s anda d o in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion be ween he
de eloped and less de eloped coun ies, a d a p epa ed by he GATT Sec e a ia and
Chai man Anell in o de o b ing hei opinion close o each o he on he ma e , he d a
is known as Anell D a . See Pe e K. Yu, ‘The Objec i es and P inciples o he T ips
Ag eemen ’, Hous on Law Re iew, 46 (2009), 979–1046 (p. 990).
123
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, pp. 164–65.
124
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade
and Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 119.

Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
97
i ’s mainly concen a ed on echnology ela ed in ellec ual p ope y
igh s.
125
Howe e , he majo i y o he de eloped coun ies’ p oposals
we e mainly concen a ed on gene al s a emen o in en and do no
coincide wi h he spi i o he A icles o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
Ne e heless, a icles o he TRIPS (including A icles 7 and 8) should
be gi en g ea e impo ance du ing implemen a ions and
in e p e a ions.
126
E en hough he heading o A icle 7 pa icula ly s a es
‘Objec i es’ bu he objec i es o he TRIPS Ag eemen canno be
limi ed o A icle 7 alone, bu a he has o be ead wi h A icle 8 and
he P eamble o he Ag eemen . Fo his eason, some schola s such as
NP de Ca alho a e o he opinion ha A icle 7 is misplaced as i ’s
mo e accu a ely ela ed o Pa en . The e o e, i should ha e placed in
Sec ion 5 (Pa en s) o he Pa II o in he P eamble wi h he
Pa ag aphs 5 and 6 (de elopmen objec i es).
127
A icle 7 can s ongly
be associa ed wi h Pa en because he wo dings o he A icle which
has some ph ases such as ‘ echnological inno a ion’, ‘ echnological
knowledge’, and he wo d ‘ echnology’. All hese wo ds indica ing
ha he de eloping coun ies we e mos ly conce ned wi h he Pa en s
and i s impac on hei coun ies.
128
E en hough he wo dings o he A icle 7 s a wi h ‘The
p o ec ion and en o cemen o in ellec ual p ope y’ bu since i ’s
linked wi h echnical inno a ion, he e o e i applies o hose
p o isions o in ellec ual p ope y igh s ha in ol e echnical
inno a ions only. This means ha A icle 7 only applies o pa en s and
ade sec e s as in wide sense may in ol e echnical inno a ion and
knowledge e en hough hey canno be pa en ed. O he a eas o
in ellec ual p ope y igh s such as copy igh s and ela ed igh s,
adema ks, geog aphical indica ions and indus ial designs canno be
placed unde he umb ella o A icle 7 as i led he objec i es o he
TRIPS Ag eemen . Howe e , i can be a gued ha he ph ase o
125
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 180.
126
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade
and Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 124.
127
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 165.
128
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 181.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
98
‘p omo ion o echnical inno a ion’ is e y wide and no necessa ily
limi ed o he a ea o pa en able in en ions. Technical in en ion is
conside ed as only one ea ly s age o he inno a ion. The inno a ion
p ocess may lead o enhancemen o exis ing o c ea ion o new
p oduc o se ice, e en hough i may no include e e y a ea o
in ellec ual p ope y.
129
O he commen a o s also a e o he opinion ha he las wo
ph ases o A icle 7 o he TRIPS Ag eemen ha ead ‘in a manne
conduci e o social and economic wel a e’ and ‘ o a balance o igh s
and obliga ions’ ha e emphasis on wide a eas and can apply almos
o all ypes o in ellec ual p ope y igh s. De eloping coun ies ga e
up on esis ing inse ion o p o ec ion and en o cemen o high
s anda ds o in ellec ual p ope y igh s in he GATT, which
appa en ly all we e in a ou o de eloped coun ies. Howe e , he
de eloping coun ies wan ed o make su e ha in e u n he high
s anda d o p o ec ion, especially in he a ea o Pa en , has some
ad an age on hei social, economic and echnological
de elopmen .
130
This idea o c ea ing link be ween in ellec ual p ope y igh s’
p o ec ion and hei p omo ion o social and economic and
echnological de elopmen ha exis in A icle 7, wi h o he ideas in
he P eamble and A icle 8 a e o iginally aken o inspi ed by hose o
he D a In e na ional Code o Conduc on he T ans e o
Technology which was nego ia ed unde he umb ella o UNCTAD
bu ne e became an in e na ional ins umen .
131
The wo ding o
A icle 7 and 8 (objec i es and p inciples) canno be ound in o he
in ellec ual p ope y in e na ional ins umen s such as Pa is
Con en ion and Be ne Con en ion.
132
This becomes clea ha his
idea is no new and he de eloping coun ies always wan ed some
bene i s in exchange o hei compliance o he high s anda ds o
129
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 181.
130
Yu, pp. 1000–1001.
131
Yusu , p. 10.
132
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade
and Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 119.
Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
99
p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y igh s and hey wan ed his o be
p esen ed in an in e na ional ins umen .
2.3.1 Balance Be ween Righ s and Obliga ion o In ellec ual
P ope y Holde
Acco ding o he las pa o A icle 7, de eloping coun ies ha e
he igh o objec he exclusi e igh s o he igh holde s i ailed o
use hei inno a ion ac i ely o bene i he social and economic
wel a e o he coun y o ailed o pe o m hei obliga ions while
enjoying hei igh s. Howe e , he de eloping coun ies ha e o be
ca e ul in balancing be ween in ellec ual p ope y igh holde s’
in e es s in o m o ai e u ning o compensa ion o hei
inno a ions and hose o he use s and public in gene al. The eason is
ha i he balance il ed owa ds he in e es o use s and public, he
in en o s a e no spending much e o s o ime and money in hei
inno a ions and his coun e p oduc i e p ocess will no be in a ou o
he de eloping coun ies and hei public.
133
I is also well es ablished ha en o cemen and p o ec ion o
in ellec ual p ope y igh s has a highe pu pose o bene i ing socie y
as a whole and no jus p o ec ing he in e es s o speci ic indi idual o
g oup igh s. A icle 7 o he TRIPS Ag eemen clea ly s a ed ha ‘ he
p o ec ion and en o cemen o in ellec ual p ope y igh s should
con ibu e… o he mu ual ad an age o p oduce s and use s o
echnological knowledge’, which means ha he p o ec ion and
en o cemen should ha e equal impac and bene i o bo h o he use s
and p oduce s. All he p i ileges ha con ibu ed o he indi iduals
and g oups we e wi h he pu pose o p o iding u he bene i s o
socie y in gene al. This apply o bo h de eloped and de eloping
socie ies, bu speci ically in less de eloped socie ies as hey a e
conside ed mos ly use s o echnology and no p oduce s o
echnology. E en hough A icle 7 o he TRIPS Ag eemen eques ed
and suppo ed by less de eloped coun ies, bu i i s he spi i o he
133
Ge ais, pp. 203–4.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
100
WTO, as balancing be ween igh s and obliga ions conside ed
supe seding objec i e o he WTO sys em.
134
E en in he p e ious In ellec ual P ope y con en ions ( o
example A icle 5A o he Pa is Con en ion) he p inciple o balance
o igh s and obliga ions exis ed be ween he go e nmen s on behal
o public in e es s and in ellec ual p ope y igh holde s’ in e es s.
135
This will help he in e p e e s o he TRIPS Ag eemen and assis
cou s as well. Usually cou s a e in e es ed in easons behind c ea ing
pa icula in ellec ual p ope y igh s by na ional legisla o s, and in
his ega d, cou s can ely on A icle 7 ha he TRIPS Ag eemen
in ended o keep balance be ween in e es s o igh holde s and socie y
in gene al. TRIPS nego ia o s ne e wan ed o abandon he in e es s o
use o in ellec ual p ope y asse s and by keeping his balance a
ha monized a mosphe e will be c ea ed ha p omo e bo h social and
economic wel a e.
136
GATT’s app oach in In ellec ual p ope y igh s which appa en
in he TRIPS ag eemen is pe missi e app oach a he han
p esc ip i e app oach, in which GATT gi es wide eedom o membe
coun ies o adop egula ions which bes sui s hei unique si ua ion
wi h he condi ion ha hese egula ions should no be inconsis en
wi h GATT and hei applica ion be a om disc imina o y and
a bi a y manne . Pe missi e app oach o In ellec ual P ope y no ms
comes om he s and ha GATT belie es in ellec ual p ope y igh s
may cause ade ba ie s. This is a special ea men o In ellec ual
P ope y igh s by GATT as he no mal app oach by GATT o achie e
ade libe aliza ion was p esc ip i e app oach.
137
134
Yu, pp. 104–8.
135
Rajan Dhanjee and Lau ence Boisson de Chazou nes, ‘T ade Rela ed Aspec s o
In ellec ual P ope y Righ s (T ips): Objec i es, App oaches and Basic P inciples o he
GATT and o In ellec ual P ope y Con en ions’, Jou nal o Wo ld T ade, 24.5 (1990), 5–15
(p. 10).
136
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade
and Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 126.
137
Dhanjee and de Chazou nes, p. 6.
Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
101
2.4 PRINCIPLES OF THE TRIPS AGREEMENT
A icle 8 o he TRIPS Ag eemen alloca ed o speci ying he
p inciples o he TRIPS Ag eemen . The o igin o A icle 8 can be
aced back o he Anell D a . In Anell D a a g oup o de eloping
coun ies sugges ed some p inciples unde A icle 2 o he B ex o
he D a . B ex is pa o he D a ha sugges ed and suppo ed by
de eloping coun ies. Clause 2 and 4 o A icle 2 o he D a made i
o he TRIPS Ag eemen as A icle 8 and i led P inciples.
138
. A icle 8
o he TRIPS Ag eemen consis s o wo pa ag aphs. A icle 8.1 gi es
g ea powe s o membe coun ies in adop ing ‘measu es necessa y o
p o ec public heal h and nu i ion, and o p omo e he public in e es
in sec o s o i al impo ance o hei socio-economic and
echnological de elopmen ’. Howe e , A icle 2 o he B ex
con ained wo ex a measu es which hey we e o p o ec public
mo ali y and na ional secu i y, bu hey did no make i o A icle 8.
Ye s ill hese measu es can be ound wi hin he o he A icles o he
TRIPS Ag eemen . A icle 27.2 allows membe s coun ies o p e en
pa en ing in en ions i hey belie e such p e en ion is necessa y o
p o ec o d e public and mo ali y, and in he same way A icle 73
p o ides o secu i y excep ions.
139
As we ha e seen be o e while discussing A icle 7 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen , NP de Ca alho belie es ha A icle 8 does no se any
new p inciples and excep ions. The impo an public policies and
excep ions a e al eady egula ed in o he a icles o he ag eemen ,
such as exhaus ion, compulso y licences, and exclusions om
pa en abili y o egis abili y. Acco ding o NP de Ca alho, A icle 8
canno se any new excep ion o limi a ion o he igh s con e ed in
he TRIPS ag eemen . Howe e , A icle 8 simply o e s excep ions
and limi a ions o he use o he igh s and no on he igh s. This
A icle shows how he p ocess o concession o he TRIPS Ag eemen
was managed and clea ed some doub s ha he de eloping coun ies
138
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade
and Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , pp. 122–23.
139
Yu, p. 1010.

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
102
had, ha hey will no be able o adop measu es o s op he e ec o
some o he in ellec ual p ope y igh s on hei mos impo an a eas
o public heal h, nu i ion and ma e s o i al socio-economic
impo ance. Hence, A icle 8 allows he adop ion o some measu es by
membe coun ies wi h he condi ion ha such measu es a e consis en
wi h he p o isions o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
140
These measu es can
be in ellec ual p ope y igh s measu es ha na u ally allowed by he
TRIPS ag eemen o example excep ions o exclusi e igh s (A icle
30), compulso y licences (A icles 31 and 31bis) and he disclosu e o
he public o es da a (39.3), o o he measu es like ma ke ing
app o al and p ice con ol o medicines, which is conside ed as a non-
in ellec ual p ope y igh s measu es as s a ed by Co ea.
141
Ca los M.
Co ea ga e an example o Canada ha as one o he de eloped
coun y pu p ices o d ugs unde pe manen examina ion. This
p ac ice is common in many de eloping and de eloped coun ies
including many Eu opean coun ies as well.
142
The p ocess o such measu es can be aken while he membe
coun ies ‘ o mula ing o amending hei laws and egula ions’. I he
e m ‘measu es’ alone exis ed in he p o ision, hen i could include
any ules and decision whe he om na ional au ho i ies o om
cou s. Howe e , since i is s a ed and encompassed wi h he e ms o
‘in o mula ing o amending hei laws and egula ions’, he e o e i
e e s only o ‘binding legisla i e measu es’.
143
O iginally he de eloping coun ies p oposed his p o ision ha
had he wo ds o in ellec ual p ope y igh s o he na ional laws and
egula ions, howe e la e on i was omi ed o include any na ional
laws and egula ions wi hou been limi ed o laws and egula ions
ela ed o in ellec ual p ope y igh s. I has o be an o icial published
law o egula ion; i he measu e is s a ed in an adminis a i e p ac ice
hen i will no be jus i ied unde he TRIPS Ag eemen .
144
Howe e , when i comes o measu es by Membe s o p omo e
public in e es , i is no necessa y ha hose measu es in u u e will
140
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, pp. 193–94.
141
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 104.
142
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 104 Foo no e 60.
143
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 192.
144
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 195.
Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
103
achie e hei goals, bu i ’s enough o show ha he measu e aken is
sui able o ha pa icula si ua ion. Public in e es has a wide
concep han he o d e public o he A icle 27.2. The e m ‘public
in e es ’ is conside ed o be mo e subjec i e han ha o he ‘o d e
public’ and canno be measu ed by any o he objec i e es s. When
in e es o public and an indi idual collides and ace each o he , he
indi idual should elinquish his igh s in a ou o ha o public, as i
will bene i he socie y and common good as a whole.
145
Public in e es is a domes ic issue which co e s any hing ha
a ec s he in e es o public in gene al. I canno be con es ed by o he
Membe s wi h hei own iew because e e y coun y has i s own
p io i ies and in e es s base on ci cums ances o he coun y in
ques ion. The wo d ‘sec o ’ also has a wide meaning which can
include any ype o sec o o economic ac i i ies wi h di e en sizes
e en i may include small en e p ises. The ph ase ‘ i al impo ance o
hei socio-economic and echnological de elopmen ’ may seem o
limi he scope o he p o ision, bu wha cons i u e an impo an
sec o is o he Membe s a e o de e mine wi hin i s socio-economic
and echnological de elopmen . Fu he mo e, he ph ase ‘socio-
economic and echnological de elopmen ’ is b oad enough o include
any ype o ac i i ies in di e en sec o s, no limi ed o ma e s ela ed
o economic o echnology, bu social ma e s a e included as well as
long as conside ed socially impo an .
146
Economies o de eloping coun ies like B azil, China, India, and
Sou h A ica a e complex due o hei apid de elopmen and canno
be compa ed o ha o he Eu opean coun ies and Uni ed S a es o
Ame ica. Sec o s o i al impo ance in China, o example, a e e y
di e en compa e o o he coun ies. China may p e e s onge
in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion in some speci ic a eas such as
en e ainmen , so wa e, semiconduc o s and ce ain a eas o
bio echnology. Howe e , in o he a eas like pha maceu ical,
chemicals, e ilize s, seeds and oods u ha China hea ily elies on
due o i s massi e popula ion o he pu pose o ag icul u e and public
145
Yu, p. 1011.
146
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 105.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
104
heal h, he e o e, in hese a eas China does no wan and esis
inc easing in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ions.
147
On he o he hand, despi e he ac ha he o igin o his p o ision
is om B ex o he Anell D a ha included he opinion o he
de eloping coun ies, ye , he cu en A icle 8.1 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen con ains wo ph ases ha limi he bene i s o his
p o ision o he de eloping coun ies. These ph ases in ac we e
added by he de eloped coun ies. The i s one is he ph ase o ‘adop
measu es necessa y’ which allow he membe coun ies o adop only
hose measu es ha a e necessa y and no wha hey conside
necessa y. In ac , his ph ase has a ec ed he abili ies o he
de eloping coun ies o adop any measu es which hey conside
necessa y. The second ph ase ha u he limi he lexibili ies o his
A icle is he equi emen ha he measu es o be ‘consis en wi h he
p o isions o his Ag eemen ’. Unawa e and inexpe ience o he
de eloping coun ies we e he cause o adding hese ph ases by he
de eloped coun ies du ing he nego ia ion p ocess. Howe e , e en i
he de eloping coun ies we e awa e o he side e ec o hese
ph ases, he belie is ha hey would no be able o s op he
modi ica ion due o he poli ical p essu es o he de eloped
coun ies.
148
Howe e , his should also be add essed in he ligh o A icle 7
and he P eamble, in o he wo ds, in he ligh o he balance o igh s
and obliga ions, and he social and economic accoun .
149
When a
measu e aken by a de eloping coun y and ound ou ha he measu e
is inconsis en wi h one pa icula s anda d would no au oma ically be
ejec ed, because i ’s he consis ency o he measu e wi h he o e all
o he TRIPS Ag eemen should be aken in o accoun .
150
Co ea is o
he belie e ha pa ag aph ou o he Doha Decla a ion on he TRIPS
Ag eemen and Public Heal h o 2001,
151
can be unde s ood ha when
147
Yu, p. 1013.
148
Yu, pp. 1013–15.
149
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 104.
150
Yu, p. 1014.
151
‘WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2 -WTO | Minis e ial Con e ences - Doha 4 h Minis e ial -
Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h - Adop ed 14 No embe 2001’,
Pa ag aph 4 We ag ee ha he TRIPS Ag eemen does no and should no p e en
Na u e, scope, objec i es and p inciples o he ips ag eemen
105
he e is a con lic be ween in ellec ual p ope y igh s and igh s o
p o ec public heal h o o p omo e access o medicines o all,
in ellec ual p ope y igh s should no be a hind ance o a i e o ha
objec i e.
152
2.4.1 App op ia e Measu es o be Taken by Membe
Coun ies
Again, while NP de Ca alho analysing his p o ision, he s a ed
ha his p o ision does no add any p inciples o he TRIPS
Ag eemen e en hough he A icle named and i led P inciples. I
me ely s a es some condi ions ha can be aken by membe s a es o
p e en an icompe i i e and abuse p ac ices.
153
O he s belie e ha
A icle 8.2 is only ha ing a his o ical and symbolical e ec s and only
shows wha he de eloping coun ies we e ying o emphasize du ing
he nego ia ions.
154
The s uc u e and con en o his p o ision is e y
close o he p e ious one, as hey bo h p o ide o measu es ha can
be aken by membe coun ies and hey also equi e he consis ency
and necessi y as well, hough he wo d necessa y is no used in his
p o ision bu he wo d ‘’needed’ is used.
155
In many places he TRIPS
Ag eemen used he concep o necessi y be o e one membe coun y
be able o use measu es o limi he in ellec ual p ope y igh s o
depa om obliga ions s a ed in he Ag eemen . The e ms a e used
include ‘necessa y, unnecessa ily, need and needed’, howe e hese
e ms a e synonymous and conside ed o be equi ing same le el o
p ecau ion be o e a measu e o be implemen ed.
156
membe s om aking measu es o p o ec public heal h. Acco dingly, while ei e a ing ou
commi men o he TRIPS Ag eemen , we a i m ha he Ag eemen can and should be
in e p e ed and implemen ed in a manne suppo i e o WTO membe s' igh o p o ec
public heal h and, in pa icula , o p omo e access o medicines o all. In his connec ion,
we ea i m he igh o WTO membe s o use, o he ull, he p o isions in he TRIPS
Ag eemen , which p o ide lexibili y o his pu pose’.
152
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 105.
153
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 213.
154
Yu, p. 1017.
155
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 214; Yu, p. 1016.
156
Fo mo e de ail see Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, pp. 113–17.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
112
Republic o I aq, s a ing ha ‘The Republic o I aq is a single ede al,
independen and ully so e eign s a e in which he sys em o
go e nmen is epublican, ep esen a i e, pa liamen a y, and
democ a ic, and his Cons i u ion is a gua an o o he uni y o I aq’.
A e he change o poli ical sys em om mona chy o epublic, in
1970 he i s pa en law du ing he Republic enac ed unde he i le o
(Pa en and Indus ial Design) Law No. 65 o 1970,
170
and eplaced
he old pa en law o mona chy eign Law No. 61 o 1935. The Law
No. 65 o 1970 ollowed by some ins uc ions, egula ions and
amendmen s. The mos impo an amendmen s we e h ough ‘Law
No. 28 o 1999 Fi s Amendmen o Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s
and Indus ial Designs’,
171
and Coali ion P o isional Au ho i y (CPA)
O de No. 81 o Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion,
In eg a ed Ci cui s and Plan Va ie y Law “CPA/ORD/26 Ap il
2004/81”.
172
3.2 PATENT LAW NO. 61 OF 1935 AND ITS AMENDMENTS
Pa en Law No. 61 o 1935 was a simple and basic law which was
enac ed in a ime ha in en ion and indus ial de elopmen canno be
compa ed o hose o cu en ime. The judicial sys em and capabili y
o go e nmen in handling and p o ec ing he in ellec ual p ope y
igh s was a minimal le el. Fo example, in his law he wo d
in en ion unde sec ion one de ined as ‘p oducing new hing (ma e )
h ough in o ma ion o c ea ing new me hod and medium o
p oducing knowing hings o c ea ing new me hod and medium o
p oducing new esul in indus ial a ea and ha include disco e y o
jus imp o ing in he men ioned a eas’.
173
170
‘Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en and Indus ial Designs’
<h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/ ex .jsp? ile_id=238400> [accessed 10 Oc obe 2017].
171
‘I aq: Law No. 28 o 1999 Fi s Amendmen o Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s and
Indus ial Designs’ <h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/de ails.jsp?id=10515> [accessed 17
Janua y 2018].
172
‘O de No. 81 Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and
Plan Va ie y Law.’ <h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/ ex .jsp? ile_id=181090> [accessed
10 Oc obe 2017].
173
‘I aq: Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’, Sec ion 1.

His o y o I aqi pa en law and i s amendmen s
113
Howe e , despi e he low expec a ion o ou come o in en ions,
e en in his law some impo an a eas we e excluded om
pa en abili y which hey we e conside ed i al ma e s o needs o
socie y in gene al which hey we e pha maceu ical o mula ions,
medicines, and me hods used in inancial and banking ma e s.
174
All
hese exclusions made i o he Law o Pa en and Indus ial Design
No. 65 o 1970.
Unde his law (Pa en Law No. 61 o 1935) pe iod o p o ec ion
was only 15 yea s om he iling da e, which is conside ed sho
pe iod by he cu en s anda d and wi hou making any di e en ia ing
among ypes o in en ions. On he o he hand, i he pa en egis e ed
ou side I aq, hen pe iod o p o ec ion would ha e been same as
pe iod o p o ec ion o ha o eign coun y wi h he condi ion ha he
g an ed pe iod o p o ec ion does no exceed 15 yea s.
175
This means
ha he law accep ed sho e pe iod o p o ec ion om o eign
coun ies bu did no ecognize p o ec ion longe han 15 yea s o
o he coun ies.
I is also s a ed unde sec ion 21 ha he pa en will be e oked in
h ee ci cums ances: (A) i he in en ion was no new, i was g an ed
con a y o his law o any o he laws, g an ed by aud o due o
in ingemen o igh s o o he s; (B) he subjec o he pa en b eaches
public secu i y and i s con a y o mo ali y and e hics; and (C) he
p esen ed in o ma ion abou he in en ion is no su icien ly
explaining he subjec o essence o he in en ion o me hod o
applica ion no included in a comple e and p ecise manne .
176
Pa en Law No. 61 o 1935 clea ly s a ed in sec ion 14 ha pa en
will be g an ed by he egis a acco ding o he p o isions o his law
wi hou making any in es iga ion o he use ulness, co ec ness,
u h ulness o co ec ness o i s da a o compa e i wi h he in en ion
ha submi ed o pa en o make su e i ma ches he in en ion, and
go e nmen will no gua an ee any o hese ma e s.
177
Ce ainly, wi h
ules and egula ions like his no go e nmen in he wo ld will be able
174
‘I aq: Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’, Sec ion 4.
175
‘I aq: Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’, Sec ion 7.
176
‘I aq: Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’, Sec ion 21.1.
177
‘I aq: Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’, Sec ion 14.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
114
o p o ec in ellec ual p ope y igh s o in en o s and igh holde s in
a p ope way. This ce ainly will no gua an ee he sa e y o ideas and
in en ions om s ealing and copying by o he s. E en hough sec ion
23 p o ides o penal ies in o ms o imp isonmen o no mo e han
wo yea s o inancial penal y and ine no exceeding one housand
I aqi Dina o hose who in en ionally decei e, a emp , assis , o
encou age o doing any o he ollowing ac s; (A) manu ac u e o he
me hod o p oducing which is he subjec o he g an ed pa en is
iola ing he igh s o he o iginal igh holde ; (B) impo , sale, s o e
o he pu pose o selling o display o selling any manu ac u ed
p oduc ha p oduced in iola ion o he igh s o he igh s holde ;
(C) publish in an announcemen , pla e (boa d), s amp o co e ha a
ce ain hing (in en ion) was g an ed a pa en bu in eali y no pa en
was g an ed o he pe iod o pa en has expi ed o he pa en was
al eady e oked.
178
F om he ou se , Pa en Law No. 61 o 1935 had unde gone h ee
amendmen s p io o i s eplacemen by Pa en and Indus ial Design
Law No. 65 o 1970. All hese amendmen s show ha he I aqi
Go e nmen , since i s es ablishmen , had ied o p o ide a pa en law
ha bes se es he in e es o bo h I aqi people in gene al and he
in e es o in ellec ual p ope y igh holde s.
The i s amendmen was passed by Law No. 64 o 1940 which is
i led as ‘Amendmen o Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’.
179
In his
amendmen wo p o isions we e added o sec ion 22 which is abou
he e oca ion o pa en and all he igh s ha a ached o ha pa en .
The o iginal sec ion 22 unde subsec ion 1 p o ided h ee si ua ions
ha causes he e oca ion o he pa en ; (A) i ees we e no paid on
s ipula ed ime; (B) i he pa en holde , wi hou legi ima e easons,
did no pu he in en ion in o wo k in I aq wi hin wo yea s o
g an ing he pa en ; (C) i he pa en holde b ough a o eign p oduc
simila o he one ha he was g an ed pa en o . Howe e , unde
subsec ion 2 one excep ion is p o ided o he abo e si ua ions, which
178
‘I aq: Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’, Sec ion 23.
179
‘Law No. 64 o 1940 Amendmen o Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’
<h p://www.i aqld.iq/LoadLawBook.aspx?page=1&SC=&BookID=2005> [accessed 16
Janua y 2018].
His o y o I aqi pa en law and i s amendmen s
115
is he absence o su icien acili ies o indus ialize he in en ion o
es ablish a ade base on he in en ion inside I aq. Bu s ill he
in en o has o publish he in en ion o public. In addi ion o his
excep ion, he amendmen p o ided o ano he wo excep ions; (A) in
case o sec ion 22.1 (A) i he unpaid ee on s ipula ed ime was due o
wa ; (B) in case o subsec ion 2, i pa en holde o his ep esen a i e
could no publish he in en ion o public o indus ialize and pu o
wo k he in en ion was due o wa . These excep ions show ha he
amendmen o he Pa en Law No. 61 o 1935 was in a ou o he
igh holde s and p o ec ing hei igh s in be e way.
Ano he amendmen was ollowed in 1949 by Law No. 27 o
1949 Second Amendmen o Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s.
180
This
amendmen added ano he sec ion ha include 2 subsec ions o Pa en
Law No. 61 o 1935 and acco ding o he new p o isions, new pa en
shall no be g an ed a e expi a ion pe iod o he pa en . In ano he
wo d, a e expi a ion o 15 yea s he e will be no ex ension.
Acco ding o he second p o ision, a e e oca ion o pa en
acco ding o sec ions 21 and 22, new pa en shall no be g an ed o he
in en ion in which i was subjec o he e oked pa en .
The las amendmen was du ing he Republic by he Law No. 210
o 1968 Amendmen o Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s.
181
This
amendmen con e ed he p o ision o sec ion 14 in o sec ion 14.1
and added sec ion 14.2 and 14.3 as well. Acco ding o subsec ion 2
he egis a has au ho i y o ejec a pa en applica ion, ans e i s
owne ship, amendmen o enew i and e as i om he egis e i
ound o be con a y o public in e es . Subsec ion 3 gi es igh o
appeal o he igh holde o he Minis e o Economic o he decision
o he egis a wi hin 30 days, and bo h pa y has igh o appeal o
he Council o Minis e s and he decision o he Council will be inal.
This amendmen is clea ly in a ou o public in which he
in e es o public is conside ed o be highe o he in e es o he igh
180
‘Law No. 27 o 1949 Second Amendmen o Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’
<h p://www.i aqld.iq/LoadLawBook.aspx?page=1&SC=&BookID=3302> [accessed 16
Janua y 2018].
181
‘Law No. 210 o 1968 Amendmen o Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’
<h p://www.i aqld.iq/LoadLawBook.aspx?page=1&SC=&BookID=24416> [accessed 16
Janua y 2018].
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
116
holde s. Righ o appeal can be conside ed as an imp o emen , bu no
o Minis e and Council o Minis e s because hei decisions a e amed
by na u e because hey a e execu i e b anch o go e nmen in he
same way o egis a . The e o e, hei decisions will be biased owa d
he igh holde s and hey canno be conside ed pa ial. Howe e , he
pe ec place o acqui e jus ice a e cou s as hey a e exe cising
judicia y which ha e judicial powe o decide he cases be ween he
egis a s and he igh holde s.
3.3 PATENT AND INDUSTRIAL DESIGN LAW NO. 65 OF 1970 AND
ITS AMENDMENTS
Law No. 61 o 1935 was conside ed o be an ou da ed law and
was necessa y o be eplaced by a new law in o de o he Republic o
I aq be able o ade wi h indus ialized and de eloped coun ies and
bene i om hei echnologies and be able o p o ec he in ellec ual
p ope y igh s o he in en o s and igh holde s in a be e way. This
can be no iced as explained a he end o he Pa en and Indus ial
Design Law No. 65 o 1970 which epealed he Pa en Law No. 61 o
1935, a pa ag aph w i en wi hou ha ing any sec ion numbe and
i led (Manda ing Reasons) which s a es easons o eplacing he old
pa en law. Unde he Manda ing Reasons, i is s a ed ha due o he
economic, indus ial and social de elopmen o he coun y ha makes
Pa en Law No. 61 o 1935 unable o espond o hem in a p ope way,
and o insu ing he p o ec ion o in ellec ual p ope y and
encou aging he in en o s and widening he ela ionship wi h
de eloped coun ies his law has been enac ed. Law No. 65 o 1970 on
Pa en and Indus ial Design epealed he Law No. 61 o 1935 on
Pa en s along wi h all i s amendmen s and egula ions (sys ems)
issued he eunde .
182
Law No. 65 o 1970 has also unde gone ou amendmen s which
wo o hem a e mino amendmen s and he o he wo a e conside ed
majo amendmen s. The i s amendmen was h ough ‘Law No. 28 o
1999 Fi s Amendmen o Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s and
182
‘Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en and Indus ial Designs’, Sec ion 52.
His o y o I aqi pa en law and i s amendmen s
117
Indus ial Designs’.
183
This i s amendmen includes 13 sec ions ou
o which he i s 12 sec ions a e amendmen s o he o iginal law No.
65 o 1970, and he las sec ion simply dedica ed o he da e o
en o cemen which om da e o publishing i in he o icial Gaze e,
and i include place o w i ing i down which is Baghdad. Ou o hese
12 amendmen s some o hem a e mino amendmen s such as
changing one wo d, o one single subsec ion and o he s a e majo
amendmen s by changing he whole sec ion, such as sec ion 1, 5, 9,
13, 29 and 51.
The i s amendmen o Law No. 28 o 1999 is conside ed a huge
amendmen o he o iginal law. Howe e , he second amendmen
which is implemen ed acco ding o ‘Law No. 5 o 2002 Second
Amendmen o Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s and Indus ial
Designs’,
184
has amended only one sec ion. The second amendmen
law includes wo sec ions only and he second sec ion dedica ed o
en o cemen da e which is om publishing i in he o icial Gaze e.
The amendmen in he i s sec ion is abou sec ion 22 o he o iginal
law and eplacing i wi h new sec ion ha includes six subsec ions.
The o iginal sec ion 22 is abou in en ions ha ela e o mili a y and
de ence sys em in which he egis a has o in o m minis y o
de ence. A e he amendmen sec ion 22 includes mo e de ail on his
ma e and eques s o ming a special commi ee ha include
ep esen a i es om minis y o de ence, mili a y indus ializa ion
co po a ion and secu i y se ices.
The hi d amendmen can be conside ed as a majo amendmen
because i changes he na u e and scope o he o iginal law o Law No.
65 o 1970 on Pa en s and Indus ial Designs. This amendmen
occu ed a e he in asion o I aq by he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica
and i s Coali ion Pa ne s in 2003 and was made h ough he Coali ion
P o isional Au ho i y (CPA) O de No. 81 o Pa en , Indus ial
183
‘I aq: Law No. 28 o 1999 Fi s Amendmen o Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s and
Indus ial Designs’ <h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/de ails.jsp?id=10515> [accessed 17
Janua y 2018].
184
‘I aq: Law No. 5 o 2002 Second Amendmen o Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s and
Indus ial Designs’ <h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/de ails.jsp?id=10347> [accessed 17
Janua y 2018].

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
118
Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and Plan
Va ie y Law ‘CPA/ORD/26 Ap il 2004/81’.
Sho ly a e he in asion o I aq, he Coali ion P o isional
Au ho i y (he eina e he “CPA”) was es ablished in o de o go e n
he coun y. On May 6, 2003 Lewis Paul B eme III named as he new
di ec o o he CPA, and on May 12 o icially ook he o ice. Paul
B eme had held many posi ions in he Uni ed S a es go e nmen s
be o e aking such posi ion in I aq, such as assis an o Sec e a ies o
S a e Hen y Kissinge and Alexande Haig, ambassado o he
Ne he lands, managing di ec o o Kissinge Associa es and
Homeland Secu i y Ad iso Boa d. On June 28, 2004 he CPA uling
ended and Paul B eme handed he au ho i y o he I aqi p o isional
go e nmen .
185
Paul B eme du ing his di ec o ship and p esidency o he CPA
expec ed o ebuild a s ong I aq economically and b ing jus ice a e
long un o dic a o ship. One o his majo wo k was de-Ba’a hi ica ion
p og am h ough emo ing all he Ba’a h pa y membe s om hei
uling au ho i y and p e en hem om aking public posi ion e e
again. In his capaci y as chie adminis a o o he CPA he also
c ea ed he I aqi Special T ibunal o C imes agains Humani y
(Special T ibunal) o ying agains genocide, c imes agains
humani y and wa c imes. He es ablished a p ope y claims
commission, a cen al c iminal cou and a new I aqi a my and ci il
de ence co ps.
186
He also issued a se ies o egula ions, o de s,
memo anda and public no ices. In his i s egula ion which named as
Coali ion P o isional Au ho i y Regula ion No. 1, he s a ed ha all he
laws ha we e in o ce be o e he occupa ion will con inue o be in
o ce unless hey con adic he egula ions and o de s issued by he
CPA and un il hey will be suspended o eplaced by he CPA o by
legisla ion o any o he I aqi democ a ic ins i u ions. In sec ion 3 o
he same Regula ion No. 1, i is s a ed ha he egula ions and o de s
issued by he CPA will emain en o ce unless ‘ epealed by he
185
‘L. Paul B eme III | Ame ican S a esman’, Encyclopedia B i annica
<h ps://www.b i annica.com/biog aphy/L-Paul-B eme -III> [accessed 18 Janua y 2018].
186
E ic S o e , Hanny Megally, and Hania Mu i, ‘B eme ’s “Go dian Kno ”: T ansi ional
Jus ice and he US Occupa ion o I aq’, Human Righ s Qua e ly, 27.3 (2005), 830–57 (pp.
832–33).
His o y o I aqi pa en law and i s amendmen s
119
Adminis a o o supe seded by legisla ion issued by democ a ic
ins i u ions o I aq’, i u he s a ed ha ‘Regula ions and O de s
issued by he Adminis a o shall ake p ecedence o e all o he laws
and publica ions o he ex en such o he laws and publica ions a e
inconsis en ’.
187
The p eamble o he CPA O de No. 81 clea ly s a ed ha he
economy o I aq needs o be changed and mode nized in o de o
bene i he whole people o I aq. Fo ha eason, one o he big
change o be occu ed is by changing he I aqi in ellec ual p ope y
sys em because he I aqi Pa en and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o
1970 and o he ela ed laws does no mee he in e na ional s anda d
o p o ec ion. I u he s a ed ha i s necessa y o ha e ai , e icien
and p edic able en i onmen o p o ec ion o igh holde ’s in e es s
and p i ileges whe he be a company, lende , en ep eneu s. I also
e e s o he necessi y o imp o ing people’s li e condi ion, echnical
skills and igh ing unemploymen . I is he in e es o he I aqi
Go e ning Council o join he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion (WTO)
he e o e i s necessa y o adop mode n in ellec ual p ope y
s anda ds. Also based on he epo o Sec e a y Gene al o he
Secu i y Council o July 17, 2003, he P eamble s a es ha i is
necessa y o change he economic sys em om ‘non- anspa en
cen ally planned economy o a ee ma ke economy cha ac e ized by
sus ainable economic g ow h h ough he es ablishmen o a dynamic
p i a e sec o , and he need o enac ins i u ional and legal e o ms o
gi e i e ec ’.
188
The e o e, Paul B eme ga e he igh o himsel o amend he
o iginal Pa en and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o 1970 h ough
Coali ion P o isional Au ho i y O de No. 81 o Pa en , Indus ial
Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and Plan
187
‘Coali ion P o isional Au ho i y Regula ion Numbe 1’, 2003, p. Sec ion 2
<h p://go in o.lib a y.un .edu/cpa-
i aq/ egula ions/20030516_CPAREG_1_The_Coali ion_P o isional_Au ho i y_.pd >
[accessed 18 Janua y 2018]; Sean D. Mu phy, ‘Coali ion Laws and T ansi ion
A angemen s du ing Occupa ion o I aq’, The Ame ican Jou nal o In e na ional Law,
98.3 (2004), 601–6 (p. 602) <h ps://doi.o g/10.2307/3181659>.
188
‘O de No. 81 Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and
Plan Va ie y Law.’, The P eamble
<h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/ ex .jsp? ile_id=181090> [accessed 10 Oc obe 2017].
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
120
Va ie y Law “CPA/ORD/26 Ap il 2004/81”.
189
O de No. 81 o he
CPA made 79 amendmen s o he Law NO. 65 o 1970, ou o which
he i s 22 amendmen s we e on Chap e One ‘Pa en ’ wi h he i s
amendmen dedica ed o changing he name o he whole law o
‘Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed
Ci cui s and Plan Va ie y Law’. The es o he amendmen s om
numbe 2 o 22 dedica ed o amendmen s o he pa en pa o he
o iginal law No. 65 o 1970. The O de No. 81 o CPA added some
new pa s o he o iginal law No. 65 o 1970 as well, such as chap e
Th eebis which i led ‘P o ec ion o Undisclosed In o ma ion’, chap e
Th ee e wi h he i le o ‘P o ec ion o In eg a ed Ci cui s’, and
chap e Th eequa e o he ‘P o ec ion o New Va ie ies o Plan s’.
Howe e , on 12 May 2013 a new law was enac ed unde he name
o Regis a ion, Acc edi a ion and P o ec ion o Ag icul u al Va ie ies
Law No. 15 o 2013 in which epealed chap e Th eequa e o he
P o ec ion o New Va ie ies o Plan s. Unde his law, sec ion 18
s a es ha ‘Repeal sec ion 51 o 79 o he CPA O de No. 81 o 2004
o Law Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed
Ci cui s and Plan Va ie y Law’.
190
Though his is a mis ake by he
new Law No. 15 o 2013, because CPA had au ho i y o p omulga e
O de No.81 acco ding o he laws and usages o wa and Resolu ion
1483 and 1511 (2003) o he Secu i y Council,
191
he e o e an
amendmen o he o iginal law becomes pa o he law. In i s
capaci y, he CPA amended some pa s and added some new chap e
o Law No. 65 o 1970, he e o e, he sec ion 18 o Law 15 o 2013
should ha e w i en as ollows ‘Repeal chap e Th eequa e including
all sec ions he eunde o he Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed
In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and Plan Va ie y Law No. 65 o 1970
Amended’, wi hou any necessi y o e e ing o he CPA O de No.
189
‘O de No. 81 Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and
Plan Va ie y Law.’
190
‘Law No. 15 o 2013 on Regis a ion, Release and P o ec ion o Ag icul u al Va ie ies’,
Sec ion 18 <h p://www.i aq-lg-law.o g/a /web m_send/1447> [accessed 8 Oc obe 2017].
191
‘Uni ed Na ions O icial Documen - Resolu ion 1511 (2003) - Adop ed by he Secu i y
Council a I s 4844 h Mee ing, on 16 Oc obe 2003’
<h p://www.un.o g/en/ga/sea ch/ iew_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1511(2003)> [accessed 20
Janua y 2018].
His o y o I aqi pa en law and i s amendmen s
121
81. This aul can be no iced in Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed
In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and Plan Va ie y Law No. 65 o 1970
Amended, unde chap e Th eequa e by e e ing o he sec ions o
he CPA O de No. 81.
Las ly and o he ou h ime Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en ,
Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and
Plan Va ie y Law was amended h ough Law No. 58 o 2015.
192
Howe e , he Fou h Amendmen did no change much om Law No.
65 o 1970, because i includes only one mino amendmen in Sec ion
1 which changes he de ini ion o The Minis y om Minis e o
Indus y o Minis e o Planning, and by his amendmen all he
powe s and au ho i ies in he Law No. 65 o 1970 will be shi ed om
he Minis e o Indus y o he Minis y o Planning. This was he hi d
ime ha he de ini ion o ‘The Minis y’ was amended. The i s ime
i was epealed by Law No. 28 o 1999 Fi s Amendmen , which
eplaced he wo d Minis e o Economy by The Sec e a ia and
de ined o mean ‘Sec e a ia o he Council o Minis e s’, hen he
second ime his de ini ion epealed by he CPA O de No. 81 and he
wo d Minis e added again and o be de ined as he Minis e o
Indus ial.
3.4 CONCLUSION
Since he es ablishmen o he i s go e nmen in he Kingdom o
I aq, pa en law was enac ed as pa o encou aging in en ions in he
Kingdom. Howe e , he Pa en Law No. 61 o 1935 was
unp e en iously d a ed, and i s de ini ion o in en ion was wide
enough o include e en a simple imp o emen o a disco e y. In his
law i was clea ly s a ed ha he go e nmen could no make any
in es iga ion in he na u e o he in en ion o i s da a, whe he i is
use ul in en ion o no . I can be pe cei ed ha newly es ablished
coun y in he Middle Eas like I aq a cen u y ago, had li le esou ces
192
‘Law No. 58 o 2015 Fou h Amendmen o Law 65 o 1970 on Pa en , Indus ial Design,
Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s and Plan Va ie y - (Qanun al aedil al abie
liqanun bi a’a alaikh i ae walnamadhij alsinaeia walmelwma ghy almu asih eanha
waldawayi almu akamila wal’asna alnaba ia aqm (65) lisana 1970)’
<h p://a .pa liamen .iq.> [accessed 20 Janua y 2018].
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
128
in o ma ion o c ea ing new me hod and medium o p oducing
knowing hings o c ea ing new me hod and medium o p oducing
new esul in indus ial a ea and ha include disco e y o jus
imp o ing in he men ioned a eas’.
199
This de ini ion shows ha he
wo d in en ion had been gi en he simples de ini ion because
acco ding o his de ini ion e en disco e ies we e conside ed o be
wi hin he sphe e o an in en ion. Acco ding o he basic p inciple o
pa en laws ‘disco e y’ is no pa en able. This is because ‘A
“disco e y” is commonly conside ed o mean he me e ecogni ion o
wha al eady exis s; i is he inding o casual ela ionships, p ope ies
on phenomena ha objec i ely exis ed in na u e’.
200
One o he impo an s ep was aken by he Law No. 65 o 1970 in
which he e m in en ion in sec ion 1.4 de ined is o emo e he
disco e ies om he de ini ion. This law de ined he in en ion as
‘e e y new inno a ion ha indus ially exploi able whe he ela es o
new indus ial p oduc s o inno a i e me hods and means o bo h o
hem oge he ’. In he i s amendmen Law No. 28 o 1999 his
subsec ion was amended by adding an ex a sen ence a he end o he
subsec ion o be ed as ‘e e y new inno a ion ha indus ially
exploi able whe he ela es o new indus ial p oduc s o inno a i e
me hods and means o bo h o hem oge he o achie e some speci ic
de elopmen in o de o be ou side o adi ional amewo k’.
The de ini ion o in en ion o he o iginal Law No. 65 o 1970
and including i s addi ional pa by he Law No. 28 o 1999 ha e some
impo an elemen s. Fi s ly, i has o be a new inno a ion, secondly,
indus ially exploi able, and hi d, ela es o new indus ial p oduc s o
inno a i e me hods and means o bo h o hem, o achie e some
speci ic de elopmen . The las pa (achie e some speci ic
de elopmen ) is he new elemen which added by Law No. 28 o 1999
ha b oaden he concep o in en ion in he way ha e en i he new
inno a ion which indus ially exploi able does no ela e o new
indus ial p oduc s o me hods, s ill can be conside ed in en ion i
199
‘I aq: Law No. 61 o 1935 on Pa en s’, Sec ion 1.
200
Ca los Ma ía Co ea, ‘Implemen ing he T ips Ag eemen in he Pa en s Field’, The
Jou nal o Wo ld In ellec ual P ope y, 1.1 (1998), 75–99 (p. 77)
<h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/j.1747-1796.1998. b00004.x>.

In en ions, c i e ia o pa en abili y and su icien desc ip ion
129
achie e some speci ic de elopmen in o de o be ou side he
adi ional ci cle.
Howe e , he CPA O de No. 81 amended he whole subsec ion
and in oduced a new de ini ion o he e m in en ion as i is ‘Any
inno a i e idea, in any o he ields o echnology, which ela es o a
p oduc o a manu ac u ing p ocess, o bo h, and p ac ically sol es a
speci ic p oblem in any o hose ields’. The CPA O de No. 81
p esen ed some o he elemen s and c i e ion o he e m in en ion in a
clea and mo e p ecise o m. I exchanged he wo ds o ‘new
inno a ion’ o ‘inno a i e idea’, ‘indus ially exploi able’ o ‘ ield o
echnology’, and ‘achie e some speci ic de elopmen ’ o ‘p ac ically
sol es a speci ic p oblem in any o hose ields’. E en hough
exchanged he wo ds o ‘ ela es o new indus ial p oduc s o
inno a i e me hods and means o bo h o hem’ o ‘ ela es o a
p oduc o a manu ac u ing p ocess, o bo h’ bu bo h ph ases imply
in oduce same condi ions. As o he es will be discussed u he in
he nex sec ion.
On he o he hand, he TRIPS Ag eemen does no de ine he e m
in en ion, e en hough in A icle 27.1 clea ly s a es ha ‘pa en s shall
be a ailable o any in en ions’. This will lea e he membe coun ies
o de ine he e m in en ion in such a way ha bes sui s hei legal
sys ems. The dominan end o he membe coun ies is o a oid
de ining he e m ‘in en ion’, because his will gi e hem ‘a ce ain
deg ee o lexibili ies in a changing scien i ic and echnological
con ex ’. Mos o he coun ies simply s a ing he adi ional c i e ia o
pa en abili y, in which hey a e (no el y, in en i e s ep and indus ial
applicabili y).
201
Howe e , e e ence o he wo d in en ion has o be
done in a good ace and subjec o me hod o in e p e a ion o he
Vienna Con en ion.
202
201
Co ea, ‘Implemen ing he T ips Ag eemen in he Pa en s Field’, p. 77.
202
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 272.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
130
1.3 CRITERIA OF PATENTABILITY UNDER THE IRAQI PATENT
LAWS AND TRIPS AGREEMENT
C i e ia o pa en abili y unde he I aqi pa en laws has gone
h ough some changes. The o iginal Pa en and Indus ial Design Law
No. 65 o 1970 p o ided o some c i e ia, and la e on he i s
amendmen o Law No. 28 o 1999 added some changes. Finally, he
CPA O de No. 81 changed some o hese c i e ia. In his sec ion, he
gene al c i e ia o pa en abili y o he I aqi Pa en laws will be
analysed and compa ed o hose o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
While sec ion 1.4 o he o iginal law No. 65 o 1970 de ined he
e m in en ion, i p o ides some impo an elemen s which can be
conside ed as bases and c i e ia o g an ing he pa en , because
nowhe e else in he Law No. 65 o 1970 any o mal c i e ia a e
men ioned which can be used as bases o pa en abili y. Sec ion 2 o
he o iginal Law No. 65 o 1970, howe e , simply s a ed ha ‘Pa en s
o in en ion shall be g an ed acco ding o he p o isions o his Law’,
wi hou e e ing o any c i e ia o pa en abili y.
1.3.1 New in en ion and No el y
The in en ion will be conside ed new and no el i i is bes owed
upon he public by he in en o o he i s ime. Howe e , i he
in en ion was aken o c ea ed based on he in o ma ion and
knowledge ha was a ailable in public domain, hen he in en o did
no o e any hing o socie y and his in en ion canno be conside ed
new and no el.
203
The e m new in en ion was used in sec ion 1.4 o he o iginal
law No. 65 o 1970 wi hou de e mining wha is mean by new.
Howe e , sec ion 4 s a ed wo si ua ions in which in en ion canno be
conside ed new, he e o e excep o hese wo si ua ions, e e y
in en ion would ha e conside ed o be new in en ion. This means ha
I aq has aken es ic i e iew as o wha shall be conside ed no el
203
Sean B. Seymo e, ‘RETHINKING NOVELTY IN PATENT LAW’, Duke Law Jou nal,
60.4 (2011), 919–76 (p. 930).
In en ions, c i e ia o pa en abili y and su icien desc ip ion
131
and wha kind o disclosu e a ec he c i e ion o no el y
204
. F om
bo h o he p o isions o sec ion 4.1
205
and 4.2
206
, i can be obse ed
ha he I aqi Legisla u e ga e gene al uling o he e m ‘New’ and
es ic ed no el y o he pe iod o 50 yea s p io o he pa en
applica ion da e. The e o e, any in en ion ha has been p ac ically
u ilised and a ailable o public o bene i om p oduc s o he
in en ion, p io o he da e o he applica ion o pa en , hen ha
in en ion conside ed pa o he p io a and canno be pa en ed
because i lacks he no el y c i e ion. He e he p io i y is gi en o i s
o ile. E en a e he amendmen by he CPA O de No. 81, p io i y
s ayed same. May be his is due o he ac he Uni ed S a es o
Ame ica in 2011 amended he US Pa en Ac and changed he p io i y
da e om i s o in en o i s o ile.
207
Howe e , in Ge many he
p io i y is gi en o i s o in en , he o iginal p inciple was i s o
ile, howe e his was changed due o he e o m in 1936 and eplaced
by i s o in en p inciple.
208
E en hough i s o ile sys em is
conside ed mo e e icien and less cos ly o se le a con lic . In he
o he hand i s o in en sys em is mo e jus and ai , because he
pa en will be gi en o he pe son who in en ed i i s .
209
Also, e en i he in en ion no u ilised bu publicized in such a
way ha an expe o he ield who is a ‘pe son ha ing o dina y skill
in he a (he eina e he “PHOSITA”)’
210
can exploi such in en ion
204
Nabeel Mahdi Al habhawi and Zina ul Ashiqin Zainol, ‘Pa en able No el y in
Nano echnology In en ions: A Legal S udy in I aq and Malaysia’, NanoE hics, 7.2 (2013),
121–33 (p. 123).
205
‘Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en and Indus ial Designs’, Sec ion 4.1 (I he in en ion, in he
50 yea s p io o he da e o he applica ion o a pa en , has been publicly wo ked ou in o
ou side I aq, o i he desc ip ion o d awing o he in en ion has been publicized in
pe iodicals wi hin I aq o ou side i in such a clea way ha enables expe s o exploi ).
206
‘Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en and Indus ial Designs’, Sec ion 4.2 (I , in he 50 yea s
p io o he da e o he applica ion o a pa en , le e s pa en had been g an ed o he
in en ion o pa he eo o a pe son o he han he in en o o o whom he igh s o he
in en ion ha e been assigned, o ha o he s had al eady applied o he same pa en , o
pa he eo ).
207
Al habhawi and Zainol, p. 126.
208
Pa en Law: A Handbook on Eu opean and Ge man Pa en Law, ed. by Maximilian
Wilhelm Haedicke and Hen ik Timmann (München: C.H. Beck, 2014), p. 8.
209
Ge ais, p. 338.
210
Jona han J. Da ow, ‘The Neglec ed Dimension o Pa en Law’s PHOSITA S anda d’,
Ha a d Jou nal o Law & Technology, 23.1 (2009), 227–58 (p. 227).
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
132
in o a p ac ical use, hen he in en ion will no be conside ed as new
in en ion and canno be g an ed a pa en . Howe e , i he subjec
ma e o he in en ion has been kep sec e , hen he nex in en ion in
he same a ea will be conside ed no el and he new in en o has igh
o apply o pa en as he subjec ma e in en ed wi hou elying on
p e ious wo k o publicised in o ma ion. Bu acco ding o he Uni ed
S a es Pa en sys em, sec e in o ma ion conside ed as pa o he
b oade class o p io a , e en hough i was kep sec e om
public.
211
Howe e , i an in en ion was g an ed a pa en o applied o
a pa en by o he s, hen will no be conside ed a new in en ion. Same
p inciple can be ound in A icle 87-89 o he Eu opean Pa en
Con en ion (he eina e he “EPC”). E en p io use by he applican
o his p edecesso (own publica ion) also can be conside ed ha i has
become pa o he s a e o a . I he in o ma ion has eached he
public h ough w i en o o al sou ces, I will become pa o he s a e
o a . Because echnical eaching can be desc ibed o ally, h ough a
p esen a ion, lec u e, speech … e c. Howe e , only ha pa o he
in o ma ion will become s a o a which has been disclosed.
212
This
means ha i ano he pe son applied o pa en ing he same in en ion
o pa o i jus one day be o e he new applican , hen he new
applican ’s in en ion will no be conside ed new. I does no ma e
whe he all hese si ua ions ha e occu ed in I aq o ou side I aq,
because sec ion 4 co e s in en ions whe he be inside I aq o ab oad.
Howe e , sec ion 4 did no e e o e bal disclosu e in any way.
The e o e, i he o al in o ma ion ega ding he subjec ma e o he
in en ion is sp ead ou wi hin communi y, i will no ba he in en ion
om he pa en abili y and he in en ion will be conside ed new and
no el. On he con a y, in Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, bo h o ms o
disclosu e whe he o al o w i en will p e en nex in en ion om he
elemen o no el y. Though i o al disclosu e has occu ed ou side he
e i o y o he Uni ed S a es, hen such disclosu e will no ba he
pa en abili y o he subjec ma e . Bu his will no apply o w i en
disclosu e, as like es o he wo ld i w i en disclosu e has occu ed
inside o ou side o he Uni ed S a es, hen i will p e en he
211
Al habhawi and Zainol, p. 125.
212
Haedicke and Timmann, pp. 141–45.
In en ions, c i e ia o pa en abili y and su icien desc ip ion
133
pa en abili y o he in en ion on he basis o no el y. Howe e , he
o m o disclosu e should no be ma e as much as whe he he
in o ma ion has become pa o public domain o no .
213
The amendmen by he CPA O de No. 81 was conside ed one o
he majo amendmen s as i added, suspended and amended many
p o isions o he O iginal Law No. 65 o 1970. The o de amended
he de ini ion o he In en ion and in he new de ini ion he wo ds
‘e e y new inno a ion’ eplaced by ‘any inno a i e idea’. Howe e ,
he CPA O de No. 81 amended sec ion 2 as well by adding some
mo e elemen s and c i e ia, which s a es ‘Pa en s o in en ion shall be
g an ed pu suan o he p o isions o his Law o each in en ion ha
is indus ially applicable, no el and in ol es an in en i e s ep, ei he
conce ning new indus ial p oduc s, new indus ial me hods, o new
applica ion o known indus ial me hods’. This new sec ion can be
seen as posi i e amendmen which s a es he equi emen o
pa en abili y since i s a es h ee c i e ia o pa en abili y which a e
in e na ionally known and conside ed o be s anda d equi emen s.
These c i e ia a e: new (no el y), in en i eness (in ol es an in en i e
s ep and non-ob ious) and indus ial applicabili y (use ul) and hese
a e he same c i e ia which is equi ed by he TRIPS Ag eemen in
A icle 27.1
214
.
The CPA O de No. 81 also amended sec ion 4 o he Pa en and
Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o 1970. Fi s he O de changed he
nume ical o bo h subsec ions o 4.1 and 4.2 o subsec ions 4.a and
4.b. This is a small echnical amendmen and does no a ec he
con en o he Law and i is unnecessa y change. Then i dele ed he
condi ion o 50 yea s pe iod in bo h subsec ions. Which in ac i will
b ing mo e legal sense o he subsec ions, because limi ing no el y o
he in en ions o 50 yea s p io o he da e o he applica ion o a
pa en has no logical basis, as o wha logic he in en ions o 60 yea s
p io o he da e o he applica ion ha e no became public knowledge
and pa o public domain bu he in en ions o pas 50 yea s ha e
become pa o public domain. The only logic ha one may hink o is
ha he legisla u es we e ying o gi e ano he chance o in en o s o
213
Al habhawi and Zainol, p. 123.
214
Ge ais, p. 338.

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
134
use he old in o ma ion and p oduce some hing ou o i , bu s ill mo e
p o isions should had been included o make his encou agemen
wo kable in a way ha did no a ec he legal igh s o he owne s o
he o iginal idea and hose o hei p edecesso s. Howe e , in gene al
ime should no ma e bu he impo an elemen is whe he he
in o ma ion has been a ailable wi hin he communi y o no , he e o e
by dele ing he pe iod es ic ion, he CPA O de imp o ed he
o iginal law.
Fu he mo e, he CPA O de No. 81 added ano he p o ision o
sec ion 4,
215
o he Law No. 65 o 1970 which is an excep ion o he
p e ious subsec ion in which i he disclosu e o he in o ma ion is he
applican himsel o his p edecesso by an ac ion aken in he las
wel e mon hs be o e he iling da e o p io i y da e, o he disclosu e
occu ed due o an abuse by hi d pa ies, hen such disclosu e will no
ba he elemen o no el y o he in en ion. Simila p o ision can be
ound in he pa en ac s o o he coun ies, o example in The Pa en s
Ac 1977 (as amended up o and including 28 Janua y 2018) o he
Uni ed Kingdom
216
, in sec ion 2(4) s a es he same si ua ions and
included ex as. The Uni ed Kingdom Pa en s Ac is e y de ailed ac
and s a es all he elemen s pa en abili y in g ea de ail, and in sec ion 2
no el y c i e ion egula ed in a sa is ac o y manne . In sec ion 2(4)
s a es ha disclosu e o subjec ma e o he pa en in six mon hs
be o e iling da e o he applica ion will no ba he no el y o he
in en ion in hese si ua ions; disclosu e occu ed due o he ob aining
in o ma ion unlaw ully o in b each o con idence o displayed a an
in e na ional exhibi ion.
215
‘O de No. 81 Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s And
Plan Va ie y Law.’ Numbe 7, which can be ound also in ‘Law No. 65 o 1970 on
Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s And Plan Va ie y
(Amended).’ Sec ion 4.c 'No wi hs anding subpa ag aphs (a) and (b), he disclosu e o he
in en ion o he public shall no be aken in o accoun i i occu ed wel e mon hs be o e
he iling da e o he applica ion o i s p io i y da e, i any, and i occu ed by ac ions aken
by he applican o applican ’s p edecesso o due o an abuse by hi d pa ies agains he
applican o p edecesso ’ < h p://www.i aq-lg-law.o g/a /con en / [accessed 10 Oc obe
2017].
216
Expe Pa icipa ion, ‘Pa en s Ac 1977’, Sec ion 4
<h ps://www.legisla ion.go .uk/ukpga/1977/37/con en s> [accessed 28 Janua y 2018].
In en ions, c i e ia o pa en abili y and su icien desc ip ion
135
1.3.2 In en i eness (in ol es an in en i e s ep and non-
ob ious)
The p ima y e idence as o wha cons i u e an in en i e s ep is
he opinion o a pe son ha ing o dina y skill and expe as o whe he
he in en ion is ob ious o no and de e mining such ask will ‘in ol e
ques ions o ac and deg ee’ as well.
217
This is wha he Uni ed
Kingdom Pa en Ac 1977 con i med in sec ion 3 by s a ing ‘An
in en ion shall be aken o in ol e an in en i e s ep i i is no
ob ious o a pe son skilled in he a , ha ing ega d o any ma e
which o ms pa o he s a e o he a ’. The same egula ion and
in e p e a ion exis s in sec ion 103 o he Uni ed S a es Code 35
Pa en s, as he ques ion would be whe he he e is a di e ence
be ween he subjec ma e and he p io a by a pe son who ha e
o dina y skill in he a .
Howe e , he e is an o e lapping be ween he e m in en ion and
i s c i e ia o non-ob iousness because he e is no ob ious in en ion,
bu he e can be a deg ee o in en i eness. Fo his eason, some has
sugges ed ha he p o ision o pa en abili y in he pa en laws should
be ead a ‘pa en s shall be a ailable o any in en ion p o ided ha i
is new, in ol es a su icien in en i e s ep and is use ul’. Also, i is a
ac ha bo h no el y and in en i e s ep has o be de e mined h ough
compa ison wi h he p io a .
218
The I aqi o iginal Pa en and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o
1970 does no p o ide o c i e ia o pa en abili y in a p ope o m as
has been explained p e iously. Howe e , a e he i s amendmen by
Law No. 28 o 1999 he de ini ion o in en ion in sec ion 1.4 p o ided
o as ‘e e y new inno a ion ha indus ially exploi able whe he
ela es o new indus ial p oduc s o inno a i e me hods and means o
bo h o hem oge he o achie e some speci ic de elopmen in o de
o be ou side o adi ional amewo k’. F om his de ini ion i can be
asse ed ha by he e m o ‘new inno a ion’ he legisla u e wan ed o
make su e ha he in en ion mus ha e some inno a ion in i . The las
sen ence o he de ini ion which was added by he i s amendmen
217
Te ell and o he s, pp. 242–43.
218
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, pp. 257–58.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
136
make his objec i e mo e pe cei able by poin ing ou ha e en i he
in en ion is no o ally new s ill can be pa en ed i he in en ion has
added a leas some speci ic de elopmen and addi ion so ha i be
ou side o adi ional amewo k and ci cle. I he inno a ion is
ou side he adi ional amewo k, hen he in en ion has added
some hing which canno be ound in he p io a . This p ocess can be
done by compa ing he new subjec ma e o he whole o he p io
a . Bu he law ailed o men ion in a di ec manne ha i is in he
pe spec i e o he pe son wi h no mal skill and expe ise ha he new
inno a ion has been achie ed is new o he p io a . Because in
sec ion 18 o he o iginal Pa en and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o
1970 i is s a ed ha : ‘The Di ec o a e examine he applica ion and i s
annexes o check he ollowing: 1. The applica ion is submi ed in
acco dance wi h sec ion 16 o his Law. 2. The speci ica ion and
d awing illus a e (demons a e) he in en ion in a manne ha allows
he owne s (employe s) o he indus y ( ield) o implemen i . 3. The
inno a i e elemen s ha he conce ned pe son seeks o p o ec , should
be men ioned in he applica ion in a clea and speci ic manne ’.
Sec ion 16 o he o iginal law also equi es ha he applica ion o a
pa en should include he de ail desc ip ion o he in en ion and i s
new elemen s. The e o e sec ion 18 wan s o make su e ha he
di ec o a e will check o hese ma e s in o de he owne s and
employe s o he indus y in ha pa icula ield be able o implemen
hem. Howe e , Ins uc ion No. 1 o 1990 on implemen ing Law No.
65 o 1970 in sec ion 1.1, and Regula ion No. 3 o 2001 on he
classi ica ion o Pa en s and Indus ial Designs in sec ion 2(a), s a e
ha ‘ he in en ion will be conside ed inno a i e i i does no look
ob ious (sel -e iden ) o an expe pe son while aking in o
conside a ion echnical de elopmen p io o he applica ion’.
219
Indi ec ly sec ions 18 and 16 equi e he in en ion o ha e new
and inno a i e elemen in o de o be g an ed a pa en and be
p o ec ed. In he o he hand, Ins uc ion No. 1o 1990 on
219
‘I aq: Ins uc ions No. 1 o 1990 Implemen ing Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s, Indus ial
Designs’, Sec ion 1.1 <h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/de ails.jsp?id=10511> [accessed
10 Feb ua y 2018]; ‘I aq: Regula ion No. 3 o 2001 on he Classi ica ion o Pa en s and
Indus ial Designs’, Sec ion 2(a) <h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/de ails.jsp?id=10546>
[accessed 14 Feb ua y 2018].
In en ions, c i e ia o pa en abili y and su icien desc ip ion
137
implemen ing Law No. 65 o 1970 and Regula ion No. 3 o 2001 on
he classi ica ion o Pa en s and Indus ial Designs clea ly s a ed he
new in en ion should ha e an in en i e s ep. Acco ding o sec ion 1.1
o he ins uc ion and sec ion 2(a) o he egula ion i he new
in en ion appea ed ob ious and sel -e iden o a pe son skilled in he
a , hen he in en ion will no be conside ed inno a i e. And base on
sec ion 1.4 o he Law No. 65 o 1970 an in en ion has conside ed o
be a ‘new inno a ion’. Consequen ly, an in en ion acco ding o Pa en
and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o 1970, has o include an in en i e
s ep in o de o be accep ed wi hin he de ini ion o in en ion.
Howe e , he CPA O de 81 amended sec ion 18.2 in o de o
clea some unce ain ies. Sec ion 18.2 as amended by he O de s a es
‘Tha he speci ica ion and d awing disclose he in en ion in a manne
su icien ly clea and comple e o he in en ion o be ca ied ou by a
pe son skilled in he a .’ The wo dings o his subsec ion a e e y
close o ha o sec ion 16.2 as amended. The di e ence is ha sec ion
16 demands applican o a pa en o comply wi h ce ain condi ions
and sec ion 18 demands he Cen al O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion
and Quali y Con ol
220
o make su e he condi ion has been ul illed.
Bo h o he subsec ions equi e he con en o he applica ion o
pa en disclose and include enough clea and comple e in o ma ion so
ha can be ca ied ou by a pe son skilled in he a . And as o he
in en i eness and non-ob iousness o he in en ion, he CPA O de
No. 81 when amended sec ion 2 clea ly s a es ha he in en ion in
o de o be pa en able should in ol e an in en i e s ep. The e o e, he
new Law a e all he amendmen s clea ly and undoub edly include
he c i e ion o in en i eness, by equi ing ha e e y in en ion should
in ol e an in en i e s ep o a pe son skilled in he a by compa ing o
he p io a . This is a posi i e de elopmen by enhancing he pa en
law o I aq o he in e na ional s anda d and clea ing some ambiguous
p o isions o he o iginal Law No. 65 o 1970 which did no s a e he
220
Sec ion 1.3 he de ini ion o The Di ec o a e: Di ec o a e o egis a ion and moni o ing
public companies (en e p ises) o he o iginal Law No. 65 o 1970 epealed by he i s
amendmen o Law No. 28 o 1999 and eplaced by The Cen al: The Cen al O ganiza ion
o S anda diza ion and Quali y Con ol. And in sec ion 2 o he Law No. 28 o 1999 s a es
ha he wo d (The Cen al) eplace he wo d (The Di ec o a e) whe e e men ion in he
Law.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
144
S a es o Ame ican’s pa en law as i s a es, in sec ion 35 U.S.C. 112
Speci ica ion, ha ‘shall se o h he bes mode con empla ed by he
in en o o join in en o o ca ying ou he in en ion’.
234
Sec ion 16.2bis which is added by he CPA O de 81 p o ides
ha ‘An applican o a pa en shall p o ide in o ma ion conce ning
he applican ’s co esponding o eign applica ions and g an s’. The
exac same p o ision can be ound in he TRIPS Ag eemen as well
bu as an op ional p o ision in which membe coun ies a e allowed o
include i in hei local laws o op i ou . Howe e , ha ing such
p o ision will help he de eloping coun ies as hey ha e limi ed
human esou ces and in as uc u e, he e o e his p o ision will
acili a e hei examina ion and decision in ega d o he applica ion
by con ac ing o eign pa en o ices and coo dina e as o hei p ocess
o examina ions and decisions.
235
This shows ha he CPA O de No. 81 has included some good
p o isions o I aq as a de eloping coun y and o b ing up he
egula ion s anda d o ha o he in e na ional communi ies and
TRIPS Ag eemen . Bu ailed in some si ua ions o include p o isions
like second pa o A icle 29.1, which would ha e been e y help ul
o I aqi pa en law, especially I aq could ha e bene i ed om such
p o isions in ega d o he o eign echnological in en ion which hey
wan o apply o pa en in I aq, and i is pa o in e na ional s anda d
and TRIPS Ag eemen also p o ided o as an op ional p o ision.
1.5 CONCLUSION
In he de ini ion o he e m in en ion and c i e ia o pa en abili y,
he CPA O de No. 81 had al e ed he o iginal law No. 65 o 1970 o a
g ea ex en . Since TRIPS Ag eemen does no p o ide o de ini ion
o in en ion, he e o e i has been le o membe coun ies o de ine
he e m in hei bes in e es . Howe e , CPA O de No. 81 changes
he de ini ion o include e e y kind o echnical in en ion. As o he
equi emen o new in en ion, he CPA O de No. 81 has imp o ed
234
‘Uni ed S a es Code Ti le 35 - Pa en s’, p. Sec ion 112 (a)
<h ps://www.usp o.go /web/o ices/pac/mpep/mpep-9015-appx-l.h ml#d0e302824912>
[accessed 30 Janua y 2018].
235
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 527.

In en ions, c i e ia o pa en abili y and su icien desc ip ion
145
bo h sec ion o 1.4 and 2 by clea ly p esen ing and eques ing ha he
in en ion has o be new and no el in o de o be pa en able. I has also
imp o ed he I aqi pa en law so ha i could each he same le el o
ha o in e na ional communi ies and TRIPS Ag eemen . Howe e ,
ailed o include op ional equi emen o he TRIPS Ag eemen in
A icle 29.1 o eques ing he in en o o e eal he bes mode o
ca ying ou he in en ion.
The CPA O de No. 81 enhanced he o iginal law by clea ing he
doub and ambigui y o he c i e ion ha he in en ion should ‘in ol e
an in en i e s ep’, as i s equi ed by he TRIPS Ag eemen . Because
he o iginal law did no men ion he in en i e s ep equi emen in an
ob ious way. Since i is he one o he essen ial and impo an c i e ia
o pa en abili y in he mode n pa en sys em, he e o e he amendmen
in his ega d by he CPA O de No. 81 is posi i e imp o emen .
The CPA O de No. 81 has success ully aligned he ‘indus ial
applicabili y’ equi emen wi h ha o he TRIPS Ag eemen like he
p e ious wo equi emen s. Choosing he ‘indus ial applicabili y’
ins ead o ‘use ulness’, will be much be e o I aq as a de eloping
coun y ha wan o ecei e all echnology o de elop i sel as he
e m use ulness is much wide and allows pa en ing o b oade ields.
Howe e , he CPA O de No. 81 by asse ing ‘in any o he ields o
echnology’ and suspending he excep ion o ‘medical and
pha maceu ical o mula ion’, has bu dened I aq o a esponsibili y
which is no obliged o ake while s ill no a WTO membe . This s ep
is no in a ou o I aq because i has no ye eco e ed om he
se e e a e e ec o he in asion and s ill in wa wi h e o . Many
I aqi people s ill li ing in shel e and no ha e access o basic li ing
equi emen s including medicine. The e o e, his amendmen can be
conside ed as a p ema u e mo e by he CPA and he I aqi in e es was
no in mind while he o iginal law amended as much as ying o
highe he s anda d o in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion o ha o he
TRIPS Ag eemen .
147
2 EXCLUSIONS FROM
PATENTABILITY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A icle 27.1 o he TRIPS Ag eemen gene alized g an ing pa en
o all ypes o in en ions in all he ields o echnology wi hou
excluding any a eas and wi hou disc imina ion as o he place o
in en ion. Howe e , A icle 27.2 and 27.3 o he TRIPS Ag eemen
limi ed he i s p o ision by excluding some ypes o in en ion om
pa en abili y. Fo example, A icle 27.2 gi es eedom and choice o
membe coun ies o exclude om pa en abili y o in en ion i he
comme cial exploi a ion o such in en ion in he e i o y o a membe
coun y goes agains o d e public and mo ali y. Hence, his chap e
discusses A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen i s , hen will be
ollowed by he posi ion o I aqi pa en law.
Simila ly, A icle 27.3 p o ides o wo di e en ypes o
exclusions which a e also op ional o membe coun ies o implemen
o no . The i s ype is ela ed o me hods o ea men o humans o
animals whe he be a diagnos ic, he apeu ic and su gical. In his
chap e de ail o his p o ision is discussed wi h e e ence o hose
coun ies ha p o ide o p o ec ion o me hod o ea men h ough
pa en such as Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, New Zealand and Aus alia.
Then he posi ion o I aqi pa en law and i s amendmen s will be
discussed. The second pa o A icle 27.3 p o ides o exclusions
om pa en abili y o plan s and animal. Howe e , his p o ision
eques s he membe coun ies o p o ide o p o ec ion whe he be in
a o m o pa en o sui gene is sys em o combina ion o bo h o hem.
Due o he signi icance o his p o ision, i will no be discussed in
his chap e , bu will be analysed in a b oade con ex independen ly in
he nex chap e .
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
148
Las ly, his chap e will examine he access o medicines and
public heal h. Due o impo ance o his opic, his chap e will ocus
on he Doha Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h
as well. Some o he pa ag aphs o he Doha Decla a ion deal wi h
lexibili ies and op ions o he membe coun ies o handle hei
domes ic issues conce ning public heal h. The posi ion o de eloping
coun ies and how hey can access o medicines o ul il hei public
needs will be discussed. Then he posi ion o I aqi pa en law and i s
amendmen s will be discussed.
2.2 ORDRE PUBLIC AND MORALITY
2.2.1 O d e public and Mo ali y Unde TRIPS Ag eemen
A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen allows membe coun ies o
exclude in en ions om pa en abili y i he comme cial exploi a ion
o he in en ions endange o d e public and mo ali y in e i o y o he
coun y conce ned.
236
This is based on he p oposals submi ed by ( he
Eu opean Economic Communi y (he eina e he “EEC”),
237
Japan
238
and de eloping coun ies
239
).
240
The concep o o d e public and
mo ali y is no new as many coun ies used hese concep s o p e en
in en ions om pa en ing long ime e en be o e he TRIPS
Ag eemen was bo n. Fo example, in he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica,
hese concep s e e ed o in 1817 as ‘ i olous o inju ious o he
well-being, good policy, o sound mo als o a socie y’. In Eu opean
coun ies’ laws and many o he ci il law coun ies he p ac ice o
exclusion om pa en abili y simila o he wo dings o A icle 27.2 o
236
A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ha ‘Membe s may exclude om pa en abili y
in en ions, he p e en ion wi hin hei e i o y o he comme cial exploi a ion o which is
necessa y o p o ec o d e public o mo ali y, including o p o ec human, animal o plan
li e o heal h o o a oid se ious p ejudice o he en i onmen , p o ided ha such exclusion
is no made me ely because he exploi a ion is p ohibi ed by hei law’.
237
‘GATT Documen No. MTN.GNG/NG11/W/68 o 29 Ma ch 1990’, 1990
<h ps://docs.w o.o g/ga docs/q/UR/GNGNG11/W68.PDF> [accessed 22 Ap il 2018].
238
‘GATT Documen No. MTN.GNG/NG11/W/74 o 15 May 1990’, 1990
<h ps://docs.w o.o g/ga docs/q/UR/GNGNG11/W74.PDF> [accessed 22 Ap il 2018].
239
‘GATT Documen No. MTN.GNG/NG11/W/71 o 14 May 1990’, 1990
<h ps://docs.w o.o g/ga docs/q/UR/GNGNG11/W71.PDF> [accessed 22 Ap il 2018].
240
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 287.
Exclusions om pa en abili y
149
he TRIPS Ag eemen , we e p o ided o . Such as A icle 53(a)
241
o
he Eu opean Pa en Con en ion.
242
The no ion o ‘o d e public’ is aken om he F ench wo d o
public o de and i is used because i gi es much na owe meaning
han he English no ions o ‘public o de ’ and ‘public in e es ’. The
Eu opean Pa en O ice has ela ed o d e public o cases such as io s
and public diso de , o hose in en ions ha leads o c iminal o
o ensi e beha iou . E e y in en ion has o be aken indi idually in
o de o be decided whe he i is agains o d e public. Howe e , since
he e a e no exac cases and si ua ions ha can be limi ed o o d e
public, he e o e, membe coun ies a e ee o apply he o d e public
o hose si ua ions ha ha e no p io cases no well known a
in e na ional le el. This in ac gi es a lexibili y o membe coun ies
o e alua e hei condi ions and decide on hose p inciples i a e
b eached will an amoun b eaching o d e public.
243
O d e public can
be ela ed o public policy, which is di ec ly a ec ing he ins i u ions
o a pa icula socie y. Wi hou such o d e public, socie y will ea
apa , and he s uc u e o ci il socie y will be endange ed.
244
I is also
ela ed o he no ion o secu i y, whe he collec i e o indi idual, such
as physical damage o any hing can pu he no mal li e o socie y in
gene al in o isk, o simply disha monize he li elihood o indi iduals
o li e in peace and secu i y.
245
In he same way o he o d e public, he e m mo ali y is no
de ined in he TRIPS Ag eemen . Likewise, a unanimous de ini ion o
he e m mo ali y was no achie ed so a a he in e na ional law.
246
241
Eu opean Pa en O ice, ‘The Eu opean Pa en Con en ion’, A icle 53. Eu opean pa en s
shall no be g an ed in espec o : (a) in en ions he comme cial exploi a ion o which
would be con a y o "o d e public" o mo ali y; such exploi a ion shall no be deemed o
be so con a y me ely because i is p ohibi ed by law o egula ion in some o all o he
Con ac ing S a es. <h p://www.epo.o g/law-p ac ice/legal-
ex s/h ml/epc/2016/e/a 53.h ml> [accessed 13 Feb ua y 2018].
242
Resou ce Book on TRIPS and De elopmen , ed. by Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade
and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and Sus ainable De elopmen , and
UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable De elopmen (Camb idge; New Yo k:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2005), p. 376.
243
Co ea, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, pp. 287–88.
244
Ge ais, p. 343.
245
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 312.
246
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 493.

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
150
Howe e , A icle XX(a) o GATT o 1947
247
which appea ed also in
GATT o 1994 was dedica ed o he ‘Gene al Excep ions’ in which
‘public mo als’ which was conside ed as one o he bases o excluding
in en ion om pa en abili y. He e, he law clea ly s a es ha i s public
mo als and no indi idual mo als o p i a e mo als ha leads o
excep ions.
248
The e o e, i he comme cial exploi a ion o he
in en ion in he e i o y o a membe coun y caused collec i e
immo ali y o has nega i e e ec on he mo ali y o he communi y a
la ge, hen his membe coun y is allowed o exclude such in en ion
om pa en abili y.
Though o iginally he e is a ju isp uden ial deba e as he posi i is
school o law belie es ha law should be based on logic and eason
only wi hou conside ing mo ali y. On he o he hand, he school o
na u al law belie es ha law should e lec he mo als o socie y.
249
In
line wi h his p inciple, he majo i y o coun ies in he wo ld
conside ed mo ali y in egula ing hei laws. Fo his eason, he
d a smen o TRIPS Ag eemen and GATT we e cogi a ing on his
p inciple. Tha is why we can clea ly see ha he TRIPS Ag eemen
did no igno e he issue o mo ali y in in ellec ual p ope y p o ec ion.
Fu he mo e, wha cons i u es a mo ali y is dependen on he
unde s anding o a coun y o cul u al g oup o a pa icula conduc .
Because some conduc s and beha iou s a e conside ed no mal and
co ec in some coun ies and socie ies, while in some o he socie ies
and coun ies he same conduc s and beha iou s a e seen u e ly
di e en . Hence, he e alua ion has o be done on case by case basis.
In his ega d eligious, social and mo al alues o e e y socie y ha e
o be conside ed. The e o e, in e alua ing he ou come o indus ial
exploi a ion o an in en ion, whe he i will a ec he mo ali y o he
socie y, i has o be looked a om he ealiza ions o ai and
247
‘The Gene al Ag eemen on Ta i s and T ade (GATT 1947)’
<h ps://www.w o.o g/english/docs_e/legal_e/ga 47_02_e.h m#a icleXX> [accessed 12
Feb ua y 2018].
248
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 312 (Foo no e 712).
249
Ka hleen Liddell, ‘Immo ali y and Pa en s: The Exclusion o In en ions Con a y o O d e
public and Mo ali y’, in New F on ie s in he Philosophy o In ellec ual P ope y, ed. by
Annabelle Le e , Uni e si y o Camb idge Facul y o Law Resea ch Pape No. 55/2016
(Roches e , NY: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2012), p. 12
<h ps://pape s.ss n.com/abs ac =2865820> [accessed 15 Feb ua y 2018].
Exclusions om pa en abili y
151
easonable pe sons. Needless o men ion ha he p inciple o good
ai h has o be obse ed as well.
250
A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen includes he e m
‘necessa y’ and his looked a as equi emen om he membe
coun ies. I has o be p o en ha i is necessa y o exclude he
in en ion om pa en abili y because i s comme cial exploi a ion
endange s he o d e public and mo ali y o he membe coun y. This
needs o be shown ha he e is a eal connec ion be ween he
sa egua ding o he o d e public and mo ali y and he ou come o he
measu e ha has been aken by he membe coun y.
251
The membe
coun y also has o p o e ha o he measu es we e no a ailable ha
a e consis en wi h he p inciples o he WTO, in o de o be aken by
hem o p o ec o d e public and mo ali y. This means ha he
membe coun y has o use his measu e as he las eso , a e
ensu ing ha he e was no o he jus i iable and easonable al e na i e
ha is less consis en wi h he WTO.
252
To elabo a e mo e on o d e public, A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen p o ides some examples ha may be conside ed as a basis
o o d e public and mo ali y which hey a e p o ec ion o ‘human,
animal o plan li e o heal h o o a oid se ious p ejudice o he
en i onmen ’. Howe e , o d e public and mo ali y a e no limi ed o
hese si ua ions o cases ela ed o hese si ua ions. Bu s ill he ocus
is on he comme cial exploi a ion o he in en ion and no he
in en ion i sel . The TRIPS Ag eemen allows membe coun ies o
exclude om pa en abili y he in en ion ha i s comme cial
exploi a ion goes agains he p inciples o o d e public. The e o e, i
he in en ion is no applied in he membe coun y, hen he membe
coun y canno exclude i s pa en abili y. The TRIPS Ag eemen
clea ly s a es ha such exploi a ion has o be p ac ically occu ed in
speci ic e i o y o he membe coun y. In o he wo ds, he in en ion
has o be indus ially applied and exploi ed in e i o y o a pa icula
250
S oll, Busche, and A end, pp. 493–94.
251
S oll, Busche, and A end, pp. 494-95.
252
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 378.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
152
membe coun y, and hen his membe coun y will be allowed o
exclude i s pa en abili y base on he p inciples o o d e public.
The las p o iso o A icle 27.2 s a es ha i ’s no allowed o a
membe coun y o exclude pa en abili y me ely because he indus ial
exploi a ion o he in en ion is p ohibi ed by domes ic law. The e o e,
in o de o any in en ion o be excluded om pa en abili y has o be
based on eal g ounds as men ioned in A icle 27.2.
253
This is
in luenced by A icle 4qua e o he Pa is Con en ion o he
P o ec ion o Indus ial P ope y, in which he A icle s a es ha ‘The
g an o a pa en shall no be e used and a pa en shall no be
in alida ed on he g ound ha he sale o he pa en ed p oduc o o a
p oduc ob ained by means o a pa en ed p ocess is subjec o
es ic ions o limi a ions esul ing om he domes ic law’.
254
Acco ding o his A icle o he Pa is Con en ion es ic ions and
limi a ions by domes ic laws and egula ions ha a e no pa o he
pa en sys em, should no be impo ed in o he sys em.
255
Howe e ,
A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen goes u he han sale o
p oduc s o p oduc s i sel , by gene alizing he concep o exclusion o
e e y kind o comme cial exploi a ions ha he igh holde ob ained
by he TRIPS Ag eemen . Since comme cial exploi a ion is no
de ined in he TRIPS Ag eemen , he e o e, one can apply he
de ini ion o The Panel in he case o Canada-Pha maceu ical
Pa en s, which s a es ha exploi a ion include e e y comme cial
ac i i y ha he pa en holde pe o ming on his pa en in o de o gain
economic bene i s.
256
253
Ca los Ma ía Co ea, ‘Pa en Righ s’, in In ellec ual P ope y and In e na ional T ade:
The TRIPS Ag eemen , ed. by Ca los Ma ía Co ea and Abdulqawi A. Yusu , 2nd ed
(Aus in: Alphen aan den Rijn, Ne he lands: Wol e s Kluwe Law & Business; Kluwe Law
In e na ional, 2008), p. 231.
254
‘WIPO-Adminis e ed T ea ies: Pa is Con en ion o he P o ec ion o Indus ial P ope y’.
255
Sam Ricke son, The Pa is Con en ion o he P o ec ion o Indus ial P ope y: A
Commen a y (Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2015), p. 390.
256
Canada – pa en p o ec ion o pha maceu ical p oduc s - Repo o he panel, WT/DS114/R
ON 17 MARCH 2000, pa a. 7.54
<h ps://www.w o.o g/english/ a op_e/dispu_e/7428d.pd >.
Exclusions om pa en abili y
153
2.2.2 O d e public and Mo ali y Unde I aqi Pa en Law
Sec ion 3 o he Pa en and Indus ial Designs Law No. 65 o
1970 s a es ha ‘Pa en shall no be g an ed in he ollowing
ci cums ances; 1. In en ions in which hei exploi a ions cause
b eaches o public mo al o o d e public o con adic he public
in e es ’. He e he law clea ly e e s o he exploi a ion o an
in en ion. In ac , he Law No. 65 o 1970 is di e en om A icle
27.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen because he wo d comme cial does no
exis wi hin sec ion 3.1 o he Law No. 65 o 1970. Howe e , he
explana ion in sec ion 1.2 o he Ins uc ion No. 1 o 1990 on
implemen ing Law No. 65 o 1970 and Regula ion No. 3 o 2001 on
he classi ica ion o Pa en s and Indus ial Designs in sec ion 2(b),
made i clea ha he wo d exploi a ion o indus ial exploi a ion
(applica ion) ‘can be applied o used in any ields o wo k ela ed o
indus y, ag icul u e, p o ession, and se ices in b oade
unde s anding’.
257
The e o e, he e m exploi a ion has gene al
meaning and can be e e ed o any kind o comme cial use, in which
he pa en holde uses his pa en o gain bene i s.
When i comes o he issue o mo ali y, unde he I aqi Pa en
Law he wo d public mo al is used, hence, clea ly elimina e any
doub s ha may a ise whe he mo ali y is mean o be public o
indi idual mo al as in he case o A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen as has been discussed in he p e ious sec ion.
I aq is one o he mos mul icul u al and socially di e se coun ies
in he Middle Eas . The e o e, he meaning o he e m public mo al
needs o ca y he b oades sense as much possible. Because wha is
mo al acco ding o I aqi Muslims may no be he same o I aqi
Ch is ians, Yazidis o Sabians )Mandaean) o o he mino i y eligions,
and ice e sa. I aq has some e hnics as well, apa om A ab, such as
257
‘I aq: Ins uc ions No. 1 o 1990 Implemen ing Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s, Indus ial
Designs’, Sec ion 1.2 <h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/de ails.jsp?id=10511> [accessed
10 Feb ua y 2018]; ‘I aq: Regula ion No. 3 o 2001 on he Classi ica ion o Pa en s and
Indus ial Designs’, Sec ion 2(b) <h p://www.wipo.in /wipolex/en/de ails.jsp?id=10546>
[accessed 14 Feb ua y 2018] ‘ he in en ion will be conside ed indus ially applicable i i
can be applied o used in any ields o wo k ela ed o indus y, ag icul u e, p o ession, and
se ices in b oade unde s anding’.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
256
he compulso y licence is in he o m o goodwill, hen i can be
assigned and ans e ed as pa o he ma ke ansac ion.
556
2.3.2.6 P edominan ly o The Supply o The Domes ic
Ma ke
A icle 31 li . ( ) o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ha ‘any such
use shall be au ho ized p edominan ly o he supply o he domes ic
ma ke o he Membe au ho izing such use’. This means ha he
compulso y licence should be ‘p edominan ly’ used o he domes ic
ma ke . This indica e ha he in en ion o he g an ing such licence
should be o ul illing he domes ic ma ke and no o expo ing.
E en hough he e m ‘p edominan ly’ may ca y he meaning ha
small pa o he subjec ma e o he compulso y licence can be
expo ed bu should no exceed mo e han i y pe cen o he o al
p oduc ion. P io o he exis ence o he TRIPS Ag eemen , many
coun ies legisla ed he p inciple o compulso y licence wi h he
in en ion o expo ing i o o eign ma ke s. The Pa is Con en ion did
no p e en such p ac ices. Howe e , once he TRIPS Ag eemen
implemen ed such p ac ice should no be allowed. Because he
p inciple o compulso y licence unde A icle 31 is conside ed as an
excep ion o he gene al ule o exclusi e igh s o he pa en owne ,
he e o e, i should be kep as an excep ion. Thus, his subpa ag aph is
in oducing ano he limi a ion o he Pa is Union Membe s ha a e
membe o he WTO (TRIPS Ag eemen ) in he same ime.
557
This subpa ag aph, acco ding o he p e ious a gumen , p e en s
a coun y ha ha e no echnological capabili ies o p oduce unde he
pa en ed in en ion, o be able o buy such p oduc s o lesse money
om ano he coun y ha p oduce hem unde compulso y licence.
558
Fo his eason, some o he au ho s claim ha i he in en ion o a
556
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 473.
557
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, pp. 415–16; Uni ed Na ions
Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and Sus ainable
De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable De elopmen , p.
474.
558
Ba el Sand a, p. 284.

Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
257
membe coun y o g an ing he compulso y licence is p incipally o
ul il he need o domes ic ma ke , hen i has complied wi h he e m
‘p edominan ly’.
559
Thus i does no make any di e en how many
pe cen age o he compulso y licence’s p oduc s will be expo ed o
o eign ma ke .
Howe e , unde A icle 31 li . (k) when he compulso y licence
g an ed by judicial o adminis a i e p ocess o a membe coun y o
emedy an an i-compe i i e p ac ice, hen ha membe coun y is no
obliged o comply wi h A icle 31 li . ( ). In ano he wo d, in his
si ua ion he membe coun y is allowed o expo majo i y o he
p oduc s o o eign ma ke .
560
Fu he mo e, ecen de elopmen s ha e added some mo e
excep ions o his subpa ag aph. A he Doha Minis e ial Con e ence
in 2001, he Doha Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public
Heal h was adop ed. On he ecommenda ion o Pa ag aph 6 o he
Doha Decla a ion
561
which was in ended o c ea e a pa h o he
membe coun ies so ha hey can easily access o medicines.
562
E en ually his ollowed by a Decision o he Gene al Council o 30
Augus 2003. Pa o his decision became A icle 31bis and o he
became an Annex o he TRIPS Ag eemen . This was adop ed by he
Gene al Council unde he name o Amendmen o he TRIPS
Ag eemen (Decision o 6 Decembe 2005)
563
and submi ed o he
membe coun ies in o de o be accep ed.
564
A icle 31bis 1 p o ides
an excep ion o A icle 31 li . ( ) when he p oduc s in ques ion a e
pha maceu ical p oduc s.
565
559
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 574.
560
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 573.
561
Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h, Pa ag aph 6 s a es ‘We ecognize
ha WTO membe s wi h insu icien o no manu ac u ing capaci ies in he pha maceu ical
sec o could ace di icul ies in making e ec i e use o compulso y licensing unde he
TRIPS Ag eemen . We ins uc he Council o TRIPS o ind an expedi ious solu ion o
his p oblem and o epo o he Gene al Council be o e he end o
2002.’‘WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2 -WTO | Minis e ial Con e ences - Doha 4 h Minis e ial -
Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h - Adop ed 14 No embe 2001’.
562
Abbo and Puymb oeck, p. .
563
‘WTO | In ellec ual P ope y (TRIPS) - Amendmen o he TRIPS Ag eemen - Decision
o 6 Decembe 2005’.
564
Ge ais, pp. 396–97.
565
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 581 and 584.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
258
2.3.2.7 Te mina ion
A icle 31 li . (g) o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ha
‘au ho iza ion o such use shall be liable, subjec o adequa e
p o ec ion o he legi ima e in e es s o he pe sons so au ho ized, o
be e mina ed i and when he ci cums ances which led o i cease o
exis and a e unlikely o ecu . The compe en au ho i y shall ha e he
au ho i y o e iew, upon mo i a ed eques , he con inued exis ence
o hese ci cums ances’. This subpa ag aph p o ides o e mina ion
o he compulso y licence while he legi ima e in e es o he licensee
is no p ejudiced and gi es au ho i y ha he licence be e iewed by
he compe en au ho i y.
566
This subpa ag aph equi es ha he compulso y licence o mally
be e mina ed by he au ho i y (execu i e o judicial) a e aking all
ci cums ances in o conside a ion. Au oma ic e mina ion is no
allowed in his si ua ion hough he si ua ions ha causes i s g an
disappea , because i c ea e a g ea isk o he licensee and his will
cause injus ice.
567
Some mechanism can be adop ed in o de o
e mina e he compulso y licence in such a way ha he legi ima e
in e es o he licensee is adequa ely p o ec ed. Fo example, in he
e ms o g an ing he compulso y licence a su icien ime can be
s ipula ed so ha he licensee eco e he cos s he has spen and ea n
easonable p o i . Also, du ing he no mal pe iod o he compulso y
licence, i canno be e mina ed so ha o p o ec he licensee’s
in e es . Howe e , i he pa en holde eques ed such e mina ion,
hen he has o compensa e he licensee o es o he licence’s alue
and in he same ime he has o ul il he needs o he ma ke ins ead o
he licensee.
568
The e o e, in deciding o e mina e he compulso y
licence balance has o be kep be ween he legi ima e in e es o he
licensee and ha o he pa en owne .
569
566
Blakeney, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 92.
567
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 458.
568
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 475.
569
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 457.
Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
259
When a membe coun y legisla es ules o compulso y licence
in o hei laws, i has o be bea in mind o include some mechanism in
o de he pa en owne be able o pe i ion o a e iew o p o e ha he
ci cums ance lead o g an ing he licence a e no exis ence anymo e
and a e unlikely o ecu , as s a ed by his subpa ag aph. None heless,
he licensee has he igh o appeal and p esen i s own jus i ica ion
and e idence so ha he licence be con inued o enewed.
570
2.3.2.8 Adequa e Remune a ion
A icle 31 li . (h) o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ha ‘ he igh
holde shall be paid adequa e emune a ion in he ci cums ances o
each case, aking in o accoun he economic alue o he
au ho iza ion’. This is an imp o emen by he TRIPS Ag eemen as
he Pa is Con en ion does no p o ide o any egula ions as o
adequa e compensa ion o he pa en owne , whe he he licensee is a
go e nmen o p i a e pa y.
571
This is because TRIPS Ag eemen in
i s p eamble
572
has conside ed in ellec ual p ope y igh s as p i a e
igh s, hence any acqui ing o such igh s should be adequa ely
compensa ed.
573
Du ing he nego ia ion p ocess in B ussels, he nego ia o s we e
hesi a ing whe he o choose he e m ‘adequa e’ as i was p oposed by
he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, o ‘ ai and equi able’ which was
suppo ed by se e al membe s. This subpa ag aph is conside ed o be
one o he mos con o e sial p o isions o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
574
Howe e , his subpa ag aph does no illus a e he meaning o
‘adequa e emune a ion’. Ne e heless, one can ge a hin o he
meaning o his e m by looking a A icle 44 and 45 o he TRIPS
570
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 475.
571
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , p. 475.
572
TRIPS Ag eemen , he P eamble in i s ou h pa ag aph s a es ha ‘Recognizing ha
in ellec ual p ope y igh s a e p i a e igh s’
573
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 575.
574
Ge ais, pp. 393–94.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
260
Ag eemen . A icle 44 p o ides o injunc ions, bu he second
pa ag aph
575
s a es ha when he use is by go e nmen o hi d pa ies
au ho ised by go e nmen , hen he only emedy is he one p o ided
by subpa ag aph (h) A icle 31 ins ead o damage acco ding o A icle
45
576
. Since he judicial au ho i y is he one which has o assess he
adequa e damage and in he abo e cases he adequa e damage is
eplaced by adequa e emune a ion, he e o e, he same c i e ia can be
used o assess he ‘adequa e emune a ion’. Which can be de e mined
in he same way as damage, by calcula ing he amoun ha he pa en
owne would ha e made i he was he one u ilising he pa en ed
in en ion ins ead o he licensee.
577
Adequa e emune a ion is di e en om one case o ano he
acco ding o hei ci cums ances as i is s a ed in he subpa ag aph.
The e o e, adequa e emune a ion canno be s anda dized in which a
uni o m ee o be paid by he compulso y licensee in he same sec o
o indus y. A uni o m and a e age ee can be aken in o conside a ion
and used only as one o he ac o s o de e mining he adequa e
emune a ion. Also, when ying o de e mine he adequa e
emune a ion, he subpa ag aph equi es ha he economic alue o
he au ho iza ion has o be aken in o accoun . Bu he p o ision is
unclea whe he i e e o he economic alue acco ding o he
575
A icle 44.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ha ‘No wi hs anding he o he p o isions o
his Pa and p o ided ha he p o isions o Pa II speci ically add essing use by
go e nmen s, o by hi d pa ies au ho ized by a go e nmen , wi hou he au ho iza ion o
he igh holde a e complied wi h, Membe s may limi he emedies a ailable agains such
use o paymen o emune a ion in acco dance wi h subpa ag aph (h) o A icle 31.In o he
cases, he emedies unde his Pa shall apply o , whe e hese emedies a e inconsis en
wi h a Membe 's law, decla a o y judgmen s and adequa e compensa ion shall be
a ailable’.
576
A icle 45 o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ‘1. The judicial au ho i ies shall ha e he
au ho i y o o de he in inge o pay he igh holde damages adequa e o compensa e o
he inju y he igh holde has su e ed because o an in ingemen o ha pe son’s
in ellec ual p ope y igh by an in inge who knowingly, o wi h easonable g ounds o
know, engaged in in inging ac i i y. 2. The judicial au ho i ies shall also ha e he
au ho i y o o de he in inge o pay he igh holde expenses, which may include
app op ia e a o ney's ees. In app op ia e cases, Membe s may au ho ize he judicial
au ho i ies o o de eco e y o p o i s and/o paymen o p e-es ablished damages e en
whe e he in inge did no knowingly, o wi h easonable g ounds o know, engage in
in inging ac i i y’.
577
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 458.
Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
261
pa en ee o he licensee. Economic alue acco ding o he
au ho iza ion o he pa en ee would be he ee ha he asks o
licencing his pa en ed in en ion in a olun a y licence. On he o he
hand, acco ding he licensee he economic alue o he compulso y
licence would be he po en ial p o i ha he licensee is expec ing.
578
The e o e, membe coun ies a e ee o selec ac o s ha may
de e mine he adequa e emune a ion, bu hey ha e o be ca e ul
because i hey en o ce inadequa e emune a ion, hen hey will
iola e A icle 31 li . (h).
579
2.3.2.9 Judicial Re iew
A icle 31 in bo h subpa ag aphs o (i) and (j) p o ides o
judicial e iew o independen e iew by a dis inc highe au ho i y in
ha membe coun y. Howe e , in he i s subpa ag aph o (i) i is
s a es ha ‘ he legal alidi y o any decision ela ing o he
au ho iza ion o such use shall be subjec o judicial e iew o o he
independen e iew by a dis inc highe au ho i y in ha Membe ’,
which is eques ing e iew o a decision o g an ing compulso y
licence. This e e s o legal alidi y o he decision only, wi hou
dealing wi h any o he in e locu o y issues. On he o he hand,
subpa ag aph (j) s a es ha ‘any decision ela ing o he emune a ion
p o ided in espec o such use shall be subjec o judicial e iew o
o he independen e iew by a dis inc highe au ho i y in ha
Membe ’, which is eques ing e iew o a decision ela ing o he
emune a ion. He e he e iew is no limi ed o alidi y o he
decision, bu all o he decisions ha ha e in luence he decision
should be e iewed. Beside he amoun o he emune a ion, o he
issues such as me hods o paymen , cu ency, liquidi y and insu ance
can be subjec o e iew.
580
Due o he ac ha he legal sys ems o he membe coun ies a e
di e en om one ano he , he e o e, hese subpa ag aphs a e only
s a ing gene al e ms and gi e some disc e ion du ing
578
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 576.
579
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 459.
580
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 460.

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
262
implemen a ions. Bo h o he subpa ag aphs s a e ha he e iew can
be ca ied ou by he judicial e iew, which is clea enough by he
pa en ee and he licensee o ollow he p ocedu es. Howe e , he
second pa which is an independen e iew by a dis inc highe
au ho i y in ha membe coun y, is no clea enough as he
subpa ag aphs do no de ine he na u e o ha au ho i y. Bu he wo d
‘independen ’ means ha he e iewing pe son o body should no be
unde con ol he au ho i y ha g an ed he licence o de e mined he
emune a ion. The e m ‘dis inc ’ indica es ha he e should be
adequa e sepa a ion be ween he pe son o body e iewing and he one
g an ing o de e mining he emune a ion in unc ion e en hough hey
a e unde same agency. This is ein o cing he idea o independen
e iew. The e m ‘highe au ho i y’ e e s o he no ion ha he
e iewing au ho i y should be highe in aking and le el han he one
g an ed he licence o de e mined he emune a ion, so ha be ou o
hei in luence in making he decision.
581
This op ion o ‘independen
e iew by a dis inc highe au ho i y’ was added o hese
subpa ag aphs by Aus alia du ing he nego ia ions.
582
This seems o
be a good choice as usually he judicial p ocess may consume e y
long ime and cos a lo , howe e , he p ocess o adminis a i e e iew
is as e and less cos ly. I he p ocedu es laid down in his p o ision
ollowed ca e ully, he decision will be as jus as he one e iewed by
judicial au ho i y.
2.3.2.10 Remedies o An icompe i i e p ac ices
An i-compe i i e p ac ice was one o he main conce ns o TRIPS
Ag eemen nego ia o s, which had inc eased due o he monopolies
a ise om he exclusi e igh s g an ed o pa en owne s by he
in ellec ual p ope y igh s. O he a icles and p o isions o he TRIPS
Ag eemen has allowed membe coun ies o ake measu es and
con ol such p ac ices, such as A icle 8.1 and 40 o he TRIPS
581
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional Cen e o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , pp. 477–78.
582
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 576.
Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
263
Ag eemen .
583
Beside hese p o isions, also A icle 31 li . (k) s a es
ha ‘Membe s a e no obliged o apply he condi ions se o h in
subpa ag aphs (b) and ( ) whe e such use is pe mi ed o emedy a
p ac ice de e mined a e judicial o adminis a i e p ocess o be an i-
compe i i e. The need o co ec an i-compe i i e p ac ices may be
aken in o accoun in de e mining he amoun o emune a ion in such
cases. Compe en au ho i ies shall ha e he au ho i y o e use
e mina ion o au ho iza ion i and when he condi ions which led o
such au ho iza ion a e likely o ecu ’.
This p o ision gi es au ho i y o membe coun ies o bypass he
condi ions in A icle 31 li s. (b) and ( ), which a e no i ying and p io
nego ia ion wi h he pa en owne , and he licence should be
p edominan ly used o supplying he domes ic ma ke , when he
compulso y licence g an ed in o de ‘ o emedy a p ac ice de e mined
a e judicial o adminis a i e p ocess o be an i-compe i i e’.
Howe e , in his si ua ion he go e nmen should no dep i e he
pa en owne om ecei ing adequa e emune a ion, ne e heless his
si ua ion can be aken in o conside a ion while de e mining he
adequa e emune a ion. This p o ision can be in e p e ed as allowing
he na ional au ho i ies o educe he emune a ion o e en a ‘ oyal y
ee’ licence. The inal sen ence gi es u he au ho i y o he membe
coun ies’ compe en au ho i y o e use e mina ion o he
compulso y licence i and when he an i-compe i i e condi ions which
led o g an ing he licence a e likely o ecu .
584
2.3.2.11 Dependen Pa en s
A icle 31 li . (l) o he TRIPS Ag eemen ,
585
p o ides o h ee
mo e condi ions beside o he condi ions o his A icle, in cases ha
583
Blakeney, T ade Rela ed Aspec s o In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, p. 92.
584
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 577; Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen ,
In e na ional Cen e o T ade and Sus ainable De elopmen , and UNCTAD-ICTSD
P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable De elopmen , p. 479.
585
A icle 31 li . (l) o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es ha ‘whe e such use is au ho ized o
pe mi he exploi a ion o a pa en (" he second pa en ") which canno be exploi ed wi hou
in inging ano he pa en (" he i s pa en "), he ollowing addi ional condi ions shall
apply:
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
264
conce n he dependen pa en s. The dependen pa en (second pa en )
is a pa en ed in en ion which canno be wo ked wi hou exploi ing he
o iginal pa en ( i s pa en ). Gene ally, he dependen pa en owne
eques s a olun a y licence o e he o iginal pa en . Howe e , i i is
no g an ed, he dependen pa en owne may apply o au ho isa ion
o using he o iginal pa en h ough a compulso y licence.
586
In A icle 31 li . (l) o he TRIPS Ag eemen i is s a ed ha when
compulso y licence g an ed in o de o pe mi he second pa en which
canno be exploi ed wi hou in inging he i s pa en , h ee addi ional
condi ions has o be ollowed.
Fi s ly; i is equi ed ha he second pa en in ol e an impo an
echnical ad ancemen , and such echnical ad ancemen should ha e
conside able economic signi icance. Howe e , he e m ‘economic
signi icance’ is no p ecise concep and may ca y many
in e p e a ions. I is possible ha he second pa en ha e echnically
ad anced he o iginal pa en bu may ha e li le applica ion wi h g ea
economic signi icance and ice e sa.
587
De e mining impo an
echnical ad ancemen o an in en ion is ma e o subjec i e
judgmen ha ca y a wide ange o disc e ion.
588
Howe e , his
condi ion in oduced by he TRIPS Ag eemen because some
coun ies had e y gene ous policy in g an ing compulso y licence in
hese cases. The e o e, i was in oduced in o de o limi g an ing
such licences only a e ollowing his s ingen condi ion.
589
Secondly, he i s pa en owne , shall be gi en a c oss-licence on
easonable e ms so ha o be able o bene i om he in en ion o he
(i) he in en ion claimed in he second pa en shall in ol e an impo an echnical ad ance o
conside able economic signi icance in ela ion o he in en ion claimed in he i s pa en ;
(ii) he owne o he i s pa en shall be en i led o a c oss-licence on easonable e ms o use
he in en ion claimed in he second pa en ; and
(iii) he use au ho ized in espec o he i s pa en shall be non-assignable excep wi h he
assignmen o he second pa en ’.
586
Anonymous, ‘Genes and Ingenui y: Gene Pa en ing and Human Heal h (ALRC Repo 99),
27. Compulso y Licensing, Dependen Pa en s’, 2010
<h ps://www.al c.go .au/publica ions/27-compulso y-licensing/dependen -pa en s>
[accessed 5 Ap il 2018].
587
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 471.
588
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 578.
589
Ge ais, p. 394.
Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
265
second pa en . This condi ion s ipula ed he e in o de o keep balance
and bo h pa en owne s bene i om each o he ’s in en ions and no
one o hem only. Howe e , i is equi ed ha he e should be a
nego ia ion p ocess on easonable e ms. This indica e he e he c oss-
licence will no be wi hou compensa ion. I is p esumed ha he i s
pa en owne al eady ecei ed adequa e compensa ion a e he
compulso y licence g an ed o he second pa en owne . The e o e,
when he i s pa en owne acqui es he c oss-licence, i is logic ha
he should compensa e he second pa en owne as well. O he
economic alue o bo h pa en ed in en ions can be e alua ed and he
mos aluable ecei e an adequa e compensa ion.
590
The inal and hi d condi ion is ela ed o non-assignabili y o he
i s pa en excep wi h he assignmen o he second pa en . Howe e ,
he condi ion o non-assignmen al eady co e ed by A icle 31 li . (e).
The e o e, one can pe cei e ha he hi d condi ion o A icle 31 li .
(l) eplacing A icle 31 li . (e), wi h one addi ion which is he
excep ion o non-assignabili y o he second pa en only. Fo his
eason, i has been sugges ed by Nuno Pi es de Ca alho, ha his
condi ion should ead as ‘ he compulso y licence g an ed unde
subpa ag aph (l) shall be assigned only wi h he pa en ha enjoys
such use’.
591
2.4 ARTICLE 31BIS AND COMPULSORY LICENCE FOR PUBLIC
HEALTH
A icle 31bis is he i s amendmen o he TRIPS Ag eemen . I
was amended by he Gene al Council’s Decision o 6 Decembe
2005,
592
and submi ed o membe coun ies o be accep ed. Howe e ,
in o de o any amendmen o ake e ec , wo hi ds o he membe
coun ies ha e o accep i . Pa ag aph 3 o A icle X o he WTO
Ag eemen s a es ha an amendmen ‘shall ake e ec o he
590
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 471; S oll, Busche, and A end,
p. 578.
591
Ca alho, The TRIPS Regime o Pa en s and Tes Da a, p. 472; S oll, Busche, and A end,
p. 578.
592
‘WTO | In ellec ual P ope y (TRIPS) - Amendmen o he TRIPS Ag eemen - Decision
o 6 Decembe 2005’.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
272
31 li . ( ) in ega d o g an ing compulso y licence p edominan ly o
supplying he domes ic ma ke . A icle 31bis 3 allows o e-expo o
impo ed pha maceu ical p oduc s.
613
Howe e , his wai e applies
when he membe coun ies o he TRIPS Ag eemen a e leas
de eloped and de eloping coun ies ha hey a e membe s o he
same egional ade ag eemen . Fu he mo e, he membe coun ies o
ha egional ade ag eemen a e a leas hal o hem a e om he lis
o Uni ed Na ions leas de eloped coun ies. The e o e, his condi ion
only applies on he A ican egional g oupings, as i was hei speci ic
eques , ne e heless du ing nego ia ions some o he membe
coun ies showed in e es .
614
The main ad an age o his exemp ion which c ea ed by A icle
31bis 3 is ha i applies o all he membe coun ies o he egional
ade ag eemen and no i ica ion o he TRIPS Council is no
necessa y whene e an expo a ion is made. Howe e , his p o ision
does no allow he same expo e o supply o all o some o he
membe coun ies o he same egional ade ag eemen , bu a he he
wai e is in ega d o e-expo ing om he impo ing membe
coun y o he ade ag eemen o o he membe s.
615
Ne e heless, he
las sen ence o his p o ision p o ides o he p inciple o
e i o iali y as i s a es ha ‘I is unde s ood ha his will no
p ejudice he e i o ial na u e o he pa en igh s in ques ion’.
The e o e, acco ding o his p inciple when he pha maceu ical
p oduc ion o , pha maceu ical p oduc s: whe e a de eloping o leas -de eloped coun y
WTO Membe is a pa y o a egional ade ag eemen wi hin he meaning o A icle
XXIV o he GATT 1994 and he Decision o 28 No embe 1979 on Di e en ial and Mo e
Fa ou able T ea men Recip oci y and Fulle Pa icipa ion o De eloping Coun ies
(L/4903), a leas hal o he cu en membe ship o which is made up o coun ies
p esen ly on he Uni ed Na ions lis o leas -de eloped coun ies, he obliga ion o ha
Membe unde A icle 31( ) shall no apply o he ex en necessa y o enable a
pha maceu ical p oduc p oduced o impo ed unde a compulso y licence in ha Membe
o be expo ed o he ma ke s o hose o he de eloping o leas -de eloped coun y pa ies
o he egional ade ag eemen ha sha e he heal h p oblem in ques ion. I is unde s ood
ha his will no p ejudice he e i o ial na u e o he pa en igh s in ques ion’.
613
Abbo and Reichman, pp. 944–45.
614
Vando en Paul and Eeckhau e Jean Cha les, p. 790.
615
Co ea, ‘Implemen a ion o he WTO Gene al Council Decision on Pa ag aph 6 o he
Doha Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h’, p. 25.

Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
273
p oduc is pa en ed in an impo ing membe coun y, such pa en is
alid and has legal e ec only in ha membe coun y. I is
independen om any o he pa en g an ed o he same p oduc in
o he membe coun ies. Thus, a compulso y licence g an ed o a
pa en in one-membe coun y does no ha e any e ec on ano he
pa en g an ed o he same p oduc in o he membe coun ies. This
p inciple o e i o iali y obliges e e y membe wishes o impo om
he o iginal expo e o om ano he impo ing membe coun y, i
has o apply o compulso y licence.
616
The pu pose o his wai e as s a ed by bo h A icle 31bis 3 and
pa ag aph 5 o he Annex, is o p omo e economies o scale as i was
an exis ing conce n du ing he nego ia ion on he Decision o 30
Augus 2003, especially o he de eloping coun ies.
617
The e o e,
pa ag aph 5 o he Annex s a es ha his kind o expo ing and
impo ing should be p omo ed. Fu he his pa ag aph p o ides ha
he de eloped membe coun ies should ake esponsibili y o p o ide
echnical coope a ion in acco dance wi h A icle 67 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen and also wi h o he in e go e nmen al o ganiza ion.
618
Pa ag aph ou o A icle 31bis o he TRIPS Ag eemen s a es
ha ‘Membe s shall no challenge any measu es aken in con o mi y
wi h he p o isions o his A icle and he Annex o his Ag eemen
unde subpa ag aphs 1(b) and 1(c) o A icle XXIII o GATT 1994’.
This pa ag aph exp essly p e en s non iola ion nulli ica ion o
impai men unde subpa ag aphs 1(b) and 1(c) o A icle XXIII o
GATT 1994.
619
The e o e, membe coun ies a e no allowed o b ing
616
Vando en Paul and Eeckhau e Jean Cha les, p. 790.
617
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 588.
618
A icle 67 o he TRIPS Ag eemen , unde he i le ‘Technical Coope a ion’ s a es ha ‘In
o de o acili a e he implemen a ion o his Ag eemen , de eloped coun y Membe s shall
p o ide, on eques and on mu ually ag eed e ms and condi ions, echnical and inancial
coope a ion in a ou o de eloping and leas -de eloped coun y Membe s. Such
coope a ion shall include assis ance in he p epa a ion o laws and egula ions on he
p o ec ion and en o cemen o in ellec ual p ope y igh s as well as on he p e en ion o
hei abuse, and shall include suppo ega ding he es ablishmen o ein o cemen o
domes ic o ices and agencies ele an o hese ma e s, including he aining o
pe sonnel’.
619
‘WTO | Dispu es - Dispu e Se lemen CBT - Legal Basis o a Dispu e - Types o
Complain s and Requi ed Allega ions in GATT 1994 - A icle XXIII o GATT 1994
Subpa ag aph 1 Li s (B) and (C). ‘I any con ac ing pa y should conside ha any bene i
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
274
ac ions unde hese wo subpa ag aphs which ela es o dispu e
se lemen in cases o non iola ion and si ua ion. This p ohibi ion is
impo an because i will b ing subs an ial insecu i y o hose coun ies
ha a e eady o use he sys em.
620
The las pa ag aph is A icle 31bis 5 o he TRIPS Ag eemen
which s a es ha ‘This A icle and he Annex o his Ag eemen a e
wi hou p ejudice o he igh s, obliga ions and lexibili ies ha
Membe s ha e unde he p o isions o his Ag eemen o he han
pa ag aphs ( ) and (h) o A icle 31, including hose ea i med by he
Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h
(WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2), and o hei in e p e a ion. They a e also
wi hou p ejudice o he ex en o which pha maceu ical p oduc s
p oduced unde a compulso y licence can be expo ed unde he
p o isions o A icle 31( )’.
In he i s sen ence his p o ision con i ms ha A icle 31bis and
he Annex do no in e e e wi h he igh s, lexibili ies and obliga ions
o he membe coun ies unde he TRIPS Ag eemen and he Doha
Decla a ion he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h. Howe e ,
A icle 31bis 5 ea i ms he excep ions ha p o ided by his A icle
unde pa ag aphs o A icle 31bis 1 and 3, which hey a e excep ions
o obliga ions unde A icle 31 li s. ( ) and (h).
621
The e o e, du ing
implemen a ion o his p o ision he membe coun ies s ill can
bene i om he lexibili ies and limi a ions o he p inciple o
exclusi i y o igh s o he pa en owne . In he same ime,
implemen a ion o his p o ision should no pe mi he membe
acc uing o i di ec ly o indi ec ly unde his Ag eemen is being nulli ied o impai ed o
ha he a ainmen o any objec i e o he Ag eemen is being impeded as he esul o ,
(b) he applica ion by ano he con ac ing pa y o any measu e, whe he o no i con lic s
wi h he p o isions o his Ag eemen , o (c) he exis ence o any o he si ua ion’.’
<h ps://www.w o.o g/english/ a op_e/dispu_e/disp_se lemen _cb _e/c4s2p1_e.h m>
[accessed 14 Ap il 2018].
620
Abbo and Reichman, p. 945.
621
A icle 31 li s. ( ) and (h) o he TRIPS Ag eemen , ‘( ) any such use shall be au ho ized
p edominan ly o he supply o he domes ic ma ke o he Membe au ho izing such use;
(h) he igh holde shall be paid adequa e emune a ion in he ci cums ances o each case,
aking in o accoun he economic alue o he au ho iza ion’.
Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
275
coun ies o escape om he obliga ions p o ided o in he TRIPS
Ag eemen and Doha Decla a ion.
The EC Regula ion No. 816/2006 also p o ides o compulso y
licence o he pu pose o manu ac u ing pha maceu icals and
expo ing hem o coun ies wi h public heal h issues. This egula ion
is conside ed o be an ac ion by he EU in o de o sol e public heal h
p oblems especially in he leas de eloped and de eloping coun ies
ha do no ha e access o sa e and a o dable medicines.
Ne e heless, e en he de eloped coun ies ha in o med he WTO
abou hei in en ion o impo such medicines, can be eligible o
bene i om his scheme.
622
The e m ‘ hei in e p e a ion’ e e s o he in e p e a ion o he
TRIPS Ag eemen and Doha Decla a ion. Pa ag aph 5 li . (a) o he
Doha Decla a ion,
623
s a es while in e p e ing he p o isions o he
TRIPS Ag eemen acco ding o A icle 31 o he Vienna Con en ion,
he objec i es and p inciples o he TRIPS Ag eemen ha e o be
aken in o conside a ion. Those objec i es and p inciples s a ed in
A icle 7 and 8 o he TRIPS Ag eemen wi h o he p inciples ha a e
laid down in he P eamble and Pa I o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
624
The las sen ence o A icle 31bis 5 o he TRIPS Ag eemen
emphasizes ha A icle 31bis and he Annex shall no a ec he igh s
o he membe coun ies o expo pha maceu ical p oduc s in which
p oduced unde compulso y licence and ul illed he equi emen o
A icle 31 li . ( ). Basically, A icle 31 li . ( ) equi es he membe
coun ies o g an he compulso y licence p edominan ly o supplying
he domes ic ma ke . The e o e, he non-p edominan po ion can be
expo ed o ano he membe coun y.
625
622
‘Regula ion (EC) No. 816/2006 - Expo o Gene ic Medicines o De eloping Coun ies:
Compulso y Licences’ <h p://eu -lex.eu opa.eu/legal-
con en /EN/TXT/HTML/?u i=LEGISSUM:l21172& om=ES> [accessed 4 May 2018].
623
‘WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2 -WTO | Minis e ial Con e ences - Doha 4 h Minis e ial -
Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h - Adop ed 14 No embe 2001’,
‘In applying he cus oma y ules o in e p e a ion o public in e na ional law, each
p o ision o he TRIPS Ag eemen shall be ead in he ligh o he objec and pu pose o
he Ag eemen as exp essed, in pa icula , in i s objec i es and p inciples’.
624
S oll, Busche, and A end, p. 590.
625
Abbo , ‘The Doha Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h: Ligh ing a
Da k Co ne a he WTO’, p. 495.
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
276
2.5 IRAQ’S POSITION TO COMPULSORY LICENCE
One o he impo an p inciples o pa en is g an ing exclusi e
igh o he pa en owne . Howe e , coun ies a ound he wo ld
speci y some ci cums ances in which hey limi he exclusi e igh o
he pa en owne . These limi a ions a e called excep ions as i is s a ed
in A icle 30 o he TRIPS Ag eemen as ‘Excep ions o Righ s
Con e ed’. Di e en coun ies ha e s a ed di e en excep ions,
howe e , in he p e ious pa some examples ha e been discussed ha
can be allowed unde A icle 30 o he TRIPS Ag eemen , such as
Resea ch and Expe imen a ion Excep ion, Ea ly Wo king, Regula o y
Re iew o Bola Excep ion, Indi idual P esc ip ions Excep ion, P io
Use Excep ion and Pa allel Impo s. Howe e , he pa en law No. 65
o 1970 does no s a e any such excep ions and nei he he CPA O de
No. 81. The CPA was well awa e o he p o isions o he TRIPS
Ag eemen , he e o e, should ha e aken ad an age o A icle 30 o
he TRIPS Ag eemen and included some o hese excep ions in he
amendmen . As hese excep ions a e impo an o he ul ilmen o
he needs o socie y and i s de elopmen .
2.5.1 Compulso y Licence Unde he O iginal Law No. 65 o
1970
The e is ano he ype o excep ion which limi he exclusi e igh s
o he pa en owne s, which is called compulso y licence excep ion.
Howe e , his excep ion has o be applied o and g an ed by
execu i e o judicial au ho i y. The I aqi pa en law No. 65 o 1970
p o ides egula ion in ega d o compulso y licence in sec ions o 27,
28 and 29.
626
Ne e heless, all hese Sec ion we e amended by CPA
O de No. 81.
627
Howe e , be o e he amendmen Sec ion 27 was
consis ed o wo p o isions. In he i s p o ision he pa en owne
was equi ed o in o m he Regis a o he exploi a ion da e o he
in en ion wi hin 30 days o he commencemen o he exploi a ion.
The second p o ision p o ided o h ee ci cums ances in which he
626
‘Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en and Indus ial Designs’.
627
‘O de No. 81 Pa en , Indus ial Design, Undisclosed In o ma ion, In eg a ed Ci cui s And
Plan Va ie y Law.’
Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
277
Regis a au ho ised o g an compulso y licence o whom applied o
i . Acco ding o his p o ision he Regis a was he execu i e
au ho i y ha empowe ed o g an compulso y licences in he
ollowing ci cums ances. Fi s , i he igh holde did no exploi he
in en ion in I aq wi hin h ee yea s o g an ing he pa en . Second, i
he exploi a ion by he pa en owne did no co espond o he needs o
he coun y. Th ee, i he pa en owne s opped exploi ing he
in en ion o a leas wo yea s. Howe e , he p o ision s a ed a
condi ion on he applican ha he should be able o exploi he
in en ion in a se ious manne . The p o ision also s a ed ha he pa en
owne has legal igh o apply in he egis y in o de o ecei ing an
adequa e emune a ion wi hin nine y days o g an ing he compulso y
licence. This sugges ha i he pa en owne did no apply o
emune a ion wi hin speci ied pe iod he will loss his legal igh o
ecei e emune a ion. The p o ision also p o ided ha he pa en
owne has igh appeal agains he decision o he Regis a be o e he
Minis e wi hin hi y days o ecei ing no i ica ion o he g an o he
compulso y licence, and he decision o he Minis e is inal and
i e e sible. Acco ding o Sec ion 1.1 o he o iginal pa en law No. 65
o 1970 he Minis e is Minis e o Indus y.
Sec ion 28 o he o iginal pa en law No. 65 o 1970 be o e he
amendmen p o ided o ano he ci cums ance in which he
compulso y licence can be g an ed acco dingly. In his case
compulso y licence can be g an ed o a dependen pa en . Sec ion 28
s a ed ha when he exploi a ion o he pa en ed in en ion (second
pa en /dependen pa en ) has g ea indus ial signi icance and i s
exploi a ion equi e using ano he p e iously pa en ed in en ion ( i s
pa en ), hen he Regis a has he au ho i y o g an compulso y
licence o he second pa en owne . Howe e , he p o ision o his
A icle equi ed ha he second pa en owne app oached he i s
pa en owne o ob ain olun a ily licence on easonable condi ions
and he i s pa en owne e used o g an him he olun a ily licence.
Acco ding o his p o ision wha cons i u e easonable condi ions in
his con ex can be de e mined by he Regis a .
Sec ion 28 p o ided o g an ing compulso y licence in he ice
e sa si ua ion as well. In ci cums ances when he i s pa en is a

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
278
dependen pa en , and i has g ea impo ance ha equi es using
subsequen pa en ed in en ion (second pa en ). In he same condi ion
he i s pa en owne has o eques olun a ily licence om he
second pa en owne on easonable condi ions. I his eques is
e used, hen he Regis a will be allowed o g an compulso y
licence. In bo h ci cums ances adequa e emune a ion should be
p o ided acco ding o he s ipula ions s a ed in Sec ion 27.
Sec ion 29 o he o iginal law No. 65 o 1970 s a ed ha ‘ he
Regis a may e oke he pa en g an ed and anyone who has in e es
may eques he Regis a o e oke i i he in en ion was no
exploi ed in I aq wi hin wo yea s o g an ing he compulso y licence’.
This Sec ion ob iously did no make any sense as o why he pa en
would be e oked i he in en ion was no exploi ed du ing g an ing
he compulso y licence. Bu I aqi legisla u e spo ed he mis ake and
amended his Sec ion h ough he Law No. 28 o 1999 Fi s
Amendmen o Law No. 65 o 1970.
628
The e o e, Sec ion 29 o be
ead as ‘ he Regis a may e oke he compulso y licence g an ed and
anyone who has in e es may eques he Regis a o e oke i i he
in en ion was no exploi ed in I aq wi hin wo yea s o g an ing he
compulso y licence’.
In all he p e ious ci cums ances o g an ing compulso y licences
acco ding o Sec ion 27 and 28, he Regis a was au ho ised o e oke
he compulso y licence pu suan o Sec ion 29. Acco ding o Sec ion
29 e e yone who had an in e es could eques o e oca ion o he
compulso y licence i he in en ion was no exploi ed in I aq wi hin
wo yea s o g an ing he compulso y licence.
2.5.2 Compulso y Licence A e he Amendmen made by
he CPA O de No. 81.
The CPA O de No. 81 amended all he h ee sec ions ha
egula ed he compulso y licence unde he I aqi pa en law No. 65 o
1970. The amended Sec ion 27 consis s o h ee pa ag aphs in which
hey p o ide o di e en ci cums ances in which he compulso y
628
‘I aq: Law No. 28 o 1999 Fi s Amendmen o Law No. 65 o 1970 on Pa en s and
Indus ial Designs’.
Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
279
licence can be p o ided o exclusi ely. Fi s , Sec ion 27. A. s a es
ha when he use o he subjec ma e o he pa en necessa y o
na ional de ence o eme gency o o non-comme cial public good. In
hese ci cums ances he compulso y licence can be g an ed o s a es
au ho i ies o hi d pa ies. The only condi ion s a ed in he pa ag aph
A. is ha he pa en ee has o be no i ied as soon as possible.
Ci cums ances e e ed in his pa ag aph a e close o A icle 31 li . (b)
o he TRIPS Ag eemen . In he TRIPS Ag eemen he e ms o
‘na ional eme gency o o he ci cums ances o ex eme u gency o in
cases o public non-comme cial use’ a e used. The e m eme gency in
Sec ion 27. A clea ly e e s o na ional eme gency, which ob iously
include necessi ies in ci cums ances o na ional de ences. The e o e, i
was no necessa y o include his ci cums ance wi hin Sec ion 27. A.
On he o he hand, he o iginal pa en law No. 65 o 1970 be o e
he amendmen s, in i s Sec ion 30 s a ed ha he Minis e may issue
an o de o con isca e (exp op ia e) he owne ship o he in en ion i
public in e es o he coun y o na ional de ence equi es i . This
exp op ia ion includes all igh s gained h ough he pa en .
Ne e heless, Sec ion 30 p o ided o adequa e emune a ion and
igh o appeal o he P esiden o he Republic o I aq. Howe e , his
Sec ion has no hing o do wi h compulso y licence, because in
compulso y licence he pa en owne is no dep i ed o ally om his
igh o e he in en ion, i is simply an au ho isa ion o using his
in en ion wi hou his consen . Meanwhile, acco ding o his sec ion,
he pa en owne pe manen ly loses igh o e he in en ion and no
allowed o exploi i any mo e. Hence he CPA O de No. 81 amended
Sec ion 30 o be ead as ‘The Regis a 's compulso y license decision
shall be appealable o he Minis e wi hin 60 days o i s no i ica ion’.
The e o e, i seems ha he CPA wan ed o eplace his o al
dep i a ion o he igh s o he pa en owne o g an ing licence o e
he in en ion wi hou his consen in ci cums ances o necessi y o
na ional de ence. Howe e , i would ha e been mo e bene icial o
I aq, i he CPA had copied he h ee ci cums ances o A icle 31 li .
(b) o he TRIPS Ag eemen ‘na ional eme gency o o he
ci cums ances o ex eme u gency o in cases o public non-
comme cial use’. The e m ‘o he ci cums ances o ex eme u gency’
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
280
would ha e been much mo e bene icial ins ead o na ional de ence, as
will include wide ange o ci cums ances ha can be de e mined by
I aq o g an compulso y licence.
Nex , Sec ion 27. B. 1 p o ides o ano he ci cums ance in which
he Regis a can g an a compulso y licence; ha is i he pa en
owne does no exploi he in en ion o exploi s insu icien ly.
Howe e , some du a ions ha e been s ipula ed be o e he compulso y
licence g an ed. Ei he ou yea s ha e passed om he applica ion
da e o h ee yea s om g an ing da e, and he applied da e is he one
ha elapses la e . The e o e, he Regis a canno g an licence e en
hough he in en ion has no been exploi ed unless he la es da e o
hese wo pe iods has elapsed. The Sec ion has au ho ised he egis a
o ex end his pe iod i ound ou ha easons beyond con ol o he
pa en owne , p e en ed him o exploi he in en ion.
The new amended Sec ion 27. B. 1 has es ic ed g an ing
compulso y licence compa ed o he old Sec ion 27. In he old Sec ion
27. 2 compulso y licence could be g an ed in h ee si ua ions ela ed o
exploi a ion. Fi s ly, pa en ed in en ion was no exploi ed wi hin h ee
yea s o g an ing he licence. Secondly, exploi a ion did no
co espond o he needs o I aq. Thi dly, s opped exploi a ion a any
ime o wo yea s. Howe e , he new Sec ion 27. B. 1 emo ed he
second and hi d ci cums ances and ex ended he pe iod o he i s
one. This is clea ly being in he bene i o pa en owne s, and while
conside ed as a g ea disad an age o a de eloping coun y like I aq,
because ha ing a ie y o op ions o g an compulso y licence
ce ainly help he coun y o ul il i s needs o p oduc s and
echnologies in conside able low p ices. Fu he mo e, acco ding o he
new Sec ion 27. B. 2 any impo a ion o subjec ma e o he pa en o
I aq will be conside ed an exploi a ion o he pa en .
The las ci cums ance o g an ing compulso y licence acco ding
o Sec ion 27. C. is o emedy un ai compe i ion. This is a new
ci cums ance ha was no exis ed in he o iginal I aqi pa en law.
The e o e, i bene i s he coun y o balance be ween exclusi e igh o
he pa en owne and ai compe i ion. This p o ision is inspi ed by
A icle 31 li . (k) o he TRIPS Ag eemen . Howe e , i is ailed o
Excep ions and limi a ions o pa en igh s in he ips ag eemen and I aqi pa en law
281
include all he excep ions ha s a ed in A icle 31 li . (k) such as
excep ion o p io nego ia ion and no i ica ion.
Sec ion 28 o he o iginal pa en law be o e amendmen p o ided
compulso y licence in cases o dependen pa en s. Howe e , his ype
o compulso y licence is emo ed a e he amendmen by he CPA
O de No. 81. The cu en sec ion 28 p o ides o condi ions and
equi emen s o g an ing compulso y licence. The condi ions a e, A.
Each applica ion shall be conside ed on i s me i s, B. P io nego ia ion
on easonable emune a ion and condi ions ailed du ing a easonable
pe iod o ime be ween he pa ies, C. ‘The scope and du a ion o he
license shall be limi ed o he pu pose o which i is g an ed. I he
license applica ion ela es o semiconduc o echnology, hen i shall
only be g an ed o non-comme cial public good o o ec i y p ac ices
deemed by he compe en judicial o adminis a i e au ho i y o be
an icompe i i e’, D. Shall no be exclusi e, E, shall no be assignable,
F. should be o mee ing he demand o he domes ic ma ke excep in
cases o an icompe i i e, and G. pa en owne shall ecei e equi able
emune a ion.
All hese condi ions can be ound in A icle 31 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen , some o hem eph ased and o he s exac ly copied.
Howe e , some condi ions such as judicial e iew o he licence was
no included wi hin Sec ion 28, ins ead an independen sec ion was
added which is Sec ion 30bis ha s a es ‘The Regis a 's compulso y
license decision shall be appealable o he Minis e wi hin 60 days o
i s no i ica ion’. Bu his sec ion does no include judicial e iew o
adequa e emune a ion as i is he case in A icle 31 li . (j) o he
TRIPS Ag eemen . Also, he CPA O de No. 81 did no include in i s
amendmen any special p o isions in ega d o ‘Remedies o
An icompe i i e p ac ices’ like A icle 31 li . (k) and ‘Dependen
Pa en ’ like A icle 31 li . (l). Since he CPA O de No. 81 was
o de ed o inline he I aqi pa en law wi h he TRIPS Ag eemen , i
should ha e included all he condi ions and pa ag aphs o A icle 31
o he TRIPS Ag eemen , including compulso y licence in cases o
dependen pa en s.
Sec ion 29 also amended o ead as ‘The Regis a may cancel he
compulso y license sua spon e o on he s eng h o an applica ion
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
288
1935 on Pa en s. This law amended ew imes un il inally epealed by
Pa en and Indus ial Design Law No. 65 o 1970 du ing he epublic
e a because i was conside ed o be an ou da ed law. Law No. 65 o
1970 has also unde gone ou amendmen s, in which only wo o hem
ha e made signi ican amendmen s, which hey a e i s amendmen
by Law No. 28 o 1999 and hi d amendmen by CPA O de No. 81.
IV
In sec ion one o chap e wo he de ini ion o he e m ‘in en ion’
was discussed, in which unde Law No. 61 o 1935 he e m had a
simple de ini ion i.e. conside ed disco e y as in en ion ha can be
pa en able. Howe e , his e m was changed om such a simple
de ini ion o a mo e mode n de ini ion by Law No. 65 o 1970, and
e en u he de eloped by he amendmen unde Law No. 28 o 1999.
Ne e heless, his de ini ion was epealed and eplaced by ano he one
which was in oduced by he amendmen p o ided by he CPA O de
No. 81. E en hough he la es de ini ion is included wi h he p ecise
c i e ia o pa en abili y, bu he TRIPS Ag eemen does no de ine he
e m ‘in en ion’ as i is le o membe coun ies o de ine acco ding
o hei own legal sys ems.
All he c i e ia o pa en abili y could be ound wi hin he
de ini ion o he e m ‘in en ion’ in he Law No. 65 o 1970 be o e he
amendmen by he CPA O de No. 81. Howe e , a e he amendmen
he same c i e ia can be ound in he de ini ion, and he CPA O de
No. 81 also speci ied ano he sec ion o including all he c i e ia o
pa en abili y ha a e men ioned in he TRIPS Ag eemen . This way
he CPA O de NO. 81 has imp o ed he I aqi pa en law by clea ly
and p ecisely in oduced he c i e ia o pa en abili y.
V
In sec ion wo and h ee i has been es ablished ha he membe
coun ies o he TRIPS Ag eemen a e allowed o exclude some a eas
om pa en abili y. The e o e, acco ding o he TRIPS Ag eemen

Conclusion
289
igh o g an ing pa en is limi ed base on some p inciples. A icle
27.2 s a es ha i he comme cial exploi a ion o an in en ion
endange o d e public and mo ali y. None o hese e ms a e de ined
by he TRIPS Ag eemen , which is in a ou o he membe coun ies
o de ine hem acco ding o hei domes ic unde s anding. Howe e ,
gene ally speaking any in en ion jeopa dises he s uc u e o ci il
socie y and ins i u ions o he socie y, hen will be excluded om
pa en abili y base on b eaching o d e public and mo ali y.
In e es ingly, sec ion 3.1 o he I aqi pa en law No. 65 o 1970
p o ides ha i exploi a ion o an in en ion b eaches he p inciple o
o d e public, public mo al and public in e es , will be excluded om
pa en abili y. All he amendmen s including he CPA O de No. 81 did
no amend his p o ision. The e o e, his p o ision is in compliance
wi h he TRIPS Ag eemen e en hough he e m public in e es is no
men ioned in A icle 27.2 o he TRIPS Ag eemen , bu membe
coun ies a e allowed o p o ec hei public in e es acco ding o
A icle 8 o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
A icle 27.3 (a) o he TRIPS Ag eemen also p o ides o ano he
impo an exclusion om pa en abili y which is ‘diagnos ic,
he apeu ic and su gical me hods o he ea men o humans o
animals’. This p o ision is op ional p o ision as all he exclusion
p o isions in he TRIPS Ag eemen a e op ional. The e o e, some
membe coun ies do no exclude me hod o ea men o m
pa en abili y such as Aus alia, New Zealand and Uni ed S a es o
Ame ica. None heless, majo i y o membe coun ies a e excluding
me hod o ea men om pa en abili y.
I is no iceable ha such p o ision canno be ound in he I aqi
pa en law No. 65 o 1970 and none o he amendmen s added any
p o ision in his ega d. Since I aq is one o he de eloping coun ies
and in need o exclusion om pa en abili y as much as possible o
cope wi h he cu en si ua ion ha I aq is going h ough sec a ian
wa s and wa wi h e o . I aq is unde de eloped coun y in many
a eas especially in he a eas ha ela ed o medicines and me hod o
ea men s. The e o e, his hesis is ecommending adding a p o ision
simila o ha o he TRIPS Ag eemen o he Law No. 65 o 1970 in
sec ion 3.2 o be ead as ‘pa en shall no be g an ed in diagnos ic,
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
290
he apeu ic and su gical me hods o he ea men o humans o
animals’.
Fu he mo e, he Doha Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and
Public Heal h admi ed ha he e is massi e public heal h p oblem
ha a ec s he de eloping coun ies. In his ega d he minis e s,
h ough he Doha Decla a ion emphasized ha he TRIPS Ag eemen
should no be an obs acle in sol ing he public heal h issues o he
de eloping coun ies bu ins ead should be pa o he solu ion. In
addi ion, he i has been admi ed ha high s anda d o p o ec ion is
ha ing nega i e impac on d ug p ices. The e o e, he p o isions o
he TRIPS Ag eemen should be in e p e ed in a manne suppo i e o
membe coun ies o p o ec hei public heal h and access medicines
h ough lexibili ies ha a ailable wi hin he TRIPS Ag eemen . Doha
Decla a ion u he s a ed ha he membe coun ies should ha e igh
o de e mine g ound o g an ing compulso y licence in his ega d and
de e mine wha cons i u es he na ional eme gency and o he
ci cums ances o eme gency.
The o iginal I aqi pa en law No. 65 o 1970 had a p o ision ha
excluded medical and pha maceu ical o mula ions om pa en abili y.
Howe e , his p o ision epealed and suspended by bo h amendmen s
o No. 28 o 1999 and CPA O de No. 81 wi hou subs i u ing i wi h
ano he p o ision ela ed o access o medicine. The CPA O de No.
81 o de ed in 2004 which is 3 yea s a e endo semen o he Doha
Decla a ion, he e o e he CPA O de No. 81 should ha e aken
ad an age o he Doha Decla a ion and added a new p o ision o
make easy o I aq o access o medicines o needs o he public
heal h, like o he membe coun ies ha e done i . This shows ha he
CPA O de No. 81 was legisla ed wi hin he in en ion o sol ing he
p oblems o I aqi people. The e o e, he law No. 65 o 1970 should be
amended in his ega d o include some si ua ions ha I aq can access
medicines wi hou au ho isa ion o he pa en holde s as an excep ion
o hei exclusi e igh s, such as in cases o ‘p epa a ion o a medicine
in acco dance wi h a medical p esc ip ion o indi idual cases, ca ied
ou by a quali ied p o essional, as well as o he medicine so
p epa ed’.
Conclusion
291
VI
A icle 27.3 (b) o he TRIPS Ag eemen excludes om
pa en abili y o plan s and animals, howe e , i equi es ha membe
coun ies o p o ide o p o ec ion o plan a ie ies h ough a pa en
o an e ec i e sui gene is sys em o a combina ion o bo h o hem.
The o iginal I aqi pa en law No. 65 o 1970 does no ha e any
egula ion in his ega d. Howe e , he CPA O de No. 81 added a
new chap e o he p o ec ion o plan a ie ies. All he essen ial
p o isions o his chap e such as he de ini ion o plan a ie ies and
equi emen o egis a ion and p o ec ion, ha e been aken om he
UPOV Con en ion o 1991. Howe e , he CPA O de No. 81 ailed o
ake he op ional excep ion om he UPOV Con en ion o 1991
which gi es limi ed igh o e-using seed. Bu ins ead in his ega d
he CPA O de No. 81 has ollowed he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica’s
s yle o p ohibi ing sa ing, e-suing o esale p o ec ed seed. This
showed ha he CPA O de No. 81 was no egula ed in bes in e es
o I aq, as he CPA was well awa e o he bad si ua ion o I aqi ields
and seed bank.
Howe e , Law No. 15 o 2013 on Regis a ion, Acc edi a ion and
P o ec ion o Ag icul u al Va ie ies has eplaced he CPA O de No.
81. The new law egula ed he p o ec ion o new a ie ies in di e en
way and p o ides o b eede ’s igh s and in he same ime p o ides
o some ex a excep ions han he CPA O de No. 81. Ne e heless,
Law No. 15 o 2013 educed he pe iod o p o ec ion. The e o e, his
hesis ecommends his law o be amended so ha I aq can ha e a
be e sui gene is sys em o p o ec ion o plan a ie ies ha comply
wi h he TRIPS Ag eemen and in he same ime ake ad an age o he
UPOV Con en ion ha o e ed be e igh s o a me s in ega d o
sa ing seeds.
VII
In sec ion one o chap e h ee, i has been concluded ha A icle
28 o he TRIPS Ag eemen has con e ed ce ain exclusi e igh s o
he pa en owne s in a o m o nega i e igh s. Some o hese igh s
SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
292
a e o e he pa en ed p oduc s, pa en ed p ocesses and di ec p oduc s
o pa en ed p ocesses, and o he igh s a e ela ed o igh s o assign,
ans e by succession and conclude licensing con ac s. Ne e heless,
hese exclusi e igh s a e subjec o some excep ions ha e e ed o in
A icles o 30, 31 and 31bis he TRIPS Ag eemen . The TRIPS
Ag eemen in A icle 34 also p o ides o e e sing he bu den o
p oo in ci il p oceeding o cases in ol e iden ical p oduc s o he
pa en ed p ocess.
The o iginal I aqi pa en law No. 65 o 1970 e e ed o hese
igh s in sec ion 12 in a gene al e m ha he pa en owne has
exclusi e igh o exploi he in en ion by all legal means. Howe e ,
he CPA O de NO. 81 epealed his sec ion and eplaced wi h he
new one while i ailed o ollow he A icle 28 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen by no s a ing he igh s o assign, ans e and concluding
licensing con ac s. E en hough sec ion 25 o he o iginal law No. 65
o 1970 s a es some o hem bu no simila o he TRIPS Ag eemen
especially in he igh s o conclude licensing con ac s. The e o e, his
hesis ecommends ha an amendmen in sec ion 12 in o de o
include all he exclusi e igh s ha a e s a ed by he TRIPS
Ag eemen will be necessa y. Since he o iginal I aqi pa en law does
no con ain any p o ision simila o A icle 34 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen , and none o he amendmen s including he CPA O de
No. 81 added any simila p o ision, he e o e, his hesis also
ecommends ha simila p o ision should be inse ed o he I aqi
pa en law so ha he pa en owne s enjoy be e p o ec ion.
VIII
Sec ion wo was dedica ed o he excep ions o exclusi e igh s o
pa en owne s. I has been concluded ha A icle 30 o he TRIPS
Ag eemen can be used o g an many ypes o excep ions o he
exclusi e igh s o he pa en owne s by ollowing he c i e ia in
A icle 30. The e a e h ee gene al c i e ia, he excep ion mus be
limi ed, he excep ion should no un easonably con lic wi h a no mal
exploi a ion o he pa en , and do no un easonably p ejudice he
legi ima e in e es s o he pa en owne , aking accoun o he
Conclusion
293
legi ima e in e es s o hi d pa ies. The e o e, he membe coun ies
a e allowed o place excep ions o exclusi e igh s as long as hey
ollow he c i e ia.
Nex his sec ion has discussed and analysed he compulso y
licence. compulso y licence is ano he impo an ool ha keeps
balance be ween pa en owne ’s igh s and need o socie y o
pa en ed p oduc s, h ough limi ing he exclusi e igh s o he pa en
owne s. A icle 31 o he TRIPS Ag eemen p o ides o ‘o he use
wi hou au ho iza ion o he igh holde ’, and he e m ‘o he use’
e e s o o he excep ions o he exclusi e igh s o he pa en holde s
han wha allowed unde A icle 30. G ounds o g an ing compulso y
licence is le o he membe coun ies o de e mine acco ding o hei
ci cums ances. Ne e heless, some condi ions and equi emen s a e
s a ed in o he o membe coun ies o ollow be o e g an ing he
compulso y licence ei he o go e nmen o hi d pa ies au ho ised by
go e nmen .
The hesis has discussed in de ail hese condi ions and
equi emen s and concluded despi e he impo ance o he compulso y
licence excep ion o he membe coun ies so ha use i o ul illing
hei needs, howe e , some o he condi ions ha e c ea ed obs acles in
on o leas de eloped and de eloping coun ies o use his
excep ion. A icle 31 li . ( ) is one o he majo obs acles o he leas
de eloped and de eloping coun ies, as i equi es he compulso y
licence should be g an ed p edominan ly o he supply o he
domes ic ma ke . The ac is ha many o hose coun ies do no
possess enough echnology o p oduce mos o he pa en ed p oduc s
locally. This e en ually lead o amendmen o he TRIPS Ag eemen
and A icle 31bis was added.
A icle 31bis submi ed o membe coun ies o be accep ed by he
Gene al Council on 6 Decembe 2005 and en e ed in o o ce only on
23 Janua y 2017 in addi ion o an Annex and Appendix. This a icle
was added o emedy he obs acles ha A icle 31 caused o he leas
de eloped and de eloping coun ies. The e o e, A icle 31bis pe mi s
he membe coun ies o g an compulso y licence so ha majo i y o
he pha maceu ical p oduc s unde he licence can be expo ed o o he
membe coun ies. Fu he mo e, A icle 31bis exemp s he impo ing

SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
294
membe coun y om adequa e emune a ion. This hesis has
concluded ha his A icle can help he membe coun ies o ul il
hei needs o medicines o hei public heal h.
Following he abo e discussion, he hesis has discussed and
analysed he posi ion o I aqi pa en law o excep ion o exclusi e
igh s o he pa en owne s. In ac , nei he he o iginal law No. 65 o
1970 no he CPA O de No. 81 con ain any egula ions allowing
excep ions wi hin he scope o A icle 30 o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
Since he CPA O de No. 81 o de ed wi h he in en ion o inline he
I aqi in ellec ual p ope y laws wi h ha o he TRIPS Ag eemen , and
i he CPA ac ed in a ou o I aq should ha e included some
impo an excep ions ha a e allowed wi h he scope o A icle 30
such as pa allel impo s.
Ne e heless, he o iginal law No. 65 o 1970 p o ided o
compulso y licence in a ew cases such as, i he igh holde did no
exploi he in en ion in I aq wi hin h ee yea s o g an ing he pa en ,
i he exploi a ion by he pa en owne did no co espond o he needs
o he coun y, i he pa en owne s opped exploi ing he in en ion o
a leas wo yea s and in cases o dependen pa en . Howe e , he CPA
O de No. 81 amended all he p o isions ha ela ed o compulso y
licence by ex ending he pe iod o no exploi ing he in en ion in I aq
in he i s si ua ion and emo ing all he o he h ee si ua ions, e en
hough compulso y licence in cases o dependen pa en is p o ided
o by he TRIPS Ag eemen . The CPA O de No. 81 added some new
p o isions o he Law No. 65 o 1970 in ega d o compulso y licence
ha ha e aken hem om A icle 31 o he TRIPS Ag eemen . In his
he CPA O de NO. 81 has b ough he o iginal law close o he
TRIPS Ag eemen bu ailed o men ion any ci cums ances ha s a ed
in A icle 31bis o he TRIPS Ag eemen .
Las bu no leas , A icle 31bis ook e ec only in 2017 bu he
Doha Decla a ion and Implemen a ion o Pa ag aph 6 o he Doha
Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h ook place
be ween 2001 and 2003, he e o e, he CPA was well awa e o he
p oblem o de eloping coun ies in ega d o supplying medicines o
hei public heal h c ises. Fo his eason, he CPA should ha e added
he excep ions in A icle 31bis, which basically has been aken om
Conclusion
295
p o isions o he Implemen a ion o Pa ag aph 6 o he Doha
Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public Heal h. Again, in
his ega d he CPA did no ac ed in in e es o I aq. The e o e, his
hesis ecommends ha all he excep ions o exclusi e igh s o he
pa en holde s exis wi hin he TRIPS Ag eemen should be
implemen ed by he I aqi pa en law so ha be able o ul il he needs
o I aq.
297
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T ipp, Cha les, A His o y o I aq, 3 d ed (Camb idge, UK ; New Yo k:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2007)
Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on T ade and De elopmen , In e na ional
Cen e o T ade and Sus ainable De elopmen , and
UNCTAD-ICTSD P ojec on IPRs and Sus ainable
De elopmen , eds., Resou ce Book on TRIPS and
De elopmen (Camb idge ; New Yo k: Camb idge Uni e si y
P ess, 2005)
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P o isions’, in In ellec ual P ope y and In e na ional T ade:
The TRIPs Ag eemen , ed. by Ca los Ma ía Co ea and
Abdulqawi A. Yusu , 2nd ed (Aus in : Alphen aan den Rijn,
Ne he lands: Wol e s Kluwe Law & Business ; Kluwe Law
In e na ional, 2008)
6.2.2 A icles, Jou nals and Repo s
Abbas, Awas Issa, Focus on Seed P og ams The Seed Indus y in I aq
(WANA Seed Ne wok, 2001)
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Abbo , F ede ick M., ‘The WTO Medicines Decision: Wo ld
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<h ps://doi.o g/10.2307/1562501>
Abbo , F ede ick M., and Ca los Ma ía Co ea, Wo ld T ade
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In ellec ual P ope y Righ s in I aq Th ough a Case S udy o
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SAMAN ABDULRAHMAN ALI
308
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(2002), 9–19
B adley, A. Jane, ‘In ellec ual P ope y Righ s, In es men , and T ade
in Se ices in he U uguay Round: Laying he Founda ions’,
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Jou nal o In e na ional Economic Law, 5 (2002), 207
Clugs on, Ch is ophe J., ‘In e na ional Exhaus ion, Pa allel Impo s,
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Dhanjee, Rajan, and Lau ence Boisson de Chazou nes, ‘T ade Rela ed
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Feldman, Jamie, ‘Compulso y Licenses: The Dange s behind he
Cu en P ac ice’, Jou nal o In e na ional Business and Law,
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Fe os, Anna, ‘Pa en abili y o Me hods o Medical T ea men ’,
Eu opean In ellec ual P ope y Re iew (EIPR), 23 (2001), 79
Finkel, Elizabe h, ‘Scien is s Seek Easie Access o Seed Banks’,
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Fo d, Sa a M., ‘Compulso y Licensing P o isions unde he TRIPs
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Minis e ial Decla a ion on he TRIPS Ag eemen and Public
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Ga hii, James T., ‘The Legal S a us o he Doha Decla a ion on TRIPS
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291
Gold, E. Richa d, and Danial K. Lam, ‘Balancing T ade in Pa en s:
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Goldsmi h, Edwa d, ‘The U uguay Round: Gunboa Diplomacy by
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Je e son, Da id J., Alex B. Camacho, and Cecilia L. Chi-Ham,
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Eu opean In ellec ual P ope y Re iew (EIPR), 37 (2015),
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