Vol.:(0123456789)
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:49
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12520-024-01956-z
RESEARCH
Bi ing in o he u h: Connec ing o al pa hology ands able iso opes
h ough hepa adigma ic example o ahype ‑specialized ma ine die
inMedie al Pon e ed a (NW Ibe ia)
Cla aVeiga‑Rilo1 · An onioMa ínezCo izas2,3 · OlallaLópez‑Cos as1,4
Recei ed: 13 June 2023 / Accep ed: 22 Feb ua y 2024 / Published online: 7 Ma ch 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
Human eeding pa e ns ha e been econs uc ed in A chaeology by analysing ei he o al pa hology o s able iso ope a ios
in human skele al emains. Howe e , no clea ag eemen has been de eloped be ween hese wo me hodologies. The main
objec i e o his s udy is o de e mine i we can es ablish a link be ween hem when analysing a popula ion wi h a hype -
specialized die , in his case ma ine esou ces (and mille /maize). To each his goal we de eloped a conjoined mul i-iso ope
analysis using collagen and bioapa i e (δ13Ccol, δ15Ncol and δ13Cca ) and a de ailed s udy o o al heal h (ca ies, an emo em
loss, pe iapical lesions, pe iodon al disease, calculus, and wea ). All a ailable skele ons wi h a leas one p ese ed oo h
om wo ceme e ies o he medie al own o Pon e ed a (n = 34) we e s udied. The bu ied indi iduals belonged o he guild
o ishe s and a isans, p o essions which we e dominan among he amilies o medie al Pon e ed a. A de ailed FTIR-ATR
s udy o ex ac ed bone bioapa i e showed a high co ela ion be ween bioapa i e ca bona e con en , ca bona e ypical ib a-
ions, and FTIR-ATR indices ela ed o bone diagenesis, which is in line wi h p e ious esea ch. No signi ican co ela ions
we e ound wi h bioapa i e yield and iso opic composi ion (δ13Cca and Δ13C), uling ou possible diagene ic e ec s. The
die was based on ma ine ish p o ein wi h con ibu ions o mille s (e.g., δ13Cca -11.9 ± 1.8‰) ha seems o be sligh ly
highe in indi iduals linked o a isanal guilds. The o al pa hology s udy shows se e e den al wea om an ea ly age (G ade
2–4 in pe manen den i ion o 20% o in an s and 60% o ju eniles in M1), as well as mode a e-high p esence o ca ies in
pe manen den i ion (64%, 22/34) and den al calculus (72%, 24/33). Bo h he o al pa hology and he iso opic signal di e
om ha obse ed in o he a eas o he Ibe ian Peninsula. This s udy poin s o he exis ence o connec ions be ween ind-
ings o he wo me hodologies, and speci ically an associa ion be ween in ense den al wea and high consump ion o ma ine
esou ces and mille . A he same ime, his analysis implies he necessi y o cau ion in es ima ion o age by den al wea in
popula ions linked o he sea.
Keywo ds Den al wea · FTIR-ATR · Bioapa i e· La e Middle Ages· Fish die · C4 plan s
In oduc ion
Recons uc ing die h ough he s udy o human emains has
always been a p ominen goal o esea che s wo king in
Biological An h opology and Os eoa chaeology. Skele ons
can p o ide di ec in o ma ion abou an indi idual die o
popula ion consump ion pa e ns—in con as o a chaeo-
logical ma e ials and animal/plan emains (which p o ide
indi ec in o ma ion). This in o ma ion can be linked o
o he ea u es in e ed om he bu ial and skele on, o
example, une a y i ual, heal h, social s a us, and biological
p o ile. T adi ional me hods include o al pa hology, which
has been used o die a y econs uc ion since he ad en o
paleopa hology. The e is a link be ween he ype o die and
* Cla a Veiga-Rilo
cla a. [email p o ec ed]
1 G oup EcoPas (GI-1553), CRETUS, A ea o A chaeology,
Depa men o His o y, Uni e sidade de San iago de
Compos ela, 15782San iagodeCompos ela, Spain
2 CRETUS, EcoPas (GI-1553), Facul ade de
Bioloxía, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela,
15782San iagodeCompos ela, Spain
3 Bolin Cen e o Clima e Resea ch, S ockholm Uni e si y,
10691S ockholm, Sweden
4 A chaeological Resea ch Labo a o y, S ockholm Uni e si y,
Wallenbe glabo a o ie , 10691S ockholm, Sweden
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:4949 Page 2 o 24
he pa hological ea u es obse ed in he ee h and mou h
(Hillson 1996; Bonsall and Picka d 2015). Tee h a e he only
pa o he diges i e sys em in di ec con ac wi h he ex e -
nal en i onmen and, in consequence, cul u al p ac ices can
modi y o al pa hology oo (Cheung e al. 2019; Yanko e al.
2021). Indi idual physiology can also change he de elop-
men o o al pa hology; o example, a gi en indi idual can
be mo e/less eac i e o o al bio ilm and his sensi i i y can
e ol e wi h age o speci ic ci cums ances such as p egnancy
(Hillson 2001; Bonsall and Picka d 2015; Kubehl and Tem-
ple 2020; Scha s e al. 2022). Since he 1970s, geochemical
app oaches o die ha e inc eased in impo ance, wi h s able
iso ope a ios being he mos widely used oday. Resea ch
on ligh s able iso ope a ios in bone and oo h collagen and
bioapa i e (e.g., δ13Ccol, δ15Ncol, δ13Cca ) has allowed us o
econs uc he ype o ood consumed du ing di e en pe i-
ods o li e. Howe e , e en hough he econs uc ion o die
h ough o al pa hology and s able iso opes ha e coexis ed
o mo e han o y yea s and pu sue a common goal, spe-
cialis s a e ye o ind a clea ela ionship be ween hem. In
ecen yea s, in e es in linking s able iso ope inge p in s
wi h paleopa hological ma ke s has g own. Some ag ee-
men has been achie ed o ac u es (Cu o e al. 2020),
me abolic ma ke s (Mangas-Ca asco and López-Cos as
2021), and in ec ious diseases (Cu o e al. 2019; Ka zen-
be g and Lo ell 1999), bu he ela ionship wi h o al pa hol-
ogy emains elusi e (see o example Mu phy e al. 2013;
Beck e al. 2018; Pe e sone-Go dina e al. 2018; Jílko á e al.
2019; Dlamini e al. 2019). Di e en au ho s ha e ound
sligh and inconsis en ela ionships o δ13Ccol wi h ca ies
and den al wea (Toso e al. 2019; Bonsall and Picka d 2015;
Valen in e al. 2006), o no clea pa e n (Pe e sone-Go dina
e al. 2018; Lillie e al. 2003). A high equency o den al
ca ies has o en been linked o speci ic inpu s in die such
as consump ion o ca bohyd a es (low δ13Ccol and δ15Ncol),
bu he esul s ob ained so a do no show consis ency (Toso
e al. 2019; Inskip e al. 2019). The disag eemen can be
explained in pa as a e lec ion o he ac ha he wo me h-
ods e lec di e en pe iods o he human die : o al pa hol-
ogy no mally e lec s die h oughou li e, bu i can change
quickly o espond o physiological s esses, while s able
iso opes in bone e lec an a e age die ha can go om en
yea s o mul iple decades and can also be modi ied by s ess
bu in an opposi e way han ca ies (high δ15Ncol). In addi ion,
bo h iso opic a ios and o al diseases a e a ec ed by cul u al,
social, and physiological aspec s ha may no necessa ily be
exp essed in simila ways.
Mos o he published compa isons be ween o al pa hol-
ogy and s able iso opes ha e been made in popula ions wi h
an ‘a e age’ die , which implies a ege able base wi h a a i-
able in ake o e es ial animal p o ein. When compa ing
a e age die s, he o he con ounding ac o s can be o e ex-
p essed easily. Due o his eason, we hink ha esea ch in
popula ions wi h an ex eme o hype -specialized die can
p o ide a clea e iew o he connec ion be ween he wo
me hods. In addi ion, widening he spec a o he eco ded
o al pa hology, a he han ca ies, and ligh s able iso opes,
ins ead o δ13Ccol and δ15Ncol, can also help o un eil asso-
cia ions be ween he wo mos widely used me hods o die
econs uc ion in os eoa chaeology. To pu sue ha goal, we
ha e selec ed Pon e ed a on he coas o Galicia, No hwes
Ibe ia (Fig.1), whose medie al and pos -medie al skele al
collec ions ha e e ealed one o he highes consump ions
o ma ine esou ces in Eu ope (López-Cos as and Müldne
2016, 2019). Tex ual sou ces, a chaeological ma e ials, and
os eological emains all sugges ha he medie al die o he
Pon e ed a inhabi an s was highly specialized in ish and
shell ish wi h impo an in akes o C4 plan s (mille s and
la e co n) (López-Cos as and Müldne 2019; López Cos-
as 2012), ha con as wi h o he con empo a y communi-
ies in Ibe ia. This is also one o he ew egions in Ibe ia
ha emained unde Ch is ian domina ion o almos all he
medie al pe iod, a ac ha may ha e helped o homogenise
cul u al p e e ences in die o e ime. Fo all hese easons,
he Pon e ed a skele al collec ions o e an excellen oppo -
uni y o ou aims. Ne e heless, he a ea also has a dis-
ad an age, as he highly acidic soils and high humidi y o
No hwes Ibe ia p oduce he al e a ion o he mine al pa
o he bone, causing in ense diagenesis (López-Cos as e al.
2016), and limi ing he a ailabili y o la ge skele al da a se s.
In his wo k, we analyse all a ailable skele ons om
medie al (13 h-15 h) and pos -medie al (16 h-17 h) imes
ound a he Pon e ed a nec opoleis o San a Ma ía a Mayo
and San Ba olomeu chu ches. S able iso opes in bone col-
lagen (δ13Ccol, δ15Ncol) and bioapa i e (δ13Cca ) we e pe -
o med on all skele ons wi h a leas one p ese ed oo h.
Finally, an o al pa hological assessmen was done, eco ding
no only ca ies bu also an emo em oo h loss (AMTL),
pe iapical lesions, pe iodon al disease, den al calculus, den-
al wea , and hype cemen osis. Ou indings a e compa ed
wi h hose o o he Ibe ian collec ions. Ou hypo hesis is
ha a end be ween o al pa hology and s able iso opes can
be ound when analysing a hype -specialized die , and ha
once his end is disco e ed i can be ans e ed o o he
ypes o die and skele al collec ions.
Ma e ial andme hods
The a chaeological collec ions o Pon e ed a
Du ing he High Middle Ages (ele en h- hi een h cen u ies)
he e was ela i e economic p ospe i y in no he n Ibe ia
due o he ichness o he ha es s, de i ed om he Medi-
e al Clima ic Op imum (10 h o hi een h cen u ies) (Le
Roy1971; Oli a e al. 2018) as well as o he social ac o s
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:49 Page 3 o 24 49
such as he ela i e economic impo ance o he Camiño de
San iago. In con as , du ing he La e Middle Ages (14 h o
i een h cen u ies) he e is e idence o a g adual wo sening
o clima ic condi ions – he Li le Ice Age phenomenon-,
which, alongside a ious o he ac o s, signi ican ly a ec ed
he modus i endi and he ce eal-based p oduc ion sys em
o he a o emen ioned socie ies (P iegue 1998; Oli a e al.
2018; Sil a-Sánchez e al. 2022). The La e Middle Ages
we e cha ac e ised by a dec ease in he p oduc ion o ce e-
als, wi h di ec epe cussions on he economy o medie al
socie ies in he o m o economic impo e ishmen . How-
e e , in he ansi ion o he La e Middle Ages, a ew owns,
whose economy was based on hype -specialised comme ce,
and wi h he suppo o he eme ging oyal amilies, became
independen o eligious powe . Among hem, Pon e ed a
s ands ou o i s specializa ion in he cap u e, p ocess-
ing and dis ibu ion o ish and o he ma ine p oduc s. I s
economy was p ima ily based on ishing, p ocessing and
comme cially-de i ed p oduc s; i cons i u ed, oge he
wi h Pad ón and Noia, one o he h ee coas al owns ha
we e au ho ised o ade ish in e na ionally by sea (A mas
Cas o 1992; P iegue 1998). Pon e ed a’s sea a ing amilies
acqui ed di e en oyal p i ileges as well as comme cial
ad an ages such as he comme cial monopoly on h ee ish
species (sa dine, conge , and hake) and one ma ine mol-
lusk (oc opus) (A mas Cas o 1992). Those species we e
easily p ese ed by sal ing o smoking and we e in high
demand ab oad due o he eligious p ecep s ega ding
as ing. The Ría de Pon e ed a (a shallow i h o “ jo d”)
is one o se e al o he Rías Baixas which a e known o
hei sea ood and abundance o ish (A mas Cas o 1992;
Mangas-Ca asco and López-Cos as 2021). The se lemen
g ew a ound he chu ch o San a Ma ía a Maio dos pes-
cado es ( ha is, he chu ch o ‘ he ishe men’), which is
isible om he po and which domina es he b idge a
he mou h o he na igable Lé ez Ri e (López-Cos as and
Müldne 2019; A mas Cas o 1992). This pa ish comp ised
sea-connec ed amilies and guilds. In he hi een h cen u y,
Pon e ed a’s u ban a ea inc eased, and he chu ch and pa -
ish o San Ba olomeu appea ed a his s age, encompassing
he mos impo an a isan guilds. Bo h chu ches and hei
espec i e ceme e ies a e loca ed inside he medie al wall
Fig. 1 Map o Pon e ed a loca-
ion including he nec opolei o
San a Ma ía (nº1) and San Ba -
olomé (nº2), and he a chaeo-
logical si es o Plaza España
(nº3), Pon e do Bu go (nº4)
and Ampliación do Museo de
Pon e ed a (nº5). The iden i ie s
nº3, nº4 and nº5 co espond o
medie al si es om which he
animal samples o López-Cos as
and Müldne (2019) e e enced
in he iso opic compa ison
o his s udy we e ex ac ed.
Modi ied om López-Cos as
and Müldne (2019)
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:4949 Page 4 o 24
o Pon e ed a (Filguei a Val e de 1991 in López-Cos as and
Müldne 2019) (Fig.1). The inhuma ions he e comp ise a
ch onological window ha spans ou hund ed yea s (13 h
o se en een h cen u ies). The ch onological asc ip ion was
made on he basis o ield-wo k eco ds, s a ig aphy and
adioca bon da ing (explained in López-Cos as and Mül-
dne 2019). Tex ual sou ces om his pe iod sugges ha
he en i e communi y consumed ish; hese p oduc s o med
he main base o he die (A mas Cas o 1992; Puig 2012).
Howe e , sea ood consump ion is associa ed in his o ical
sou ces wi h poo e social classes, showing a cul u al bias
agains he consump ion o his ype o ood among he
middle class in Pon e ed a (P iegue 1998). Small ege a-
ble ga dens o esh p oduc s as well as he in oduc ion
o ce eals (including mille ) om neighbou ing a mlands
p o ided he ege able componen o he die . Te es ial
mea appea s o ha e been sca ce, as only wo bu che shops
we e egis e ed (see López-Cos as and Müldne 2019), bu
eggs could be consumed om domes ic owl. Expo ed ish
and oc opus we e ei he smoked o sal ed in he basemen
o amily houses, since he humid and ainy en i onmen o
his a ea o Ibe ia made his un iable ou side.
Skele al collec ions
All human emains we e exca a ed be ween he yea s
2007–2009 du ing wo di e en a chaeological escue cam-
paigns in he cen e o Pon e ed a, a eas ha a e oday he
chu ch o San a Ma ía and he Tea o P incipal (buil a e
he demoli ion o he chu ch o San Ba olomeu). They we e
ound in laye s da ed o he la e Medie al and Ea ly Mode n
pe iod, 13 h o se en een h cen u ies ( o a de ailed expla-
na ion abou nec opolis laye s and da ing see López-Cos as
and Müldne 2019 and Chao Ál a ez 2008). The chu ches o
San a Ma ía and San Ba olomeu we e sepa a ed by ~ 100m
and belonged o he same u ban complex. Thei chu chya ds
can be conside ed ypical o Ch is ian bu ial spaces, wi h
subs an ial euse o he space and W-E o ien ed p ima y
supine posi ion bu ials (see Mangas-Ca asco and López-
Cos as 2021; López Cos as 2012; Chao Ál a ez 2008).
Inhuma ions we e simple ossae exca a ed di ec ly om
he soil, wi h an absence o co ins o o he e idence ha
sugges he p e ious p esence o co ins (e.g., nails). The
indi iduals belonged o a non-di e se u ban middle class,
whose ac i i ies we e ela ed o sea a ing and a ious c a
ac i i ies. This is consis en wi h he di e ences be ween
Pon e ed a bu ials and ad sanc os bu ial ype, which we e
ese ed o social eli es (A mas Cas o 1992; López-Cos-
as and Müldne 2019; MacKinnon e al. 2019) and which
we e no ound he e. Many bu ials had been p e iously dis-
u bed by cons uc ion and in as uc u e wo ks. In he San a
Ma ía chu chya d, emodelling o he wa e pipes sys em
a ec ed speci ically he uppe pa o many skele ons, and
in consequence mos c ania we e los . In San Ba olomeu,
Su ey nº16 p oduced a high numbe o skele ons, bu high
physical al e a ion due o p essu e dis u bances caused he
collapse and agmen a ion o se e al skulls. A p e ious
s udy o hese collec ions (López Cos as 2012) indica es ha
un o una ely he c anium was he mos al e ed and missing
pa o he skele on in bo h si es.
Sex andage es ima ion, anddemog aphic p o ile
Ma ke s o an h opome y, sex, and age we e analysed using
in e na ional s anda ds sui able o Ibe ian popula ions. Sex
was es ima ed o adul s and olde adolescen s (> 16yea s
old o emales and > 18yea s old o males). Sex de e mi-
na ion ollowed in e na ionally es ablished ma ke s on he
innomina e and c anial bones (see Buiks a and Ubelake
1994), aided by me ical analyses o long bones (Aguile a
1997). Age o non-adul s was es ima ed using in e na ional
(Scheue and Black 2004) and Ibe ian (Lopez-Cos as e al.
2012) pos c anial de elopmen al s anda ds o g ow h and
ma u i y, as well as den al de elopmen (Schou and Massle
1941; Gus a son and Koch 1974; Van de Linden and Du e -
loo 1976; Ubelake and Ripley 1999; Alqah ani e al. 2010).
Age o ju enile indi iduals was also aided by using pos -
c anial usion o he cen es o ossi ica ion (B o hwell 1981;
G ay e al. 1988; K ogman1986) and checking hem wi h
wes e n Eu opean da ase s o he sac um and long bones
(Ríos e al. 2008; Ca doso 2008a, 2008b; Rissech 2008).
Adul age was assessed using me hods de eloped o he
4 h ib, pubic symphysis mo phology and au icula su ace
in he innomina e bones, bu also conside ing o he ea u es
such as c anial su u e closu e o changes in he cla icle (see
Buiks a and Ubelake 1994). Fo a be e explana ion o
he selec ed me hods see López-Cos as (2012). The sample
was di ided in o i e ca ego ies acco ding o age es ima ion:
in an s/child en (1–12yea s old), ju eniles (13–19yea s
old), young adul (20–39yea s), middle adul (39–60yea s),
old adul (60 + yea s). Fu he in o ma ion abou age me h-
ods and ca ego ies can be ound in López-Cos as (2013).
The sample comp ises no indi iduals unde 1yea old. We
a e conscious abou he p oblems ega ding he a i icial
g oup o In an /Child en. We decided o include bo h ca -
ego ies oge he in ables due o he small sample size (n = 7;
ou indi iduals up o six yea s o age; h ee indi iduals up
o wel e yea s o age); howe e , discussion ega ding hese
indi iduals will be done conside ing hei speci ic age.
O he o al skele al assemblage (n = 82), only 34 skel-
e ons (25 San a Ma ía: 9 San Ba olomeu. 14 emales: 9
males; 11 inde e mina e) we e included in his s udy since
hey ha e pa o hei maxillae and/o a leas one oo h (in
si u and in a ulsion). The skele al collec ions a e cu a ed a
he Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela, in he acili ies
o he esea ch g oup EcoPas . The demog aphic dis ibu ion
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:49 Page 5 o 24 49
can be obse ed in Table1. The mos ep esen ed ca ego y
is young adul , ~ 44% o he sample; o hose ~ 17% emales
and ~ 21% males. The ~ 35% o he sample we e non-
adul s: ~ 20% o hem we e less han 12yea s old and ~ 15%
ju eniles. No e ha he numbe o emales o e 40yea s
old is sligh ly highe (n = 4) han he males (n = 2), and i is
he same wi h ju enile emales (n = 4) compa ed o males
(n = 0). This means ha he emale age dis ibu ion is wide
while mos males a e young adul s (20–39yea s old; see
Table1).
Iso opic andFTIR‑ATR analyses
The iso opic s udy was designed o complemen a p e iously
published wo k exclusi ely ocussed on adul paleodie a y
econs uc ion h ough δ13Ccol and δ15Ncol in bone collagen
(> 12yea s old) om he wo collec ions (López-Cos as
and Müldne 2019). He e we pe o med wo ypes o iso-
opic analyses: 1) o add ess p o ein die wi h s able iso-
opes (δ13Ccol δ15Ncol n = 34) by comple ing he p e ious
bone collagen analyses including hose indi iduals (n = 7)
ha we e no included p e iously; 6 in an s/child en and
one ju enile (Table4). 2) To econs uc he o al die by
knowing he bioapa i e iso opic inge p in s (δ13Cca n = 30
up o 34; 4 samples ailed du ing he ex ac ion) wi h he
bioapa i e ex ac ion in he same subsample used p e iously
o collagen ex ac ion. All analyses we e pe o med a he
EcoPas esea ch g oup’s clean-lab a he Uni e sidade de
San iago de Compos ela. Be o e p ocessing, all bone sam-
ples we e cleaned o a leas 5 × 5min ul asonic cleaning
wi h ul apu e wa e ype-1 a he same acili y.
Collagen was ex ac ed in 7 samples ollowing Longin
p ocedu e (1971) wi h modi ica ions ecommended by Col-
lins and Galley (1998). The p o ocol desc ibed by Müld-
ne and Jay (2008) and desc ibed in López-Cos as (2012)
explains each s ep ollowed in he labo a o y. Ca bon and
ni ogen iso ope analysis in collagen was unde aken by
Elemen al Analysis—Iso ope Ra io Mass Spec ome y
(EA-IRMS) a Iso-Analy ic Inc. using a Eu opa Scien i ic
elemen al analyse o he samples. Re e ence ma e ials used
o he δ13Ccol and δ15Ncol analysis a e lis ed in Table1 o
suppo ing ma e ials.
Bioapa i e was ex ac ed ollowing Ga ie-Lok e al.
(2004) a he Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela in he
clean-lab acili ies o he esea ch g oup EcoPas ( o mo e
de ails see López-Cos as e al. 2021, whe e he p o ocol is
explained s ep by s ep). Ca bon iso ope a ios in ca bona e
om bioapa i e we e measu ed using a Eu opa Scien i ic
20–20 IRMS by adding phospho ic acid and measu ing
CO2 by con inuous low-iso ope a io mass spec ome y
(CF-IRMS) a Iso-Analy ic Inc. Re e ence ma e ials used
o his analysis a e lis ed in Table2 and NBS-18, NBS-19
a e dis ibu ed by he in e na ional A omic Ene gy Agency
(IAEA) as in e -labo a o y compa ison s anda d ma e ials as
well as in e nal o ex e nal s anda ds. Analy ical e o was
calcula ed by epea ed analyses o in e nal s anda ds and
was ± 0.2‰ o less o all elemen s.
Finely milled bioapa i e samples (27) we e analyzed by
Fou ie - ans o m in a ed spec oscopy in a enua ed o al
e lec ance mode (FTIR-ATR), using an Agilen Technolo-
gies Ca y-630 spec ome e , equipped wi h a diamond c ys-
al, and hos ed a he EcoPas labo a o y o Uni e sidade
de San iago de Compos ela, Spain. Spec a we e acqui ed
in abso bance mode, in he mid-in a ed egion (4000 o
400 cm−1), using 4 cm−1 esolu ion and a e aging 100 scans
pe sample. The equipmen was ho oughly cleaned, and a
backg ound was collec ed be o e each measu emen . The R
package {baseline} (Liland e al. 2010) was used o baseline
co ec ion o he spec a, o a oid bias in he spec oscopic
signal due o sca e ing, e lec ion, empe a u e, concen a-
ion, o ins umen anomalies; and he R {andu inha} pack-
age (Ál a ez Fe nández and Ma ínez Co izas 2020) was
applied o de e mine peak posi ion (i.e., wa e numbe s o he
peaks) based on he second de i a i e spec a.
Table 1 Age and sex
dis ibu ion o he analyzed
assemblage conside ing
oge he San a Ma ía and San
Ba olomeu chu ches
Female Male Inde e mina e TOTAL
n % n % n % n %
In an /Child
(1–12yea s old)
0 0 0 0 7 21 7 21
Ju enile
(13–19yea s old
4 12 0 0 1 3 5 15
Young adul
(20–39yea s old)
6 18 7 21 2 6 15 44
Middle adul
(40–50yea s old)
4 12 1 3 0 0 5 15
Old adul
(60 + yea s old)
00130013
Inde e mina e 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 3
TOTAL 1442927113034 100
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:4949 Page 6 o 24
Fi e indices usually applied in bone esea ch o e alua e
bone diagenesis and composi ion we e applied, he IR spli -
ing ac o (IRSF), B- ype and A- ype ca bona e subs i u-
ions in phospha e (BPI, API), he ca bona e/phospha e a io
(C/P), and ca bona e/ca bona e a io (C/C) (F ance e al.
2020). Following he minimum s anda d c i e ia p oposed
by Smi h e al. (2023), he highes and lowes wa enumbe s
o peaks and oughs we e calcula ed o each single spec-
um. Smi h e al. (2023) also e iewed he applica ion o he
C/P a io and ound ha di e en au ho s p opose di e en
a ios in ol ing he use o he ib a ion a peak posi ion o
he phospha e s e ching (a ound 1019 cm−1) o a he slope
o he peak (a 1035 cm−1), a guing ha he second is mo e
s able han he o me . Thus, we calcula ed he C/P a io in
bo h ways: C/P_1 using he peak abso bance o phospha e
and C/P_2 using he abso bance a 1035 cm−1.
O al pa hology
O al pa hology analysis was pe o med by di e en mac o-
scopic s udies on 458 ee h (belonging o he 34 indi iduals
analyzed in his s udy, including bo h pe manen and decidu-
ous ee h), analysing 723 lesions. Den al ca ies, an emo em
oo h loss (AMTL), pe iapical lesions (PL), pe iodon al dis-
ease (PD), den al calculus, den al wea and hype cemen osis
we e eco ded. Too h ype, la e ali y and a ch in cases o
a ulsed ee h we e de e mined acco ding o Hillson (1996).
The p esence, ype and loca ion o ca ious lesions was iden-
i ied acco ding o Chimenos (2003). Fo he se e i y o pe -
iodon al disease, he s anda ds o Ogden (2007) in Nelson
(2015) we e ollowed. Pe iapical lesions we e s udied based
on he ecommenda ion p oposed by Chimenos (2003). The
p esence and se e i y o calculus was eco ded using he
s anda d p oposed by Buiks a and Ubelake (1994). Too h
wea was conside ed ollowing Smi h (1984) o he an e-
io den i ion and p emola s and B o hwell (1981) o he
pos e io den i ion (M1, M2). The eigh classical ca ego ies
o den al wea we e me ged in o ou o enhance he obus -
ness o he analysis due o he small sample size (p emola s
and an e io den i ion: G ade 0–1, G ade 2–4, G ade 5–7,
G ade 8; pos e io den i ion: G ade 0–1, G ade 2–4, G ade
5–5 + + , G ade 6). The i s g oup G ade 0–1 co esponds
o he absence o wea and may p esen small ace s; G ade
2–4 co esponds o mode a e wea o he c own including
exposu e o he den ine on he cusps; G ade 5–7/G ade
5–5 + + (an e io den i ion and mola s/pos e io den i ion)
co esponds o exposu e o la ge a eas o den ine, and G ade
8/G ade 6 (an e io den i ion and mola s/pos e io den i ion)
co esponds o se e e educ ion o he c own heigh and may
also include exposu e o he oo s. An a e age den al wea
sco e o an e io and pos e io den i ion was pe o med o
each indi idual. Fi s and second mola s in bo h maxillae
and mandibles we e selec ed o enhance he compa abili y
wi h o he s udies, excluding hi d mola s due o he a iable
age o i s e up ion. An e io den i ion was excluded om he
den al wea compa ison analysis as ew Ibe ian collec ions
add ess hem as well as in he cases ha a e e e enced,
me hodologies di e ge. Hype cemen osis was eco ded ol-
lowing he desc ip ions in Tang e al. (2015).
S a is ical analysis
S a is ical analyses we e pe o med wi h Rs udio calcula -
ing basic desc ip i e s a is ics o each g oup o samples.
Shapi o–Wilk es s we e used o es no mali y. We ha e
applied non-pa ame ic (Wilcoxon Mann–Whi ney U- es ,
K uskal–Wallis es s) and pa ame ic (S uden ’s- es ) es s
as necessa y o explo e compa isons wi hin g oups. Co e-
la ion be ween a iables was explo ed h ough Fishe exac
es s due o he small sample size. The p- alues we e con-
side ed signi ican when p < 0.05.
Resul s
FTIR‑ATR e alua ion o bioapa i e in eg i y
The FTIR-ATR spec a o he bioapa i e samples show
he cha ac e is ic ib a ions o i s main mine al cons i u-
en s, phospha e and ca bona e (Fig.2). The mos in ense
abso bance ib a ion occu s a 1019 cm−1 co esponding
o he asymme ic s e ching o PO43−. I is complemen ed
by PO43− symme ic s e ching a 958 cm−1, and he dou-
ble o bending ib a ions a 602 and 559 cm−1 (Figue-
i edo e al. 2012). The shoulde a 1094 cm−1 is a ibu ed
o acidic phospha e anion (HPO42−). Ca bona es a e also
p esen , as a es ed by hei s e ching ib a ions and 1455
and 1415 cm−1, and he bending ib a ion a 874 cm−1. A
mino abso bance band is also obse ed a 475 cm−1 and
Fig. 2 FTIR-ATR spec a o he bioapa i e samples s udied in his
in es iga ion, wi h indica ion o he posi ion (wa enumbe s) o he
mos cha ac e is ic ib a ions. The egion 4000–1600cm-1 is no ep-
esen ed because i showed backg ound abso bance
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:49 Page 7 o 24 49
a ibu ed o PO43− (Jas zebski e al. 2011). No ib a ions
o seconda y p oduc s o med upon diagenesis (as seconda y
ca bona es) we e ound, as o example he peak a 710 cm−1
ha is usually ela ed o seconda y ca bona es o ma ion
(Lee-Tho p and Van de Me we1987; Smi h e al. 2023).
As o he IR indices, we use he e he ange alues sug-
ges ed by F ance e al. (2020) o well-p ese ed a chaeo-
logical bone as a e e ence o he alues ob ained in he
samples we analysed (Fig.3). Ne e heless, he compa ison
mus be conside ed wi h ca e as we calcula ed he indices
on ex ac ed bioapa i e and hose o F ance e al. (2020) a e
based on whole bone measu emen s. O e all, alues o all
indices all in na ow anges (IRSF 4.34 ± 0.35 a g ± s d;
C/P_1 0.10 ± 0.02; C/P_2 0.12 ± 0.02; C/C 1.00 ± 0.06; BPI
0.26 ± 0.05; API 0.26 ± 0.03).
The IRSF alues a e abo e he ange o well-p ese ed
a chaeological bone bioapa i e o all excep h ee samples;
o C/P, bo h C/P_1 and C/P_2, almos hal o he samples
all wi hin he ange, bu a e close o he lowe limi ; C/C
alues a e well wi hin he ange, excep o six samples; o
BPI all samples a e close o he lowe limi , bu o API all
samples all wi hin he ange o well-p ese ed bioapa i e.
In e ms o in o ma ion con en , he calcula ed indices a e
la gely edundan . Ve y high co ela ions (> 0.90 o < -0.90)
we e ound be ween IRSF, C/P indices, and C/C; C/P_1
and C/P_2; BPI and C/P_1 and C/P_2, and API and C/P_2
(Table2). The lowes co ela ions we e ound o API, wi h
he IRSF and C/C (Table2).
We also calcula ed he co ela ion be ween he indices
and he cha ac e is ic abso bances o he bioapa i e compo-
nen s (i.e., phospha e and ca bona e ib a ions) o bioapa i e
yield, ca bona e con en , δ13Cca in bioapa i e ca bona e, and
Δ13C (Table3). S ong posi i e and nega i e co ela ions
we e ound be ween he indices and cha ac e is ic ib a-
ions o ca bona es wi h bioapa i e ca bona e con en . C/P_1,
C/P_2, API, BPI, and ib a ions a 1455, 1415 cm−1 a e pos-
i i ely co ela ed ( 0.77–0.93), while he IRSF, and C/C a e
nega i ely co ela ed. Vib a ions a 1019 cm−1 (maximum
abso bance o phospha e) and 874 cm−1 (bending ib a ion
o ca bona es), show mode a e nega i e and posi i e co ela-
ion, espec i ely. A s ong linea co ela ion be ween C/P
and ca bona e con en o he bioapa i e has been p e iously
no ed (Fea he s one e al. 1984; Smi h e al. 2023).
In he highly acidic (pH < 5) en i onmen o he nec opo-
leis s udied he e, ca bona es a e expec ed o be mo e sus-
cep ible o chemical al e a ion and leaching (i.e., diagen-
esis) han phospha es. This ag ees wi h ou indings, since
inc eases in IRSF (i.e., phospha e c ys allini y) and C/C
(i.e., inc ease in B- ype o e A- ype ca bona e subs i u ion),
which a e usually in e p e ed as e idence o diagenesis, a e
accompanied by dec eases in bioapa i e ca bona e con en
Fig. 3 IR calcula ed indices. Lines co espond o he lowe and uppe
limi s o well-p ese ed bone bioapa i e (a e F ance e al. 2020).
Blue lines in he BPI-API panel co espond o API and o ange lines
o BPI limi s. C/P: black ci cles C/P_1, g ay ci cles C/P_2; BPI black
ci cles, API g ay ci cles
Table 2 Co ela ion be ween he IR indices calcula ed o he sam-
ples o his s udy
C/P_1 C/P_2 C/C BPI API
IRSF -0.91 -0.90 0.91 -0.89 -0.78
C/P_1 0.98 -0.84 0.91 0.85
C/P_2 -0.85 0.95 0.90
C/C -0.86 -0.74
BPI 0.97
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:4949 Page 8 o 24
– e lec ing ca bona e deple ion, possibly by leaching o he
wea he ing p oduc s.
In e es ingly enough, no index o ib a ion is e en mod-
e a ely co ela ed o bioapa i e yield o bioapa i e iso opic
composi ion. Ou da a sugges ha , o he s udied samples,
diagenesis may ha e esul ed in mass loss o he ca bon-
a es o he bioapa i e, and possibly also o he phospha e o
a lowe ex en , bu he emaining ca bona e p ese es he
o iginal iso opic composi ion. This is consis en wi h he
lack o e idence o exogenous ca bona es inco po a ion o
bone. As al eady indica ed, he geochemical en i onmen o
he s udied nec opoleis is compa ible wi h s ong ca bona e
leaching bu no wi h he o ma ion o seconda y ca bona es.
Iso opic analyses
The iso opic s udy o non-adul and adul bone collagen
is summa ized in Table4. The non-adul esul s a e plo -
ed agains he o al iso opic sample o López-Cos as and
Müldne (2019) in Fig.4. The se en samples analyzed ul-
illed he es ablished quali y c i e ia o good collagen p es-
e a ion (see Van Klinken 1999). The C/N a ios o all ou
samples ange om 3.1–3.4, which is conside ed a sign o
no abe an esul s and no p esence o o ganic con aminan
molecules ( ollowing DeNi o 1985; Van Klinken 1999). We
calcula e he Pon e ed a si e sample’s a e age (including
p e ious esul s om López-Cos as and Müldne 2019) o
δ13Ccol is -16.4 ± 2.1‰, n = 68 (San a Ma ía -16.1 ± 2.5‰,
n = 49; San Ba olomeu -16.7 ± 0.8‰, n = 19) and o
δ15Ncol is 12.6 ± 0.9‰ n = 68 (San a Ma ía 12.8 ± 0.9‰,
n = 49; San Ba olomeu 12.2 ± 0.8‰, n = 19).
When conside ing jus he 34 skele ons wi h well-p e-
se ed maxillae and in ag eemen wi h p e ious esul s om
(López-Cos as and Müldne 2019), when compa ing San a
Ma ías and San Ba olomeus indi iduals (n = 34) no signi i-
can di e ence is ound o δ13Ccol (U- es 538.5, p = 0.40),
while San a Ma ia indi iduals ha e consis en ly mo e ele-
a ed δ15Ncol alues han hose om San Ba olomeu (U- es
699.5, p = 0.0026). Rega ding δ13Ccol including p e ious
esul s om López-Cos as and Müldne 2019) o adul indi-
iduals wo g oups we e iden i ied, whe e mos o he indi-
iduals display alues be ween -18.5‰ and -14.6‰, while
a small g oup shows alues > -12.5‰ (STM824, STM828,
STM830, STM833, STM883) (see Fig.4) (López-Cos as
and Müldne 2019). This pa e n o wo sepa a e g oups is
also obse ed o he 34 indi iduals analysed in his s udy
(Fig.4) p esen ing h ee indi iduals wi h alues > -12.5‰
(STM823, STM824, STM883). Fu he , one indi idual
(STM825) p esen s a δ13Ccol alue lowe han he es o he
sample eaching -20.3‰.
Collagen da a also sugges s ha he In an /Child
(1–12yea s old) assemblage is dis ibu ed in wo g oups
independen o hei ceme e y – San a Ma ía and San Ba -
olomeu, p o enance, see Fig.4. Indi iduals SB519, SB520
and STM875 p esen ed high δ15Ncol alues (> 13.0‰), and
a wide dis ibu ion in δ13Ccol (-15.3‰ o -17.3‰); whe eas
indi iduals SB518 and STM877 showed lowe δ15Ncol al-
ues (< 12.0‰) and a na owe δ13Ccol dis ibu ion (-17.1‰
o -17.4‰). The ju enile STM876 is also included in o he
low δ15Ncol non-adul g oup. Indi idual STM883 belongs o
he a o emen ioned g oup due o he high δ15Ncol (13.6‰)
and δ13Ccol (-11.7‰), bu he /his alues a e among he adul
g oup wi h high δ13Ccol. When he whole non-adul assem-
blage was compa ed o he adul assemblage (Fig.4) (López-
Cos as and Müldne 2019) no signi ican di e ences we e
ound in δ13Ccol (U- es 300.5, p = 0.52) o δ15Ncol (U- es
311.5, p = 0.63). Indi idual STM825 showed δ13Ccol al-
ues eaching -20.3‰ while in e ms o δ15Ncol showed he
minimal alue o 10.8‰. When he compa isons be ween
non-adul s and adul s we e done conside ing each ceme-
e y sepa a ely, again no signi ican di e ences we e ound
(San Ba olomeu, non-adul SB518, SB519, SB520 o
adul s; δ13Ccol U- es 13.00, p = 0.318; δ15Ncol U- es 16.00
p = 0.09), (San a Ma ía, non-adul s STM875, STM876,
STM877, STM883 o adul s; δ13Ccol U- es 38.0 p = 0.91;
δ15Ncol U- es 33.0, p = 0.63). Howe e , In an s/Child en
belonging o he i s g oup a e among he mos ele a ed in
δ15Ncol o San Ba olomeu and San a Ma ía.
Iso opic da a o bone bioapa i e a e p esen ed in Table5.
Es ablished quali y c i e ia o well-p ese ed bioapa i e
we e eached by all samples (n = 29). The e we e no signi i-
can FTIR-ATR bands ha indica e he p esence o amide
A, B, I, II and III, ha is, collagen; o alipha ic compounds
( o mo e in o ma ion abou collagen bands see Ma ínez
Table 3 Co ela ion be ween he IR indices, cha ac e is ic ib a ions
(in cm−1) o bone phospha e and ca bona e, bioapa i e yield (%), ca -
bona e con en (%) o he bioapa i e and he iso opic composi ion
yield Ca b δ 13Cca Δ13C
IRSF 0.25 -0.79 0.29 0.19
C/P_1 -0.27 0.86 -0.25 -0.22
C/P_2 -0.31 0.89 -0.25 -0.23
C/C 0.25 -0.77 0.40 0.43
BPI -0.25 0.83 -0.25 -0.19
API -0.24 0.79 -0.15 -0.10
1454 -0.40 0.92 -0.14 -0.14
1415 -0.37 0.93 -0.25 -0.23
1094 0.07 0.42 -0.08 -0.06
1019 0.13 -0.65 0.24 0.21
958 0.08 0.18 -0.12 -0.12
874 -.,27 0.61 -0.09 -0.24
602 -0.23 0.31 -0.07 -0.23
559 0.01 -0.35 0.27 0.09
475 0.22 0.13 -0.18 -0.05
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:49 Page 9 o 24 49
Table 4 Collagen s able iso ope a ios and quali y indica o s o San Ba olomeu and San a Ma ía chu ches. In his able we included he new iso opic alues o he 7 non-adul s as well as hose
ob ained in López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
Ind Code Si e δ13Ccol
‰ (VPDB)
δ15Ncol
‰
(AIR)
C:N %C %N Yield
(%)
Biological Sex Age (yea s) Age ca ego y Sampled bone Sou ce
SB518 San Ba olomeu -17.4 12.1 3.1 42.9 16.0 7.8 Inde e mina e 04–06 In an /Child Fibula This s udy
SB519 San Ba olomeu -16.2 13.2 3.2 42.2 15.3 2.5 Inde e mina e 03–06 In an /Child Maxilla This s udy
SB520 San Ba olomeu -15.3 13.4 3.1 44.6 16.7 12.4 Inde e mina e 04–06 In an /Child Rib This s udy
STM875 San a Ma ía -17.3 13.2 3.2 44.8 16.0 6.6 Inde e mina e 08–12 In an /Child Mandible This s udy
STM876 San a Ma ía -17.1 11.7 3.3 39.2 13.8 1.1 Inde e mina e 12–15 Ju enile Maxilla This s udy
STM877 San a Ma ía -17.9 12.0 3.4 7.9 2.7 0.3 Inde e mina e 04–06 In an /Child Mandible This s udy
STM883 San a Ma ía -10.0 13.5 3.2 43.5 16.1 6.7 Inde e mina e 06–11 In an /Child Skull This s udy
SB501 San Ba olomeu -16.1 12.7 3.2 37.2 13.4 - Inde e mina e 20–25 Middle adul Skull López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
SB503 San Ba olomeu -17.2 11.6 3.3 36.5 13.1 - Female 18–20 Ju enile Skull López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
SB506 San Ba olomeu -16.9 11.8 3.3 29.2 10.3 - Male 30–39 Young adul Hume ous López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
SB507 San Ba olomeu -17.5 12.5 3.3 41.9 15.0 - Female 40–59 Middle adul Skull López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
SB515 San Ba olomeu -17.4 11.0 3.2 41.6 15.1 - Female 40–50 Young adul Tibia López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
SB516 San Ba olomeu -16.6 11.4 3.2 35.9 13.0 - Male 30–39 Young adul Femu López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM801 San a Ma ía -16.4 12.4 3.2 42.3 15.4 - Female 20–30 Young adul Rib López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM806 San a Ma ía -17.6 12.7 3.3 36.2 12.8 - Male 20–39 Young adul Hume ous López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM807 San a Ma ía -16.5 14.0 3.3 32.6 11.6 - Female 30–35 Young adul Fibula López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM817 San a Ma ía -16.7 12.5 3.6 23.0 7.5 - Male 35–39 Young adul Rib López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM822 San a Ma ía -17.8 12.3 3.3 37.9 13.3 - Male + 60 Old adul Skull López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM823 San a Ma ía -15.6 10.9 3.2 42.9 15.6 - Female 18–20 Ju enile Femu López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM824 San a Ma ía -10.7 14.0 3.2 42.9 15.6 - Female 20–35 Youn adul Radius López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM825 San a Ma ía -20.3 10.8 3.3 41.5 14.8 - Female 15–17 Ju enile Femu López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM827 San a Ma ía -16.7 12.9 3.3 35.3 12.5 - Female 30–59 Middle adul Tibia López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM829 San a Ma ía -15.8 13.4 3.3 41.4 14.6 - Female 40–59 Middle adul Jaw López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM831 San a Ma ía -17.1 12.9 3.2 40.3 14.5 - Female 45–50 Middle adul Rib López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM833 San a Ma ía -11.7 13.6 3.3 34.8 12.2 - Male 20–25 Young adul Rib López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM836 San a Ma ía -15.7 12.1 3.3 30.6 10.9 - Female 19–20 Ju enile Femu López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM846 San a Ma ía -16.0 14.5 3.3 38.7 13.6 - Inde e mina e 20–30 Young adul Femu López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM853 San a Ma ía -18.5 12.5 3.4 36.9 12.6 - Male 40–59 Middle adul Long bone López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM864 San a Ma ía -16.8 12.4 3.2 44.1 16.0 - Male 39–50 Middle adul Femu López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM882 San a Ma ía -14.6 13.6 3.2 42.7 15.5 - Female 25–35 Young adul Femu López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
STM884 San a Ma ía -17.7 12.7 3.3 42.8 15.3 - Inde e mina e - Inde e mina e Rib López-Cos as and Müldne (2019)
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:4949 Page 16 o 24
which a ou ed he cul i a ion o ye, ba ley, and mille
(Ma ínez Ma ínez e al.2015). Mille s we e consumed he e
as b ead, po idge, and soups, especially among he lowe
social classes, who de o ed hei oa s and whea ha es s as
o a paymen ( hese paymen s a e he p oduc o long- e m
ag a ian usu uc ans e s be ween a pe son/ amily and an
ins i u ion— he nobili y o he Chu ch— e y common in
medie al Galicia) (Po ela Sil a and Palla es Méndez 1987;
Peña-Choca o e al. 2019). Mille s, wi h hei clima ic
esilience, we e also well sui ed o he subsis ence s a e-
gies o he Galician model, which elied on smallholdings,
c op o a ion, and di e si ica ion as pa o a non-in ensi e
ag icul u e philosophy (Tei a-B ión 2022). Fu he mo e, he
middle classes had limi ed accessibili y o whea impo ed
om Cas ilian and Andalusian g ana ies, in con as o he
p i ileged uppe echelons o socie y (A mas Cas o 1992).
The e o e, mille s could ha e o med a signi ican pa o he
die o he popula ion o Pon e ed a.
Mille s ha e lowe δ13C signa u es (~ -13 o -12‰) (An
e al. 2015) han o he C4 plan s such as maize (~ -10‰)
(Tieszen and Fag e 1993), which we e in oduced a a la e
his o ical s age. F om he se en een h cen u y onwa ds, he
a ea elied hea ily on maize o human consump ion (Puig
2012), so we do no ule ou he in ake o maize in some la e
indi iduals. Indi iduals STM824, STM833, and STM883
ha e been s a ig aphically linked o he Ea ly Mode n
pe iod and poin o a sligh ly di e en human eeding pa e n
acco ding o hei iso opic alues, wi h much highe δ13Ccol
and δ13Cca alues. Thei p o ein inpu seems also o ha e
come om ish, bu he e is also e idence o en ichmen
om C4 plan s wi h ele a ed δ13Ccol and δ13Cca alues. In
Fig.5, hey i in he eg ession line o maize as indica ed
in Kellne and Schoeninge (2007). Indeed, we ha e in e -
p e ed his anomalous iso opic da a as belonging o a se o
ch onologically la e indi iduals who may ha e elied on he
consump ion o maize.
The iso opic da a o medie al Pon e ed a’s non-adul s
a e simila o he adul pa e n, bu hei δ15Ncol ends o
be highe . The en ichmen in 15Ncol in in an s/child en no
olde han 4yea s old is no mally in e p e ed as he esul o
b eas eeding (Ka zenbe g and Lo ell 1999; Ka zenbe g and
P ei e 1995; Schu and Powell 2005; Haydock e al. 2013),
while absence o his en ichmen is no mally in e p e ed as
a e lec ion o he non-exis ence o sho du a ion o b eas -
eeding. Howe e , his assump ion is cu en ly unde deba e,
as i may also be a e lec ion o s un ing p ocesses a he
han o nu sing expe iences, ha is, due o s ess ela ing o
indi idual in e up ions o new bone o ma ion (Beaumon
e al. 2018). Howe e , since den ine collagen seems o e lec
be e he nu sing e ec (Beaumon e al. 2018) in addi ion
o ou e y small sample o indi iduals unde ou yea s
old, we would no wan o in e aspec s ela ed o b eas eed-
ing p ac ices. The sligh ly highe δ15Ncol o some in an s
could ha e been connec ed o he consump ion o b eas milk
o physiological s ess (e.g., amile disease), al hough hey
a e no co ela ed wi h δ13C. Del a13Ccol is less suscep ible o
physiological p ocesses and has been shown o be mo e eli-
able as e idence o non-adul die s (Beaumon e al. 2018).
Since we ound no di e ences in δ13Ccol in his sample, we
may conclude ha non-adul s sha ed he gene al die o adul
indi iduals. In e es ingly, he δ13Ccol and δ13Cca sugges ha
i e non-adul indi iduals had a mode a e-high consump ion
o C4 plan s. The consump ion o C4 plan s in he In an /
Child indi iduals o San a Ma ia and San Ba olomeu (San a
Ma ía in an /child = 2; San a Ma ía ju eniles = 2; San Ba o-
lomeu in an /child = 1) could be connec ed o po idges and
simila oods based on mille s. In o he pa s o medie al
Eu ope ha phenomenon was iden i ied and ela ed wi h
weaning oods (Adamson 2004). Howe e , adul indi iduals
also showed alues compa ible wi h C4 plan s consump ion,
as well as ou o hose i e a o emen ioned non-adul indi-
iduals a e abo e he conside ed weaning s age (al hough
no in o ma ion abou Galician weaning p ocess is a ailable
on he li e a u e). In summa y, he non-adul g oup seems o
ha e had a die simila o ha o he adul s (i.e., high ma ine
esou ces), wi h a non-negligible elemen o C4 plan s.
Few s udies ha e analyzed δ13Cca in popula ions o he
Ibe ian Peninsula (Table9), mos o hem in enamel ha
e lec childhood die . All indica e a die mainly based on
C3 plan ene gy, al hough enamel δ13Cca om he Sou he n
Ibe ian ci y o Écija (Inskip e al. 2019) sugges s an ene -
ge ic en ichmen ca ego ized as o igina ing om suga cane
du ing childhood. In É o a (MacRobe s e al. 2020), also a
Sou he n Ibe ian si e, enamel δ13Cca is sligh ly highe and
shows impo an in a-si e a ia ion, in a way simila o he
Pon e ed a adul alues. Mille in he o m o po idge as a
baby/in ancy ood o du ing weaning could be consumed in
he illage. The iso opic signal o indi iduals bu ied in he
Lugo Ca hed al (López-Cos as e al. 2021) and San iago de
Compos ela Ca hed al (Pé ez-Ramallo 2022) -bo h in Medi-
e al Galicia and belonging o he same pe iod and geog aph-
ical loca ion- p esen mo e nega i e δ13Cca alues han he
Pon e ed a ones (Table9), which may be in e p e ed as a
die wi h a high consump ion o C3-based e es ial o igin
p o ein, possible con ibu ions o eshwa e ish, and mino
in ake o C4 plan s. Bo h si es con ained skele ons belonging
o eli e social g oups, a ac ha would explain he highe
access o mea , eggs, and dai y p oduc s. Tex ual sou ces
men ion ye and mille as ce eals ha we e consumed by
he middle and lowe classes om Pon e ed a, while whea
was ese ed o he uppe classes (A mas Cas o 1992).
The Lugo Ca hed al books o paymen s indica e ha mille
was also a ailable o he social eli es, bu acco ding o he
skele al analyses, i was no a s aple o hem (López-Cos as
e al. 2021). In con as , ou s udy sugges s a s aple con-
sump ion o mille , bu mino in compa ison o ish, by he
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:49 Page 17 o 24 49
middle-class people om medie al Pon e ed a. Conside ing
he ex ual in o ma ion, mille in die could be conside ed
an indica o o social class, a leas in No hwes e n Ibe ia.
O al heal h anddie inhype specialized communi y
When he medie al sample o Pon e ed a is compa ed wi h
18 o he medie al si es om he Ibe ian Peninsula (see
dis ibu ion in Fig.6, all using simila eco ding me hods
o his s udy), we ound poo e den al heal h o he o me
(Table9) despi e being a ela i ely young-age assemblage.
In e ms o age, o al heal h dec eases wi h age. The lack
o sex di e ences, despi e he link be ween p egnancies
and ca ies (Kubehl and Temple 2020; Wa son e al. 2010),
could be biased by he wide age dis ibu ion o he emale
coho compa ed o he male coho . When he o al pa hol-
ogy esul s a e compa ed wi h hose om o he a chaeologi-
cal si es (Table10), he p e alence o den al ca ies in he
analysed sample is sligh ly abo e he a e age o medie al
coho s, while he calculus p e alence in Pon e ed a is a e -
age. Ca bohyd a e- ich die s ha e been linked o a high p e -
alence o den al ca ies and den al calculus in con as wi h
low-ca bohyd a e and high-p o ein/ a die s which ha e been
ela ed o lowe den al ca ies a es bu high den al calculus
p e alence (Hillson 2008; Bonsall and Picka d 2015; La sen
2015; Temple 2015; Kubehl and Temple 2020; Be ilsson
e al. 2022). The e is no ag eemen in he schola ly li e a-
u e abou ca ies and calculus a es ha can be connec ed o
in ense consump ion o ish. Ma ine die s ha e been associ-
a ed wi h low p e alence o den al ca ies and high a es o
den al calculus due o he en ichmen in luo ide and silica
(La sene al. 1999; Pole and Ka zenbe g 2003; Ramezani
e al. 2015; Yanko e al. 2021), p ecisely he opposi e o wha
we obse e in Pon e ed a. A high p e alence o den al ca ies
has been also associa ed in he li e a u e wi h sea ood con-
sump ion (Delgado-Da ias e al. 2006; A nay-De-La-Rosa
e al. 2010). In medie al Pon e ed a, occasional consump-
ion o shell ish may ha e inc eased he ca ies a e; howe e ,
i s consump ion may ha e been a oided in medie al Galicia
as i was seen as a sign o po e y (P iegue 1998), which is
in line wi h he iso opic alues ob ained in López-Cos as and
Müldne (2019) ha a ge ish consump ion (plus oc opus)
a he han shell ish consump ion. Indi iduals STM824 and
STM833 p esen ed he highes numbe o ca ies episodes,
which coincides wi h hei possible consump ion o maize.
Despi e hese o he ea u es, den al wea is he mos
ema kable aspec o o al pa hology. Pon e ed a shows
se e e den al wea , wi h high se e i y eached by younge
age g oups (bo h in he an e io and pos e io den i ion).
The g ea se e i y o den al wea de ines he o al pa hology
o Pon e ed a, wi h in ense incidence om an ea ly age. A
hypo hesis is ha his se e e den al wea could ha e also
been a de e mining ac o in he impo e ishmen o hei
Table 9 δ13Cca a e age and s anda d de ia ion o he popula ions used in he compa isons
Popula ion Human
sample size
(NMI)
Ch onology δ13Cca mean
‰ (VPDB)
SD δ13Ccol mean
‰ (VPDB)
SD δ15Ncol
mean ‰
(AIR)
SD Sample Re e ence Loca ion
Écija 66 9 h-13 h -11.5 0.9 -16.4 0.8 10.4 1.4 Too h Inskip e al. 2019 Ecija, Se ille—SE Spain
É o a 15 12 h-13 h -10.7 1.8 -17.8 0.7 11.9 1.4 Too h MacRobe s e al. 2020 É o a—Sou h Po ugal
Capela do Pila 12 14 h-15 h -13.7 1 -18.6 0.4 13.4 1.2 Bone López-Cos as e al. 2021 Lugo, Galicia—NW Spain
Ca ed al de San iago 33 9 h-12 h -13.1 1.6 -17.8 0.8 10.9 0.8 Too h Pé ez-Ramallo e al. 2022 San iago de Compos ela, Gali-
cia—NW Spain
Medie al Pon e ed a 27 13 h-17 h -11.8 1.8 -16.4 0.8 12.6 0.9 Bone This s udy Pon e ed a, Galicia—NW Spain
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:4949 Page 18 o 24
global o al heal h since i is possible ha he exposu e o
he pulp caused by high a i ion o he enamel allows he
p ocess o compensa o y e up ion, exposing oo h ne es o
ca ies and making hem suscep ible o colonisa ion by he
o al mic obio a, accele a ing p ocesses such as pe iodon al
disease, plaque accumula ion, and demine aliza ion o he
ee h (Hillson 1996. Ogden 2007). The e o e, he abo e-
a e age a e o ca ies, pe iapical lesions and pe iodon al
disease could be a consequence o he in ense den al wea .
Howe e , mo e s udies ela ed o he causes/consequences o
hype cemen osis a e needed o ob ain a inal answe .
The hype specialized ish die obse ed and demons a ed
by s able iso ope analyses in López-Cos as and Müldne
(2019) would ha e an impac on he high a es o den al wea
ha also condi ions he whole o al heal h. Once sys emic
condi ions such as Page ’s disease, Ga dne ’s synd ome,
and ac omegaly (among o he s) ha e been uled ou (Le
Cabec 2013; Bonsall and Picka d 2015; Tang e al. 2015;
Massé e al. 2022), he possible causes o high den al wea
include he consump ion o poo ly p ocessed ce eals, lou s
wi h ab asi e pa icles implemen ed du ing p ocessing, die
based on animal p o ein, and on ma ine p oduc s (A nay-
De-La-Rosa e al. 2010). Rega ding poo ly p ocessed ce e-
als o lou s wi h ab asi e pa icles, ce eal milling in he
NW Ibe ian Peninsula was mainly ca ied ou in mills o
he p edominan geological ma e ial in he a ea, which is
e y ab asi e (bio i e and wo mica g ani oids) (Cen o
Nacional de In o mación Geog á ica Websi e (n.d.). Ins i-
u o Geog á ico Nacional: Geology and ec onic o Galicia
map). This ac has been al eady sugges ed by No ak (2015)
o g ani e a eas in medie al I eland, bu also in a eas wi h
g ea e dependence on ish. In his case, mos popula ions
om Galicia and he no h o Po ugal migh ha e su e ed
om in ense den al wea since hey sha ed geology. We ha e
no ound o he si es whe e den al wea was s udied and
we e loca ed in g ani e a eas. Ne e heless, i is expec ed
ha g ain sie ing and g inding in la e medie al imes was
qui e e icien . In all cases, knowing he den al wea a es
om o he Galician si es would be use ul in he u u e, o
add ess he impac o ab asi e lou s as an agg a a ing ac-
o o den al wea . High consump ion o a s and p o ein
wi hou ege able in ake could ha e also had an impac on
den al wea ; howe e , he li e a u e is no clea (Kiese e al.
2001; Eshed e al. 2006; Wa son e al. 2013). No o ná (2017)
p oposed ha high o exclusi ely animal p o ein die s gen-
e a e g ea e den al wea , bu his idea has been c i icized
by Jílko á e al. (2019). Rega dless o he inconsis encies,
he people o Pon e ed a had access o ege ables by ade
o sel -su iciency (A mas Cas o 1992), a ac ha iso opic
alues suppo , so a die based only in animal p o ein is no
applicable he e.
Ea ing ish and shell ish in gene al, and a li e connec ed
o he sea, implies se e al ac o s ha can enhance se e e
Table 10 Compa ison o Medie al Pon e ed a and eigh een medie al popula ions o he Ibe ian Peninsula ega ding he p e alence o ou o al pa hologies. Ac onym code: PM = Pon e ed a
Medie al ( his s udy). VA = Valença (Ma adoand Sil a 2018). AMM = Mesqui a de Mé ola (Sil a 2011). CES = Capela do Espí i o San o (Fe ei a 2015). INSA = Ig eja da N.S a. Anunciada
(Fe ei a 2015). MS = Maqba a de Shan a în (Rod igues 2013). CNSV = Capela da Nossa Senho a da Vi ó ia (Ma ques 2007). SMH = San a Ma ía de Hi o (Gale a 1989). SPT = San Pe e de
Te assa (Jo dana Comin 2007). HCL = Poblaciones his ó icas de Cas illa y León (López Ma inez, 2000). BA = B agança (Má quez-G an 2008). PR = Pala del Rey (P ada Ma cos 1993).
LT = La To ecilla (López-Mo ago2020). SLSN = San Lo enzo y San Nicolás (López-Mo ago 2020). VNS = Villanue a de Sopo illa (López-Mo ago 2020). SBB = San Baudelio de Be langa
(López-Mo ago2020). MSO = Monas e io de Suso (López-Mo ago 2020). EC = El Cas illo (López-Mo ago2020). SBM = Sahl ben Malik (López-Mo ago2020)
PM VA AMM CES INSA MS CNSV SMH SPT HCL BA PR LT SLSN VNS SBB MSO EC SBM
DENTAL WEAR ≥ 5 IN M1 (%) 48 - 11 8 - - 6 6 - 18 - 10 9 9 17 16 36 23 15
DENTAL CARIES (%) 64 29 - 80 92 - 26 48 10 4 16 16 43 61 40 20 43 40 39
DENTAL CALCULUS (%) 72 - - - - 34 37 - 59 77 60 83 70 82 90 80 100 90 65
PERIAPICAL LESIONS (%) 23 17 - - - - - - 4 1 1 2 3 9 7 4 3 3 14
NMI 34 30 16 84 93 45 56 138 208 728 70 351 81 46 56 25 14 30 88
% adul s 62 47 69 76 88 100 79 65 78 71 71 72 72 83 51 64 100 90 52
n Females:n Males 14:9 7:7 1:6 27:10 47:26 14:28 4:13 111:122 35:45 226:252 12:14 104:95 30:27 21:16 17:23 6:9 2:11 12:14 17:28
% non adul s 36 33 31 15 12 0 21 35 78 29 29 28 29 17 29 36 0 10 34
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:49 Page 19 o 24 49
den al wea , as explained by Li le on and F ohlich (1993).
Die s ich in ma ine p oduc s esul in high wea (Li le on
and F ohlich 1993; Wa son e al. 2013; Eshed e al. 2006;
Micklebu gh 2016). Fish, especially when i is d ied, has
ab asi e pa icles. Pon e ed a was a cen e o p oduc ion o
sal ed/smoked ish in medie al imes (A mas Cas o 1992;
Mangas-Ca asco and López-Cos as 2021). The sal could
also inc ease he ab asi e na u e o ish. Con ibu o y ac o s
can be also windblown sand (Maa e al 1990 in Li le on
and F ohlich 1993) in popula ions li ing by he sea, as was
he case o Pon e ed a. The chu ch o San a Ma ía and he
co esponding neighbou hood a e loca ed in a sand deposi
a ea. The sand con ained in shell ish can also inc ease wea .
The occasional consump ion o shell ish canno be uled ou
in Pon e ed a, al hough he iso opic alues o he sample
sugges s ha he consumed p o ein comes om ish a he
han shell ish (López-Cos as and Müldne 2019). This is
consis en wi h he a oidance o shell ish no ed in he li -
e a u e, a ising om he ac ha i was associa ed wi h he
s igma o po e y (P iegue 1998). Howe e , consump ion
o abundan shell ish has been eco ded in he a ea o Pon-
e ed a since p ehis o y, as shell middens a e no mally p e-
sen in I on Age se lemen s by he sea (Rod íguez Ma ínez
e al. 2011). I is ce ain ha he inhabi an s o Pon e ed a,
especially hose belonging o ishe amilies, had access o
abundan shell ish since he a ea is ich in hese animals.
Finally, ib e wo k in ela ion wi h ishing gea and o he
a isanal p ocesses could also be p oducing wea ; howe e ,
no ma ks compa ible wi h ex amas ica o y wea o dis inc-
i e pa e ns o an e io wea we e obse ed.
In summa y, he connec ion be ween s able iso opes
and o al pa hology seems clea in Pon e ed a, as i is sup-
po ed by he esul s and se e al p e ious wo ks ha ha e
connec ed ma ine esou ces consump ion and den al wea .
In e es ingly, he As u ian popula ion o Ve anés (placed in
a non g ani e a ea) ha consumed ish in high quan i ies,
also displays a signi ican a e o den al wea (21%) (Rascón
Pé ez e al. 2013).
Conclusion
Mul i-iso opic analysis has been c ucial in de e mining. he
ene gy o igin o he die . We p o ile a local popula ion, o
middle social class wi h a common die a y pa e n cha ac e -
ised by high consump ion o ma ine p o ein and some inpu
o C4 plan s (p obably mille ).
In he Pon e ed a si es, a die ich in ma ine esou ces,
mainly ish, and C4 plan s (mille /co n) was connec ed o
special ea u es in o al pa hology such as se e e den al wea .
Den al wea is shown o be e y se e e om a e y ea ly age
and abo e he a e age o medie al Ibe ian popula ions. This
can only be connec ed o a special ea u e in he die , such as
he in ense dependence on ish ha is e ealed by s able iso-
opes and ex ual sou ces. Ano he ac o o explaining he
poo o al heal h is he consump ion o lou s wi h ab asi e
pa icles due o g ani e mills. The associa ed medium–high
a es o ca ies and calculus could be explained by mille and
o he ce eal consump ion, bu also due o he den al wea
ha makes den al pulp a ailable o bac e ia. The hypo hesis
ha he e is a ela ionship be ween o al pa hology and s able
iso opes ha can be de e mined in hype -specialised die s
is con i med in he Pon e ed a case. We encou age o he
esea che s o analyse hose popula ions wi h hype -special-
ised die s by bo h pa hology and chemical-iso opic analysis.
Fig. 6 Poli ical map o he cu -
en coun ies o Spain and Po -
ugal showing he dis ibu ion o
he samples used as compa ison
o o al pa hology. Pon e ed a
is ma ked wi h a black do . The
map ollows he same sys em o
ac onyms as Table10. C ea ed
wi h QGis map
A chaeological and An h opological Sciences (2024) 16:4949 Page 20 o 24
We hink ha he connec ion be ween high den al wea
(and also possibly hype cemen osis) wi h high δ13Ccol and
δ15Ncol, as well as medium δ13Cca and Δ13Cca -col, which
has been adi ionally in e p e ed as consump ion o ma ine
esou ces, can be applicable o o he ypes o die s and skel-
e al collec ions. I is wo h he e o o discuss in he u u e
he consequences in o al heal h when he consump ion o
ish is a s aple bu no so high. Howe e , and despi e o he
ac o s such as he age o he popula ion, ish and sea ood
can ha e an impac on a i ion, e en i i is mino . Ano he
conclusion o ou wo k is he use ulness o combining iso-
opic signals a he han exclusi ely discussing he o e -
s udied δ13Ccol and δ15Ncol, which can p o ide a p elimina y
app oach o die in o de o la e e ine he esul s by aking
in o accoun o he iso opic alues.
A inal conclusion o ou wo k ela es o he use o den al
wea o es ima e age. T adi ionally, oo h wea has been used
o de e mine he age o indi iduals on he p emise ha as
enamel does no emodel, g ea e se e i y will be e iden in
di ec p opo ion o age (Smi h 1984; B o hwell 1981; Miles
2001; Bu ne 2016). Al hough esea che s a e awa e ha
ac o s such as hygiene, ex a-mas ica o y uses o he mou h,
o consump ion o ab asi e oods can di ec ly in luence he
se e i y o den al wea (Wa son and Schmid 2020; Molna
1971 in Faillace e al. 2017), i is used when no o he p oxy
o age es ima ion is a ailable on he p emise ha “i is be e
han no hing”. Howe e , we encou age ou colleagues o be
especially cau ious when de e mining age wi h den al wea
in popula ions wi h a die ich in ma ine p oduc s since he e
is a isk o o e es ima ing he age o indi iduals.
Supplemen a y in o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen-
a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s12520- 024- 01956-z.
Acknowledgemen s The au ho s would like o hank he Museo de
P o incial de Pon e ed a and Pa imonio His ó ico de la Xun a de Gali-
cia o g an ing access o skele al ma e ial. We would like o hank
Simon R. Doubleday o his help ul sugges ions ega ding Medie al
Galicia and p oo eading. Also, o hank Paula González No oa o he
collabo a ion in he labo a o y analysis, and Noelia Ri e o Cha e and
Ma a Colmena es P ado o helping wi h bioapa i e ex ac ion. Thanks
o Claudia López-Mo ago and Inmaculada Alemán Aguile a o o al
pa hology compa isons. Finally, we also owe hanks o he anonymous
e iewe s whose commen s helped us o imp o e he manusc ip .
Au ho con ibu ion Cla a Veiga-Rilo. Concep ualiza ion, Me hodol-
ogy, Valida ion, Fo mal analysis, In es iga ion, Resou ces, W i ing
o iginal d a , W i ing- e iew and edi ing, Visualiza ion, Funding
acquisi ion.
An onio Ma ínez-Co izas. Me hodology, W i ing- e iew and edi -
ing, Visualiza ion.
Olalla López-Cos as. Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, Valida ion,
Fo mal analysis, In es iga ion, Resou ces, W i ing o iginal d a , W i -
ing- e iew and edi ing, Visualiza ion, Funding acquisi ion.
Funding Open Access unding p o ided hanks o he CRUE-CSIC
ag eemen wi h Sp inge Na u e. This esea ch was unded by he p o-
jec s Bolsas de In es igación de A es e Humanidades by Dipu ación
de A Co uña (BINV-AH/2021), G upos de Re e encia Compe i-
i a (ED431C 2021/32) by Xun a de Galicia, and POLLUTIO Plan
Nacional Re os p ojec (PID2019-111683RJ-I00) Spanish Minis e io
de Ciencia e Inno acion. Cla a Veiga-Rilo is unded by p edoc o al
ellowship om Xun a de Galicia (ED481A 2022/205), Olalla López-
Cos as is unded by Ramón y Cajal 2020 (RYC2020-030531-I).The
las pa o his esea ch was co- unded by he Eu opean Union (ERC
Consolida o G an , Pollu edPas , 101087832). Views and opinions
exp essed a e howe e hose o he au ho (s) only and do no neces-
sa ily e lec hose o he Eu opean Union o he Eu opean Resea ch
Council. Nei he he Eu opean Union no he g an ing au ho i y can
be held esponsible o hem.
Da a a ailabili y Indi idual da a abou o al pa hology will be a ailable
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