Resea ch in Co pus Linguis ics 9/2: i–xiii (2021). ISSN 2243–4712. <h ps:// icl.aelinco.es>
Asociación Española de Lingüís ica de Co pus (AELINCO)
DOI 10.32714/ icl.09.02.01
Cu en ends in Co pus Linguis ics and
ex ual a ia ion
1
Jesús Rome o-Ba ancoa – Paula Rod íguez-Ab uñei asb
Uni e si y o G anadaa / Spain
Uni e si y o San iago de Compos elab / Spain
Abs ac – Co pus Linguis ics has p o ed o g ea alue as a me hodological ool in shedding ligh
on how discou se is cons uc ed in di e en ex ypes. This opening con ibu ion o he special issue
“Co pus-linguis ic pe spec i es on ex ual a ia ion” p o ides an accoun o some o he mos
common applica ions o Co pus Linguis ics, desc ibes some o he mos widely used co po a, and
pins down some o he mos in luen ial co pus-based esea ch wo ks. In so doing, we con ex ualise
he con ibu ions o his collec ion o a icles. The main aim o his special issue is o showcase
cu ing-edge esea ch on ex ual a ia ion based on linguis ic co po a, hus illus a ing how Co pus
Linguis ics d aws om bu also eeds a mul iplici y o linguis ic b anches, such as (C i ical)
Discou se Analysis, Regis e S udies, His o ical Linguis ics, and Dialec ology.
Keywo ds – ex ypes; egis e a ia ion; Discou se Analysis; His o ical Linguis ics; dialec al
a ia ion
Co pus Linguis ics is he s udy o language “based on examples o ‘ eal li e’ language
use” (McEne y and Wilson 1996: 1). Co po a sha e a se o common cha ac e is ic
ea u es: hey con ain linguis ic pa e ns o use in na u al ex s; hey a e ep esen a i e o
a gi en language/ ex ype; hey can be exploi ed by means o manual o au oma ic
echniques; and hey can be analysed bo h quan i a i ely and quali a i ely (Bibe and
Reppen 2015a: 1; Bibe e al. 1998: 4).
The ypology o co po a a ailable allows he linguis o ca y ou di e en linguis ic
s udies: lexical, mo phological, g amma ical, syn ac ic, ph aseological, seman ic, e c.
Depending on he kind o s udy and da a e ie al in mind, a pa icula co pus will be
mo e app op ia e han o he s. Thus, while small co po a a e use ul in hose s udies whe e
1
The p esen esea ch has been unded by he Au onomous Go e nmen o Andalusia (g an numbe PY18-
2782) and he Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion (g an /awa d numbe PID2020-117030GB-I00;
MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033). These g an s a e he eby g a e ully acknowledged. We a e also
g a e ul o he colleagues who ha e kindly con ibu ed o his special issue and he anonymous e e ees,
whose expe ise has no doub imp o ed he inal e sion o he esea ch pape s in he issue.
ii
high equency i ems a e analysed, la ge co po a a e ecommended whene e in e es
lies in a wide ange o linguis ic phenomena o when he cons uc ion unde analysis is
low in equency and hence a isk o escaping he co pus ada (i.e. when i is di icul o
ob ain a su icien numbe o examples o conduc a solid co pus-based s udy). Rega ding
size, a chi ec u e, and anno a ion, we may dis inguish he ollowing co po a (Da ies
2015: 11–12):
1. Small 1–5-million-wo d, i s -gene a ion co po a like he B own Co pus (and
o he s in he so-called B own amily, such as LOB, F own, and FLOB).
2
2. Mode a ely sized, second-gene a ion, gen e-balanced co po a, such as he 100-
million-wo d B i ish Na ional Co pus (BNC).
3
3. La ge , mo e up- o-da e (bu s ill gen e-balanced) co po a, such as he 450-
million-wo d Co pus o Con empo a y Ame ican English (COCA).
4
4. La ge ex a chi es, such as Lexis-Nexis.
5
5. Ex emely la ge ex a chi es, such as Google Books.
6
6. The Web as Co pus,
7
seen he e h ough he lens o Google-based sea ches.
7. The web-based co po a a ailable h ough Ske ch Engine.
8
8. An ad anced in e ace o Google Books, c ea ed by Ma k Da ies’ eam a he
B igham Young Uni e si y.
9
In o de o app oach ex ual a ia ion, p ope de ini ions o gen e, egis e , and ex ype
mus be p o ided. Gen es could be de ined as “inhe en ly dynamic cul u al schema a used
o o ganise knowledge and expe ience h ough language. They change o e ime in
esponse o hei use s’ sociocul u al needs” (Taa i sainen 2001: 139–140; see also
Taa i sainen 2004: 75). Gen es a e, he e o e, closely ela ed o he con ex in which an
ac o communica ion akes place, whe e di e en pu poses will be achie ed by means o
di e en ea u es, hus e ealing he in en ions o he sende (Eggins 1994: 4). Regis e s,
in u n, cons i u e a ca ego y which comp ises “bo h o al and w i en p oduc ions based
2
h ps:// a ieng.helsinki. i/CoRD/co po a/BROWN/
3
h p://www.na co p.ox.ac.uk/
4
h ps://www.english-co po a.o g/coca/
5
h ps://www.lexisnexis.com/en-us/ga eway.page
6
h ps://books.google.com/
7
h ps://www.webco p.o g.uk/li e/
8
h ps://www.ske chengine.eu/
9
h ps://www.english-co po a.o g/googlebooks/
iii
in pa icula on si ua ional, social and p o essional con ex s and he ield o domain o
discou se” (Cla idge 2012: 238; see also Lenke 2012). Finally, ex ypes a e he
linguis ic ep esen a ion o gen es since hey ha e a se o linguis ic ea u es ha may o
may no belong o a common gen e. Conside ing his, “ ex ypes di e om gen es in
ha he o me a e cha ac e ised by hei in e nal linguis ic elemen s whe eas he la e
a e shaped by way o ex a-linguis ic ea u es” (see Bibe 1988: 70; Le ho 2015: 31;
Rome o-Ba anco 2019: 63, among o he s).
F om he de ini ions p o ided abo e, i anspi es ha he no ion o discou se is key
o Co pus Linguis ics. Discou se could be de ined as “language abo e he sen ence o
abo e he clause” (S ubbs 1983:1) o as “language ha is doing some job in some con ex ”
(Halliday 1985: 10). In ac , mos wo k in C i ical Discou se Analysis (CDA) has deal
wi h he second de ini ion (and so do he pape s in his special issue), ha is, he
unc ional aspec o discou se. In hese s udies, we may dis inguish wo s ages. On he
one hand, CDA in a p e-co po a s age, in which s udies did a close- eading o indi idual
ex s o small g oups o ex s (i.e. quali a i e analysis) so as o analyse ex ual s uc u es
and meaning con eyance. On he o he , Co pus-Assis ed Discou se Analysis (CADS),
whe e linguis s combine close- eading wi h he (s a is ical) analysis o la ge numbe s o
okens, hence building up
a de ailed pic u e o how wo k is ypically pe o med in ha ype o discou se [and] in eg a ing
in o he analysis a numbe o insigh s in o how discou ses unc ion which ha e de eloped
wi hin he ield o co pus linguis ics (Pa ing on and Ma chi 2015: 216-217).
Some ecen s udies on socio-poli ical discou se ((im)mig a ion, ace, and gende , among
o he s) include he ollowing: S ubbs’(1996) analysis o Baden-Powell’s messages o
guides and scou s, he o me con aining many e e ences o men while he la e made
no men ion o women o amily; Pea ce’s (2008) examina ion o he di e ences be ween
he lemmas man and woman in he BNC, demons a ing he exis ence o gende
s e eo ypes; Bake ’s (2006, 2008) compa ison o he e ms spins e and bachelo in he
BNC, showing he cul u al s igma isa ion o spins e s by means o colloca ional pa e ns;
Taylo ’s (2013) app oach o he di e ences and simila i ies be ween boy/s and gi l/s in
he B i ish p ess 1993–2010; Macalis e ’s (2011) inding o gende s e eo ypes in
child en’s books o e a nine y-yea pe iod; Bake ’s (2005) compa ison o he discou ses
su ounding he e ms gay(s) and homosexual(s) in a ious co po a, showing meaning
di e ences be ween hem; Bake and McEne y’s (2005) s udy o he discou se
i
su ounding e ugees and asylum in UK newspape a icles and Uni ed Na ions
documen s, iden i ying co-occu en colloca ional pa e ns; San aemilia and Ma uenda-
Ba alle ’s (2014) analysis o he e m muje mal a ada (‘ba e ed woman’) in in ima e
pa ne iolence Spanish newspape a icles om 2005 o 2010; and Lo enzo-Dus and
Kinzel’s (2021) s udy o ague language use in online child sexual g ooming. This is jus
a small sample o he many app oaches o discou se h ough he lens o CADS.
The possibili ies in he analysis o egis e ha e also been enhanced by he
a ailabili y o co po a wi h he adequa e a chi ec u e, ha is, con aining ca ego ies ha
ep esen di e en si ua ional con ex s. By applying co pus echniques o egis e
analysis, he linguis is able o 1) compa e he (co-)occu ence o indi idual linguis ic
ea u es (i.e. lexical, g amma ical, lexico-g amma ical) ac oss di e en egis e s
(con e sa ion, ic ion, academic p ose, e c.); and 2) d aw conclusions abou he na u e o
a speci ic egis e and/o he di e ences among egis e s (Con ad 2015: 310). Examples
o egis e s udies ocusing on speci ic linguis ic ea u es include, among o he s: he use
o we in uni e si y lec u es (Fo ane 2004); spli in ini i es in some Asian a ie ies o
English (Calle Ma ín and Rome o-Ba anco 2014); e alua i e ha in abs ac s (Hyland
and Tse 2005); also and oo in 11 egis e s o Indian English (Balasub amanian 2009);
uni e si y eaching and ex books (Bibe , Con ad and Co es 2004); di e en ypes o
academic book e iews (Röme 2010); condi ionals in medical discou se (Fe guson
2001); academic essays by i e i s language g oups (Paquo 2008); would clauses
wi hou adjacen i -clauses (F azie 2003); hi d pe son p esen ense ma ke s in some
a ie ies o English (Calle-Ma ín and Rome o-Ba anco 2017); monologic s. dialogic
discou se use o low pi ch (Cheng e al. 2008); he e b help + ull o ba e in ini i es
(McEne y and Xiao 2005); and example ma ke s ac oss ex - ypes and a ie ies o
English (Rod íguez-Ab uñei as 2020a, 2020b, 2021).
His o ical Linguis ics is he b anch o linguis ics ha ocuses on language change
h ough ime. Acco ding o Campbell (2004), ad ances in he ield may se e wo main
pu poses. On he one hand, knowing how language has changed o e ime migh help
be e unde s and how ha language wo ks. On he o he , “his o ical linguis ics indings
may be help ul o sol e his o ical issues which a e a beyond linguis ics” (2004: 1). To
achie e his, His o ical Co pus Linguis ics makes use o his o ical co po a, which a e
especially designed o ep esen a pa icula s age in he his o y o English so ha
linguis ic change can be assessed (Cla idge 2008: 242). Wi hin all he b anches in
linguis ics, His o ical Linguis ics has always been conce ned wi h he use o old w i en
sou ces and, consequen ly, he new me hodology based on co po a did no d ama ically
change he way in which His o ical Linguis s had been wo king (Johansson 1995: 22).
Wha did ac ually change was he numbe o a ailable sou ces and, mo e impo an ly, he
quali y and di e si y o hose sou ces which, no doub , enhanced he po en ial o his
b anch o linguis ics since: 1) compu e -based his o ical co po a o e he linguis la ge
amoun s o da a as well as ools o dealing wi h i (wo d-coun s, equencies, s a is ics,
e c.); 2) s a is ical analyses con ibu e o a be e unde s anding o he way in which
linguis ic change akes place, ei he suppo ing o e u ing p e ious linguis ic heo ies; 3)
His o ical Linguis ics has adop ed mo e unc ional app oaches, which assess how
language s uc u e is a ec ed by language use; and 4) less canonical ex s ha e been made
a ailable in co pus o ma so ha gen es o ex ypes ha ha e no ye ecei ed he
a en ion hey dese e can now be used as sou ces o e idence o linguis ic analyses
(Cu zan 2008: 1091).
When i comes o he spoken egis e o English, co po a may con ain ace- o- ace
con e sa ion, such as he London-Lund Co pus (LLC),
10
he Camb idge and No ingham
Co pus o Discou se in English (CANCODE),
11
he BNC, he Lancas e /IBM Spoken
English Co pus (SEC; Knowles e al. 1996), and he San a Ba ba a Co pus o Spoken
Ame ican English (SBCSAE),
12
among o he s; o spoken ins ances aken om o he
sou ces: news p og ams and alk shows (COCA, The TV Co pus, The Mo ie Co pus),
13
lec u es and p esen a ions (Michigan Co pus o Academic Spoken English),
14
o acul y
and commi ee mee ings (Co pus o P o essional Spoken Ame ican English),
15
among
o he s. An impo an aspec when wo king wi h spoken co po a has o do wi h he deg ee
o au hen ici y o he discou se analysed: while some o hese co po a con ain
spon aneous bona ide mani es a ions o language use, o he s include sc ip ed dialogues.
Al hough “ he language o sc ip ed, imagined media is somehow less au hen ic han ei he
unsc ip ed language in he media o eal-li e communica ion” (Queen 2015: 20), many
ecen s udies ha e been based on sc ip ed language (see, o example, Bedna ek 2010,
2011, 2018; he con ibu ions in Piazza e al. 2011; G ego i-Signes 2020 o Chie iche i
10
h ps:// a ieng.helsinki. i/CoRD/co po a/LLC/
11
h p://shachi.o g/ esou ces/758
12
h ps://www.linguis ics.ucsb.edu/ esea ch/san a-ba ba a-co pus
13
h ps://www.english-co po a.o g/
14
h ps://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/c/co pus/co pus?c=micase;page=simple
15
h p://www.a hel.com/cpsa.h ml
i
2021). Sc ip ed language may s ill be a eliable sou ce o in o ma ion o he analysis o
spoken ma e ial as long as we ake he dis inc ion eal s. au hen ic in o accoun (see
Ma io 1997: 183 o Coupland 2007: 161): his may no be eal language, bu i is
au hen ic in ha i ep esen s “ he linguis ic alues o a gi en cul u al momen ” (Queen
2015: 21). The numbe o spoken co po a a ailable is ela i ely small (and hey end o
be o a educed size) due o a se o limi a ions: 1) consen is needed in o de o ga he
spoken da a; 2) he ansc ip ion p ocess is ime-consuming; and 3) au oma ic analysis o
esul s is no possible o some spoken ea u es such as p osody (S aples 2015: 274).
Di e en app oaches ha e been made o he spoken egis e o English, aiming a
shedding new ligh on i s indi idual ea u es: Bibe e al. (1999), Bibe , Con ad, Reppen
e al. (2004), Bibe , Con ad and Co es (2004), Simpson-Vlach and Ellis (2010), and
Ma ínez and Schmi (2012) deal wi h o mulaic language; Swales and Bu ke (2003),
Ba bie i (2005) and S aples and Bibe (2014) analysed s ance ea u es; Anping and
Kennedy (1999) and Lam (2009) s udied discou se ma ke s; and Adolphs e al. (2007)
and Cheng (2007) wo ked on ague language.
The esea ch pape s in his special issue o Resea ch in Co pus Linguis ics deal
wi h he abo e-men ioned a eas o esea ch om di e en pe spec i es. Ou agenda is o
show ha ex ypes play a decisi e ole in he cons uc ion o discou se, and ha
discou se may be app oached om a mul iplici y o iewpoin s. In he con ibu ions ha
ollow, i is demons a ed ha co pus-based app oaches no only enhance he esul s
ob ained in linguis ic s udies o any na u e, bu also allow o he applica ion o new
modes o analysis ha a e only easible wi h co pus da a, such as s a is ics.
The i s pape , by S e an Th. G ies, deals wi h keywo ds analysis and, mo e
speci ically, wi h he log-likelihood a io (LLR). Based on Egbe and Bibe ’s wo k
(2019), G ies p esen s a wo-dimensional app oach o keyness ha conside s bo h
equency and dispe sion. The model is es ed in he Clin on-T ump Co pus and he BNC,
and i is demons a ed ha 1) in he i s case-s udy, LLR may no o e eliable esul s
and wo ds can be (key) key in di e en ways; and 2) in he second case, he esul s o he
p oposed me hod consis o bo h academic wo ds and domain-speci ic wo ds.
In he con ibu ion, Ul ike Schneide analyses a co pus o poli ical wee s by
Donald T ump, he “ i s ‘social media p esiden ’” (p. 34), by ocusing on ou ed-le e
days o his poli ical ca ee . Making use o Linguis ic Inqui y and Wo d Coun 2015
(LIWC2015; Pennebake e al. 2015) and P incipal Componen Analysis (PCA), he
ii
au ho co e s a wide ange o linguis ic ea u es ha allow he o make an in-dep h
analysis o T ump’s wee ing s yle. He wo k ein o ces some o he common belie s on
he ex-p esiden , bu also disp o es some widesp ead assump ions. Thus, he esul s
un eil a ma ked con as be ween T ump’s speeches in poli ical campaigns (which a e
cha ac e ised by being highly simple and in o mal) and his wee s (which, in line wi h
hose by o he poli icians, ha e a mo e o mal na u e). The s udy also shows ha his
wee s a e a he pola ised, as hey end o include a mo e emo ional ype o language,
being ei he mo e nega i e o mo e posi i e han he language used by o he poli icians.
Finally, he au ho also shows ha T ump’s wee s do no show a ma ked endency o
sel - e e ence as, su p isingly, he e is no ace o I- alk in T ump’s wee s.
Adop ing a egis e app oach, Lucía Lou ei o-Po o s udies linguis ic
democ a isa ion in he Hong Kong componen o he In e na ional Co pus o English
(ICE).
16
Apa om assessing he ole o p esc ip i ism, he pape aims o asce ain
whe he ‘democ a ising’ changes a e aking place in Hong Kong English and, i so, wha
hei na u e is in e ms o consciousness o unconsciousness. To do his, Lou ei o-Po o
analyses he occu ence o democ a ic (modal mus , epicene singula p onoun hey and
conjoined he o she) and undemoc a ic op ions (semi-modals ha e (go ) o, need ( o) and
wan ( o), and epicene gene ic p onoun he). The s udy shows ha democ a isa ion does
ake place in he da ase analysed and ha he phenomenon does no seem o be subjec
o p esc ip i ism.
José San aemilia deals wi h a social scou ge which has been la gely o e looked
(and, o a ce ain ex en , e en accep ed as no mal) un il ecen imes, namely Violence
Agains Women (VAW). The au ho dissec s he discu si e ep esen a ion o VAW in
wo popula Spanish dailies, namely El País and El Mundo. The way in which VAW is
po ayed in he media is o u mos impo ance as i is going o in luence he way socie y
pe cei es ha kind o iolence. San aemilia’s aim is wo old. On he one hand, o un eil
he naming p ac ices o he wo dailies in he ime span 2005–2010; on he o he , o
iden i y he news alues ypically used in he discou se o epo s on VAW. The analysis
indica es ha he e a e di e en labels (such as iolencia de géne o, iolencia machis a
and iolencia domés ica, among o he s) whose meanings and implica ions a e s ill unde
nego ia ion and seem o hide di e en poli ical and/o ideological in e ences. This shows
16
h p://ice-co po a.ne /ice/index.h ml
iii
ha he no ion o VAW is no a uni e sal cons uc . As a esul , he use o he a ious
labels a ies diach onically bu also om one pape o he o he . In u n, simila i ies a e
ound when i comes o he ypes o alues used o make VAW s o ies newswo hy. Thus,
San aemilia shows ha VAW epo s end o a ac NEGATIVITY, IMPACT,
SUPERLATIVENESS (which ansmi he idea ha VAW episodes a e mainly cons uc ed
by means o in ensi ica ion and quan i ica ion), and ELITENESS. The pape also makes
mani es he sca ce ep esen a ion o pe pe a o s in he news as compa ed o he ic ims.
Ja ie Calle-Ma ín applies co pus-based echniques o he s udy o abb e ia ions
in ea ly English medical w i ing. The s udy ills a gap in he li e a u e since i p o ides
schola s wi h da a belonging o he medical gen e ha will complemen he bulk o s udies
ha ha e adi ionally aken li e a y ex s o s udy his kind o phenomenon. F om a
a ia ionis pe spec i e, Calle-Ma ín s udies he use o abb e ia ions in La e Middle
English and Ea ly Mode n English in he Málaga Co pus o Ea ly English Scien i ic
P ose
17
and classi ies he ins ances acco ding o he ex ype in which hey ha e been
a es ed (i.e. heo e ical ea ises and ecipe collec ions). The esul s demons a e, on he
one hand, ha he abb e ia ion sys em was uns able in La e Middle English and ha he
p edominance o b e ig aphs declined in he ansi ion o Ea ly Mode n English. On he
o he hand, he da a show ha he in en o y o abb e ia ions is g ea e and mo e widely
dis ibu ed in lea ned medical composi ions.
The linguis ic ea u es o he No inghamshi e subdialec a e desc ibed by Jake
Fla and Lau a Es eban-Segu a using a co pus-based me hodology. Fo he pu pose, a
26,000-wo d co pus consis ing o o al ex s was compiled. The s udy ocuses on phone ic
ea u es ( he phonemes /æ/ and /ʊ/, he ela nasal plus clus e , ocalisa ion o he
phoneme /l/ and h-d opping), mo phosyn ac ic ea u es ( e bal ellipsis and i egula pas
ense pa adigms), and lexical ea u es (mining, g ee ings, and a ec iona e ocabula y).
Fla and Es eban-Segu a conclude ha he da a a e in line wi h he phonological and
mo phosyn ac ic cha ac e is ics o he No inghamshi e subdialec . Wi h ega d o he
lexical ea u es, no mining ocabula y was a es ed, mos likely because mining ac i i y
has no aken place in he a e o se e al decades.
In he las con ibu ion, Al onso Sánchez-Moya esumes he discussion o VAW
(In ima e Pa ne Violence, IPV, in his e minology), bu his ime he ocus mo es o a
17
h ps://mode nmss.uma.es/
ix
di e en ype o ex , namely online o um pos s. His main aim is o analyse he discu si e
cons uc ions used in online o ums by women who ei he a e o ha e been in abusi e
ela ionships making use o a CADS app oach (Pa ing on e al. 2013). By means o a
keyness analysis, he au ho iden i ies he main ea u es o his kind o pos s as compa ed
o o he ypes o online discou ses. As one migh expec , many e ms un eil he cons an
eeling o ea ha imp egna es he pos s. He also explo es he way in which ic ims o
IPV ep esen bo h hemsel es and hei pe pe a o s. The kind o e bs used in he pos s
analysed a e highly enligh ening in his ega d, as hey show how he discou se o hese
women changes om an ini ial o a inal s age o abuse (i.e. om he subco pus o pos s
w i en by women in an abusi e ela ionship o he subco pus o women who no longe
a e in such a ela ionship).
In sum, he con ibu ions in his special issue highligh he as possibili ies o
analysing discou se h ough co po a. We hope ha hese a icles help o b oaden ou
knowledge o discou se analysis and new me hods o analysis wi hin he discipline o
Co pus Linguis ics, and ha hey se e as inspi a ion o o he co pus linguis s o u he
explo e language om a ious pe spec i es.
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