ARTICLE
Spanish–F ench leech ade and i s consequences: F om
he inc ease in medical demand o esou ce deple ion and
echnical inno a ion
Damián Copena
1
and Ma ía Gómez-Ma ín
2
1
Facul ad de Adminis ación y Di ección de Emp esas, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, C. A onso X o Sabio, s/n, 27002,
Lugo, Spain, [email p o ec ed]
2
Facul ad de Ciencias Económicas y Emp esa iales, Uni e si y o Cádiz, C. En ique Villegas Vélez, 2, 11002 Cádiz, Spain, ma ia.
[email p o ec ed]
Co esponding au ho : Damián Copena; Email: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
This a icle s udies he impac caused by he success and dissemina ion o B oussais’ heo ies on he use o
leeches as a medical supply on Spanish–F ench ade ela ions, as well as i s consequences o he Spanish
ma ke be ween 1821 and he 1860s. Analysing he documen s p oduced by he di e en public adminis-
a ions, oge he wi h newspape and a chi al sou ces in bo h Spain and F ance and he li e a u e and
legisla ion o ha pe iod, allows us o unde s and he e olu ion o his ade and he hea y impac i had on
he au och honous popula ion o his animal esou ce. The a icle e eals how, a he beginning o he 1820s,
leeches became an impo an medical supply and how he demand o hem inc eased signi ican ly. This
ga e ise o a ade ela ion be ween Spain and F ance ha led o he o e exploi a ion o he esou ce, he
issuing o egula ions on he ma e , and he sea ch o echnological solu ions o inc ease he p oduc ion o
leeches.
Keywo ds: Hi udo medicinalis; Medical inpu ; Medicinal leeches; Medical p ac ice; Hi udinicul u e; Leech e e ; Ru al
indus y; Ru al inno a ion; Ru al esou ces; Nine een h cen u y
In oduc ion
In 1839, Ma eo Seoane, in a ex ha denounced he s a e o he Spanish leech ma ke , desc ibed his
animal as ‘one o he mos p ecious medical esou ces’.
1
Tha was qui e an accu a e summa y o he
si ua ion. Seoane, who was a membe as well as he p esiden o he illus ious Sociedad Económica
Ma i ense (Economic Socie y o Mad id) be ween 1843 and 1850, c i icised he abuses o which
in e na ional ade had subjec ed hese in e eb a es in Spain, causing he almos o al ex inc ion o
he au och honous popula ion due o he ise in p ices and he in ensi ica ion o he demand o medical
ea men ha had aken place since he beginning o he 1820s.
Al hough he use o leeches o ea a wide a ie y o diseases da es back o ancien imes, i was du ing
he 19
h
cen u y when i eached i s peak.
2
In e ec , he p ac ice o medicinal leech he apy
(hi udo he apy), based on he use o he Hi udo medicinalis, has been known o mo e han
3,500 yea s and applied o he ea men o head and s omach aches, in lamma o y diseases, di e en
© The Au ho (s), 2024. Published by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. This is an Open Access a icle, dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion licence (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0), which pe mi s un es ic ed e-use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion,
p o ided he o iginal a icle is p ope ly ci ed.
1
Ma eo Seoane, ‘De Las Sanguijuelas y de La C ía y Come cio de Ellas En España’,Semana io Pin o esco Español, 7 Ap il
1839, 109.
2
B. W. Pay on, ‘Medicinal Leeching: The Golden Age’,Canadian Bulle in o Medical His o y, 1, 1 (1984), 79–90; Iain S.
Whi ake e al., ‘Hi udo Medicinalis and he Plas ic Su geon’,B i ish Jou nal o Plas ic Su ge y, 57, 4 (2004), 348–53.
Medical His o y (2024), 68: 1, 42–59
doi:10.1017/mdh.2024.5
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
ypes o e e s, o , a e Mediae al imes, neu ological and psychia ic diso de s.
3
In ac ,di e en cul u es
–Egyp ian, Babylonian, Indian, Chinese and Eu opean
4
–had u ned o he apeu ic bloodle ing by
leeches, a me hodp e e ed o enesec ion when i came o elimina ingblood ha hadbeen co up ed by a
disease and es o ing heal h.
5
I was a widesp ead p ac ice, which was pa o he u al household economy and had a daily
he apeu ic use.
6
Fa om languishing wi h mode ni y, i became pa icula ly popula du ing he i s
hal o he 19
h
cen u y, a e he heo ies o he F ench medical doc o F ançoise J. V. B oussais (1772–
1838) we e published.
The in luence o B oussais’ heo ies, added o his p es igious ca ee as a mili a y doc o ,
7
helped inc ease
he popula i y o hi udo he apy om 1821 and ele a ed he s a us o leeches, which became a widely used
medical supply.
8
This ci cums ance caused, om he 1820s onwa ds, a spec acula g ow h in he demand o
leeches in F ance.
9
This coun y used 50 o 100 million leeches annually du ing he i s yea s o he boom
10
and became he la ges wo ld consume o his g oup o in e eb a es, gi en he high consump ion o hese
animals in medical cen es and doc o ’s o ices.
11
No only did his si ua ion collapse he coun y’s leech-
p oduc ion a eas, bu F ench ade s we e o ced o sea ch o he p ecious p oduc in o eign ma ke s,
which led o he impo o o e i y-se en million specimens in 1832 alone.
12
The need o gua an ee he
supply o he new medical supply explains he F ench ade s’ a els o he main leech b eeding a eas in
Eu ope, he c ea ion o dis ibu ion ne wo ks, and he apid ise in p ices, as well as a s ong ha es ing
p essu e ac oss he con inen ha b ough he local popula ions almos o ex inc ion.
13
Wi hin his con ex , p oximi y made Spain one o he i s coun ies whe e F ench ade s a elled o
ob ainleeches.
14
Aswillbeshown in henex sec ion,al eadya heendo he1820s,F ance’sneighbou ing
coun ies denounced he o e exploi a iono he esou ce, and he Spanish Go e nmen , in pa icula , ook
he i s s eps o limi he collec ion o leeches and a oid hei disappea ance.
15
Those measu es we e
eenac ed in 1839, when a empo a y p ohibi ion o leech ade was inally imposed.
16
3
A.M. Abdualkade e al., ‘Leech The apeu ic Applica ions’,Indian Jou nal o Pha maceu ical Sciences, 75, 2 (2013), 127–37;
Robe G.W. Ki k e al., ‘The Bi h o Hi udicul u e: Pa isian Medicine, Leech Fa ming and he T ans o ma iono Ma shland in
Nine een h–Cen u y F ance’,En i onmen and His o y, 149, (2022),112878; a ailable a h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.bio-
pha.2022.112878.
4
Iain S. Whi ake e al., ‘His o ical A icle: Hi udo Medicinalis: Ancien O igins o , and T ends in he Use o Medicinal
Leeches h oughou His o y’,Jou nal o O al and Maxillo acial Su ge y, 42 (2004), 133–7.
5
A. Eldo e al., ‘The Role o he Leech in Medical The apeu ics’,Blood Re iews, 10, 4 (1996), 201–9; Ma ia Rosa Mon ina i
and Se gio Minelli, ‘F om Ancien Leech o Di ec Th ombin Inhibi o s and Beyond: New om Old’,Biomedicine &
Pha maco he apy, 149 (2022), 1–8.
6
Ki k e al., op. ci . (no e 3).
7
Michel Valen in, F ançois B oussais, 1772-1838: Empe eu de La Médecine: Jeunesse, Co espondance, Vie e Oeu e (Pa is:
Associa ion des amis du Musée du pays de Dina d, 1988).
8
Ki k e al., op. ci . (no e 3). One canno igno e he ac ha , e e since he F ench Re olu ion, he e olu ion o poli ical,
economic, and social hough in Spain has been s ongly condi ioned by he e en s aking place in F ance. In ac , he in ellec ual
ounda ions o he libe al and mode n s a e we e laid du ing he eigns o Cha les IV (1788–1808) and Fe dinand VII (1808–
1833), and hey held F ance as he example o ollow. The new sys em was consolida ed a e he dea h o he las Spanish
absolu e mona ch in 1833.
9
Teunis an W. an Heiningen, ‘Jean–Bap is e Sa landiè e’s Mechanical Leeches (1817–1825): An Ea ly Response in he
Ne he lands o a Sho age o Leeches’,Medical His o y, 53, 2 (2009), 253–70.
10
Claude Renne , ‘Des Sangsues, Des Tailles e Des P ix’,Re ue d’his oi e de La Pha macie, 94, 349 (2006), 98–100.
11
The p esc ip ion o leeches a ied depending on he ype o pa ien , disease, and doc o , hence he a ia ion in he numbe
o leeches gene ally used acco ding o medical eco ds, which anged be ween h ee and i e. Occasionally, he numbe could be
as high as en, o e en wen y i he doc o deemed i necessa y. The case wi h he highes numbe o leeches applied is ha o a
woman who was diagnosed wi h pneumonia and had eigh y Hi udos placed on he ches . See John Upshaw and J. Pa ick
O’Lea y, ‘The Medicinal Leech: Pas and P esen ’,The Ame ican Su geon, 66, 3 (2000), 313–4.
12
Adminis a ion des Douanes, Tableau Géné al Du Comme ce de La F ance A ec Ses Colonies e Les Puissances É angè es,
Pendan l’année 1832 (Pa is: De L’Imp ime ie Royale, 1833).
13
Ki k e al., op. ci . (no e 3).
14
Elie D’Eb a d, Nou elle Monog aphie Des Sangsues (Pa is: Chez J.–B Bailliè e, 1857), 328; Cha les Fe mond, Monog aphie
Des Sangsues Médicinales (Pa is: Ge me Bailliè e Lib ai e–Édi eu , 1854), 252.
15
‘Real O den, 9 Augus 1827’,Gace a de Mad id, 21 Augus 1827.
16
‘Real O den, 30 Julio 1839’,Gace a de Mad id, 7 Augus 1839.
Spanish–F ench leech ade and i s consequences 43
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Meanwhile, he dissemina ion o B oussais’ heo ies ab oad caused a no able inc ease o he
consump ion o medicinal leeches in Spain. The inc ease in demand is con i med by public ende
documen s and by he need o implemen public policies ha es ic ed leech expo s. In his sense, a he
end o he s udy pe iod, which co e s he yea s be ween 1821 and he 1860s, public ende ing p ocedu es
o he p o ision o leeches o hospi als, p isons, o cha i y ins i u ions we e equen . Some public
biddings in ol ed he p o ision o la ge numbe s o leeches, as o he Valencia gene al hospi al, which
es ima ed i s annual demand o be 400,000 specimens in 1866.
17
The combina ion o domes ic sho age and gene alized inc ease o he medical demand o his
animal mo i a ed he sea ch o echnological solu ions ha could boos p oduc ion o mee demand and
s abilise p ices, as expec ed by di e en public adminis a ions.
18
As a esul , mul iple ini ia i es eme ged
o he cons uc ion o b eeding a ms, he de elopmen o new p oduc ion models, he c ea ion o
awa ds o inno a ion in his sec o , he publica ion o in o ma ion ma e ial,
19
and he ansla ion o
speci ic F ench aining ma e ial.
20
In summa y, a se ies o measu es we e implemen ed o espond o
he needs gene a ed.
Despi e he inc easing ele ance o he consump ion and ade o medicinal leeches in Spain, ew
scien i ic wo ks ha e analysed his sec o up un il now, whe he in ou coun y o ab oad, mos no ably
he wo k o Sawye and Ki k and Pembe on.
21
In his sense, he absence o li e a u e add essing Spanish
ade ela ions wi h F ance a ec ing hese in e eb a es should be no ed. Nei he is he e an analysis o
he legal ini ia i es o egula e he collec ion o his medical esou ce no o he geog aphy o leech
p oduc ion, which was clea ly u al
22
. Likewise, no s udy has been ye conduc ed on he main sphe es o
medicinal leech consump ion o on b eeding expe iences a e he c ea ion o b eeding a ms.
I is he e o e necessa y o ad ance knowledge o he economic ac i i ies de eloped a ound his
in e eb a e. Thus, he p esen esea ch wo k has he main objec i e o inc easing scien i ic knowledge o
he his o y and economy o he leech sec o in Spain, ocusing on he p ocesses o collec ion and
egula ion, a eas o demand o medical use, and ade ela ions wi h F ance. Fo his pu pose, we analyse
he dynamic ha un olded be ween 1821, a he ou b eak o he ‘leech e e ’, and he 1860s, when he
consume is spi al began o slow down.
This wo k aims o s udy he e olu ion o he Spanish–F ench leech ade and o analyse i s impac on
he sus ainabili y o he esou ce. In addi ion, bo h he public esponse o he p oblem, h ough he
passing o egula o y legisla ion, and he p i a e esponse o i , which in ol ed os e ing echnical
inno a ion, a e he e examined.
17
Gace a de Mad id, 11 Sep embe 1866.
18
The Dipu ación de Ou ense (Ou ense P o incial Adminis a ion) is a good example o his, when i highligh ed ha ‘ he
public in e es claims o mo e and new es ablishmen s o his indus y’(Bole ín O icial de la P o incia de Ou ense, 2 Feb ua y
1858).
19
The appendix on leech b eeding published in he Ensayo de zoología ag ícola y o es al de An onio Blanco Fe nández
(Mad id: Imp en a Nacional, 1859), a e a p oposi ion o he Real Consejo de Ag icul u a, Indus ia y Come cio (Royal
Council o Ag icul u e, Indus y and T ade) o he Spanish Go e nmen is wo h men ioning.
20
Including he wo k La piscicul u e y la ep oducción de las sanguijuelas, by Augus o Jou die , ansla ed o make i a ailable
in public lib a ies.
21
To b oaden in o ma ion on leech consump ion in he in e na ional con ex , i is essen ial o consul he wo k o Roy T.
Sawye , ‘The T ade in Medicinal Leeches in he Sou he n Indian Ocean in he Nine een h Cen u y’,Medical His o y, 43 (1999),
241–45; ‘His o y o he Leech T ade in I eland, 1750–1915: Mic ocosm o a Global Commodi y’,Medical His o y, 57 (2013),
420–41, and ‘The Po uguese Leech in he 19
h
Cen u y: The Fi s T ans–A lan ic Comme ce in Medicinal Leeches’,Anua io do
Cen o de Es udos de His o ia do A lan ico, 7,283–322; and Robe G.W. Ki k and Neil Pembe on, ‘Re–Imagining Bleede s: The
Medical Leech in he Nine een h Cen u y Bloodle ing Encoun e ’,Medical His o y, 55 (2009), 355–60.
22
Leech ha es ing is done in u al and usually impo e ished a eas, whose economy is dis inc i ely based on ag icul u e. In
hose a eas, economic ac i i ies in ol ing he collec ion o p oduc ion o leeches we e impo an a a local le el, as shown in
se e al en ies on u al popula ion in he geog aphical dic iona y by Pascual Madoz (Pascual Madoz, Dicciona io Geog á ico–
Es adís ico–His ó ico de España y Sus Posesiones de Ul ama , 16 ols [Mad id: Imp en a del Dicciona io Geog á ico–
Es adís ico–His ó ico de D. Pascual Madoz, 1845]). See he ‘F om leech e e o comme cial dependence’sec ion.
44 Damián Copena and Ma ía Gómez-Ma ín
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To ca y ou his esea ch, we ha e collec ed and analysed di e en his o ical esou ces. Thus, we ha e
consul ed Spanish and F ench bibliog aphical and p ess publica ions o he 18
h
and 19
h
cen u ies, in
addi ion o scien i ic li e a u e on he objec o s udy. We ha e s udied he egula ions conce ning his
issue published in he o icial jou nal Gace a de Mad id
23
du ing his pe iod. Finally, we ha e ga he ed
da a on Spanish–F ench ade om he his o ical s a is ical sou ces a ailable.
As o he s uc u e o his a icle, his in oduc ion is ollowed by a sec ion ha explo es he
mo i a ions o he boom o he leech ade be ween Spain and F ance a e he success o B oussais’
heo ies. The hi d sec ion analyses he e olu ion o his ade, and he impac caused in hose a eas
whe e he annelid was p oduced. Finally, he las sec ion is de o ed o examining he public and p i a e
echnological inno a ion ini ia i es unde aken o he pu pose o gua an eeing he supply o leeches o
he medical supplies ma ke .
B oussais’ heo ies and he leech e e
Be o e he change in medical ends caused by he popula isa ion o B oussais’ heo ies, popula belie s
and adi ional medicine in Spanish u al a eas o en ecommended he use o leeches as one o he mos
help ul esou ces o cu e many diseases. This use was explained by he abundance o leeches, hei low
p ice and he ac ha hei collec ion was sus ainably managed.
24
Thus, p io o he dissemina ion o
B oussais’ heo ies,
25
he consump ion o leeches in Spain was localised. Leeches we e ha es ed in i e s,
lagoons and ponds, and dis ibu ed in he closes u ban cen es, whe e hei p ice emained s able: ‘In
Mad id, du ing he i s i een yea s o his cen u y [ he p ice was] eigh o en eales pe hund ed,’
26
wi h an upwa d swing hough, o he gene al hospi al o his ci y paid as much as ou een eales pe
hund ed.
27
In u al a eas, in con as , he p ice was wo o h ee eales pe hund ed.
28
The same was ue
o F ance; in ac , he F ench p oduc ion o leeches a he ime was enough o mee he domes ic
consump ion and e en expo he su plus.
29
Likewise, F ench p ices, hough oscilla ing be ween i een
and six y ancs pe housand, emained mos ly s able.
30
Gi en he g owing F ench demand and he exhaus ion o he p oduc ion a eas in F ance, he 1820s
ep esen ed a u ning poin , especially a e F ench ade s began sea ching o his p ecious p oduc in
o eign ma ke s.
31
Thei in e es in his singula medical supply os e ed a apid and in ensi e sea ch
ac oss Spain, which, hanks o p oximi y and he consolida ed o ade ela ions, especially since he
accession o he Bou bon dynas y o he Spanish h one in 1700, in ol ed lowe anspo cos s han
hose de i ed om he collec ion o leeches in mo e dis an e i o ies. F om hen on, F ench ade s
in ensi ied hei p esence and ac i i y in hose Spanish a eas whe e his in e eb a e was mo e abundan .
As a esul o his p ocess, du ing he i s yea s o he s udied pe iod, copious numbe s o leeches we e
anspo ed o Pa is and o he la ge ci ies in F ance, including Ma seille and Bo deaux. To make his
possible, he de elopmen o a comme cial ne wo k capable o managing all phases o he p ocess became
23
The Gace a de Mad id was he o icial pe iodical publica ion whe e all he dec ees, o de s, and ins uc ions dic a ed by he
Spanish Go e nmen we e published be ween 1762 and he ou b eak o he Ci il Wa in 1936. See Sa a Núñez de P ado, ‘De la
Gace a de Mad id al Bole ín O icial del Es ado’,His o ia y Comunicación Social, 7 (2002), 147–60.
24
Ki k e al., op. ci . (no e 3).
25
F ançois B oussais’ i s wo k was published in 1816 (L’Examen des doc ines médicales géné alemen adop ées) bu had
almos no epe cussion. Only in 1821, while he was he di ec o o he mon hly jou nal, Annales de la Médicine Physiologique,
did his heo ies gain p ominence and sp ead ac oss he Wes e n wo ld.
26
Seoane, op. ci . (no e 1), 108. Reales we e he Spanish cu ency.
27
Mo eo e , Seoane insis s ha , up o 1821, leeches had ne e been comme cialised ou side Spain, ‘o i hey had, in some
ins ances, o England, i was a such a low scale ha i ha dly dese es o be men ioned’,ibid., 107.
28
Ibid., 108.
29
N. J–B. G. Guibou , His o ia Na u al de Las D ogas Simples o Cu so de His o ia Na u al Explicado En La Escuela de
Fa macia de Pa ís, Vol. III, 4
a
(Mad id: Imp en a a ca go de D. Manuel A. Gil., 1852), 203.
30
Ibid.
31
D’Eb a d, op. ci . (no e 14), 327.
Spanish–F ench leech ade and i s consequences 45
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necessa y. The acili ies equi ed o ha es he esou ce we e buil in p oduc ion a eas.
32
Jou die
explains in de ail he p ocess o c ea ing a eas o he p oduc ion o leeches by adap ing na u al swamps
o building a i icial swamps o a ou he ep oduc ion and g ow h o leeches.
33
Speci ic echnological
inno a ions we e in oduced in hese p oduc ion p ocesses, such as he Bo ne and Doc o Sau é boxes
used o b eeding his in e eb a e.
34
In addi ion, new anspo sys ems we e c ea ed o gua an ee he animals’su i al un il hey eached
he cen es o consump ion.
35
As e e s o he ca e o leeches ou side hei na u al habi a , he p ocedu e
mos o en used in Spain was o pu hem in o la ge con aine s whe e a base o clay had been laid.
36
The e we e h ee majo ou es o he anspo o hese annelids o F ance by land and by sea.
37
Leeches a elled o F ance om he no hwes o Spain (Galicia, León, o Salamanca) h ough Bayonne;
om he Medi e anean coas h ough Pe pignan; and om A agón and o he su ounding a eas
h ough he Bagnè es de Luchon moun ain pass.
38
The impo ance o hese comme cial ou es is
con i med by he ac ha Spain and Po ugal we e he la ges expo e s o leeches o F ance,
39
ollowed
by G eece, I aly, and Alge ia, which also occupied a p ominen place in comme cial s a is ics.
40
The impo ance o his comme cial low mo i a ed he Spanish Go e nmen ’s decision o app o e a
speci ic legisla ion on he expo o leeches. The i s egula o y ini ia i e was launched du ing he boom
o he leech ade, when he F ench comme cial ne wo ks we e al eady ully es ablished. The i s
legisla ion on he expo o medicinal leeches was o icially app o ed in Janua y 1827. The egula ion,
which ollowed he guidelines es ablished by he Jun a de A anceles (Ta i Boa d) in Ap il 1826, allowed
he expo o leeches a en eales pe pound.
41
As e idence o he F ench monopsony powe in he
in e na ional ade o Spanish leeches, we can men ion ha only in he po s and cus oms o Vi o ia,
O duña (Bilbao), Ag eda (So ia), Can anc (Huesca), and La Junque a (Gi ona), which was closes o he
F ench bo de , was a e i ica ion by he cen al adminis a ion equi ed.
42
Figu e 1 shows he loca ion o
a ious places ha we e ele an o he Spanish–F ench leech ade. To he cus oms con ol and exi
poin s, we ha e added he mos impo an ecep ion cen es upon a i al in F ance (Bayonne, Pe pignan,
and Luchon). One o he main p oduc ion a eas ( he An ela lagoon) is also men ioned.
32
As was he case o he ac o y es ablished by he lagoon o An ela (Ou ense, Galicia) o he collec ion and expo o leeches
o F ance. See Juan Manuel Bedoya, Memo ia Sob e El Desagüe de La Laguna An ela o de La Limia, En La P o incia Obispado de
O ense, Reino de Galicia (Ou ense: O icina de D. Juan Ma ía de Pazos, 1831), 13–4.
33
Jou die , op. ci . (no e 20).
34
Bo ne de eloped a b eeding sys em by placing bo omless boxes in he wa e , wi h a base o moss co e ed wi hlaye s o u
(Jou die , op. ci . [no e 20], 130–41).
35
The anspo o hese animals, ali e and in good s a e, was no easy and equi ed some logis ics. Fab ic sacks, which we e
kep humid inside baske s, o wood boxes ull o we clay we e no mally used o his pu pose, see José O iol Ronquillo,
Dicciona io de Ma e ia Me can il, Indus ial y Ag ícola, Vol. IV (Ba celona: Imp en a de José Tauló, 1857), 258.
36
José Ma ía Sa ús egui, ‘El Me cado de las Sanguijuelas en el País Vasco’,Cuade nos de E nología y E nog a ía de Na a a,
4, 10 (1972), 43–52. The de ailed p ocedu e was as ollows. Leeches we e pu in o small holes and co e ed wi h ea h. A second
laye was applied on op o he i s one, and hus successi ely un il he con aine was ull. Be o e placing hem in o he
con aine , he leeches we e washed wi h eshwa e , and hisac ion was epea ed e e y i een days. The c op o leeches equi ed
daily su eillance un il deli e y, and anspo a ion by land o sea o any in e media e des ina ion was done in he same way,
wi h he clo h sacks being dampened egula ly. Upon a i al a he inal des ina ion, which was gene ally a pha macy o a
p ac i ione ’s o ice, leeches we e kep in wa e inside c ys al o ce amic ja s wi h pe o a ed lids. Finally, house doc o s used
small con aine s in which hey kep up o wel e leeches (R. K a e z, ‘Leech Ja ’,Ame ican Jou nal o Gas oen e ology, 96, 3
[2001]), 894).
37
Gace a de Mad id, 16 Janua y 1844.
38
Joseph Ma in, His oi e P a ique Des Sangsues (Pa is: Imp ime ie Panckoucke, 1845), 57.
39
D’Eb a d, op. ci . (no e 14), 328.
40
Fe mond, op. ci . (no e 14), 252.
41
‘Real O den, 23 Janua y 1827’, allowing he expo o leeches a en eales pe pound. See Guía Me can il de España
(Mad id: Imp en a de I. Sancha, 1829).
42
Cus oms con ol o his ade exis ed as well in o he coun ies, such as B azil, whe e cus oms eco ds speci ied he numbe
o leeches expo ed, hei axable alue, and he ci cums ances su ounding any con isca ion o ax pu poses (Sawye , 2015,
op. ci . [no e 21]).
46 Damián Copena and Ma ía Gómez-Ma ín
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
I is ne e heless clea ha , be o e he egula ion was app o ed, hesi ua ion was al eady di icul in he
main dis ibu ion a eas. In e ec , he sea ch, collec ion, and anspo o leeches o F ance was a e y apid
p ocess ha had nega i e consequences o he esou ce. This ci cums ance was well desc ibed in F ench
documen s, which unde lined he high ha es ing in ensi y and i s impac on ese es. Fo ins ance, he
Pa isian ade Joseph Ma in men ioned ha , be ween 1824 and 1828, ‘ wo yea s we e enough o deple e
he ponds o hese las wo p o inces (Valencia and A agon)’,and‘ ou yea s o heimpo s om Spain o
be almos nil’.
43
A ound he same ime, Alphonse Che alie w o e ha he we lands in Spain, which had
p e iously supplied leeches o F ench consump ion, we e almos deple ed ‘gi en he lack o in elligence
wi h which he ha es is ca ied ou in ponds and lagoons’.
44
As p oo o he ele ance o leech ade, we
can men ion ha , in 1826, Spain’s o al leech expo s p oduced e enues o 1.9 million eales. This igu e is
ex emely signi ican , especially when compa ed wi h hose ob ained by o he lagship p oduc s in Spain,
such as ci us ui s, he expo s o which amoun ed o 3.6 million eales.
45
The e o e, i is no su p ising ha Spanish documen s o his pe iod e e o he damage ha was
being done o he popula ions o leeches in he coun y. The i s claims agains excess expo s and
deple ion o he na u al esou ce can be ound in he desc ip ions ha he Dicciona io geog á ico–
es adís ico de España y Po ugal, di ec ed by Sebas ián Miñano, made o Spanish economic ac i i ies
be ween 1826 and 1829, he pe iod du ing which he en olumes o he wo k we e published. This sou ce
depic s he p oblems associa ed wi h he lack o egula ion and he g ea imbalance be ween local
collec o s and leech ade s who p o i ed om selling hese animals o medical use.
Fo ins ance, he desc ip ion o Can alejo (Sego ia) published in he abo e–men ioned dic iona y
says o he local lagoons:
Figu e 1. Geog aphical loca ion o impo an a eas o he Spanish–F ench leech ade. Sou ce: P epa ed by he au ho s.
43
Ma in, op. ci . (no e 38), 57.
44
Alphonse Che alie , Dicciona io de Las Al e aciones y Falsi icaciones de Las Sus ancias Alimen icias, Medicamen osas y
Come ciales Con La Indicación de Los Medios de Reconoce las, Vol. I (Mad id: Imp en a de Manuel Ál a ez, 1854), 148.
45
Balanza del come cio de España con las po encias ex anje as en el año de 1826 (Mad id: Miguel de Bu gos, 1828).
Spanish–F ench leech ade and i s consequences 47
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
…du ing he las yea o 1825, and wi hin a ew days only, mo e han 300,000 leeches we e
ha es ed and immedia ely aken o F ance by na i es o ha coun y. This yea hey e u ned
sea ching o he same good, and hey ook an immense amoun o i . I is wo h men ioning, o he
in o ma ion o he Go e nmen and hose in e es ed in his issue, ha las yea hose ade s paid
4 o6 eales pe pound o hese c ea u es, and ha his yea hey ha e paid 20 eales pe pound, and
ha bo h yea s hey ha e sold hem in Bayonne a 45 o 50 eales pe hund ed.
46
In he en y on Solsona (Lleida), he dic iona y also desc ibes he in e es o F ance in his ade: ‘in
which many F ench ci izens pa icipa e, who in he las ew yea s ha e paid leech inde s a ound
100 du os pe day’.
47
These es imonies e idence he ense ela ionship be ween he local popula ion and
o eign ade s a he ime o g ea es sho age o he esou ce. The occu ence o iolen e en s in
ela ion o he ha es ing o leeches o be expo ed o F ance is also con i med. Thus, he F ench
newspape Jou nal du Che published how, in he all o 1825, a F ench collec o was cap u ed by ou
Spania ds, who ied him o a ee and applied o him he animals he had collec ed, which caused his
dea h.
48
These s a emen s a e consis en wi h he exis ing s a is ical in o ma ion. Mo e speci ically, in 1827,
which is he i s yea o which leech ade da a a e a ailable, mo e han 2.1 million specimens we e
expo ed om Spain o F ance.
49
And he amoun could be highe , because he e was an illegal ade low
ha bypassed cus oms and he e o e wen un eco ded in he o icial accoun s.
50
In ac , when we obse e he e olu ion o he expo o leeches om Spain o F ance (Figu e 2), we can
see ha , in he yea s be o e 1827, he ha es ing and anspo o leeches o F ance was al eady no able.
E en i i con inued un il he end o he 1820s, his end slowed d ama ically a he beginning o he
1830s. Fo ins ance, a epo o he Sociedad Económica Ma i ense indica ed ha :
The (F ench ading) companies c ea ed o his pu pose… a elled ou p o inces and,al hough i is
oo di icul o calcula e, e en app oxima ely, he numbe o leeches ha es ed in ou e i o y, he e
is no doub ha , pa icula ly be ween 1826 and 1832, i eached se e al millions, bo h because o he
e y no able educ ion obse ed a e 1829 in mos b eeding a eas, whe e he esou ce was mo e
abundan be o e ha pe iod, and because one o he companies in ol ed in he collec ion collec ed
wo and a hal millions du ing 1832, acco ding o wha one o he pa ne s decla ed in 1833.
51
In his sense, he gene alized pe cep ion ha he esou ce was being o e exploi ed led o he
es ablishmen o he i s es ic ions o he collec ion o leeches in he egion o Galicia, only some
mon hs a e he passing o he expo egula ion. In he no hwes o he Ibe ian peninsula, he place o
e e ence o he ha es ing o leeches was he lagoon o An ela, in he Galician p o ince o Ou ense.
52
46
Sebas ián Miñano, Dicciona io de Geog á ico–Es adís ico de España y Po ugal, 10 ols (Mad id: Imp en a de Pie a
Pe al a, 1826), ol. 2, 346.
47
Ibid., ol. 8, 518.
48
Jou nal du Che , 8 Oc obe 1825.
49
Adminis a ion des Douanes, Tableau Décennal Du Comme ce de La F ance A ec Ses Colonies e Les Puissances É angè es,
1827 à 1836 (Pa is: De L’Imp ime ie Royale, 1838).
50
an Heiningen, op. ci . (no e 9). Likewise, he lack o Spanish o icial documen s abou his ini ial pe iod p e en s us om
knowing he exac size o he leech impo lows, whe he om neighbou ing coun ies like Po ugal o Mo occo, o om he
old Spanish colonies in Ame ica.
51
Sociedad Económica Ma i ense, ‘Dic amen de Una Comisión Especial Compues a de Los Socios D. An onio Sandalio de
A ias; D. Eusebio Ma ía Del Valle; D. Luis Alonso Flo eza D. Nicolás Casas y Don Ma eo Seoane, Redac o de Él, Sob e Una
Rep esen ación Del Ayun amien o de Valencia, EnLa CualSolici a de S.M,Que SeTomen Disposiciones E icaces Pa a Impedi
La Fal a de Sanguijuelas’,Gace a de Mad id, 14 Feb ua y 1839.
52
Madoz desc ibed leeches om he An ela lagoon as he ones mos alued inside and ou side Spain (Madoz, op. ci . [no e
22], ol. 12, 312). They we e s ill popula as la e as 1865 (Fe nando Fulgosio, C ónica Gene al de España. ol. 1 [Mad id: Aquiles
Ronchi. 1865] 23). Leeches om he Se anía de Cuenca and Ex emadu a also gained enown du ing he same pe iod (Ma iano
48 Damián Copena and Ma ía Gómez-Ma ín
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
In his e i o y, a ac o y had been es ablished o he collec ion and expo o leeches o F ance, which
yielded ‘ he F ench so much p o i as he expo o una ish om he una ne s o Conil’,
53
and was
conside ed o be bene icial o bo h he local popula ion and he Go e nmen ‘gi en he expo a i s he
ade gene a ed’.
54
Thus, while he Go e nmen esponded o p i a e demands o make g ea e p o i s om a ade wi h
F ance on which i had no ye legisla ed, some p o ec ionis measu es we e implemen ed in Galicia o
he pu pose o p ese ing his medical esou ce. In pa icula , he eques o he Subdelegación de
Medicina, Ci ujía y Fa macia (Subdelega ion o Medicine, Su ge y and Pha macy) o San iago de
Compos ela o se a limi o he ha es ing o leeches du ing a wo-yea pe iod mo i a ed he passing
o a Royal O de
55
ha imposed a closed season in Galician e i o y by o bidding he collec ion o
leeches du ing he mon hs o Ma ch, Ap il, and May, which is hei b eeding pe iod. The a gumen s pu
o wa d o his egula ion, which became a e e ence o simila measu es implemen ed by he
Go e nmen o Sa dinia,
56
we e ‘ he sho age and high p ice’o leeches in his e i o y and he ac
ha ‘only he e he esou ce has become sca ce’.
57
The p ohibi ion was discussed in he F ench p ess,
which explained ha , e en i his wo-yea suspension o he expo o leeches was also ini ially eques ed
by o he Spanish e i o ies, i was inally concluded ha he mos a ec ed a ea was Galicia, and he
closed season was ul ima ely es ablished only he e and only du ing he sp ing mon hs.
58
Figu e 2. E olu ion o leech expo s om Spain o F ance (1827–1856). Sou ce: P epa ed by he au ho s on he basis o he
Adminis a ion des Douanes (1827–1856).
del Amo y Mo a, P og ama y esumen de las lecciones de ma e ia a macéu ica mine al y animal [G anada: Imp in o
D. Indalencio Ven u a, 1869], 325).
53
Bedoya, op. ci . (no e 32), 13–4.
54
Miñano, op. ci . (no e 46), ol. 5, 116.
55
‘Real O den, 9 Augus 1827’,op. ci . (no e 15).
56
Following he example o Galicia, in 1828 Sa dinia suspended he expo o leeches o wo yea s, s a ing in May, while
collec ion was o bidden du ing No embe and Janua y (Jou nal du Comme ce, 7 May 1828).
57
‘Real O den, 9 Augus 1827’,op. ci . (no e 15).
58
As speci ied in he newspape s Le Vé idique, Jou nal poli ique, adminis a i e li é ai e du dépa amen de l’He aul
(15 Oc obe 1827) and Jou nal du comme ce (3 Oc obe 1827).
Spanish–F ench leech ade and i s consequences 49
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
Ano he elemen o he discussion on he impac o he collec ion and expo o his animal
esou ce o medical pu poses was ela ed o local and na ional economic lows. As may be deduced
om he abo e-men ioned e en s, in a sca cely egula ed con ex whe e o eign agen s we e in
con ol, he economic impac o his ade a bo h he local and he na ional le el was no e y
signi ican , especially when compa ed wi h he p o i s ea ned by he ade s. In ac , he da a show a
g ea di e ence be ween he p ice a he place o collec ion in Spain and he sale p ice in F ance. In he
a ea o An ela, o ins ance, a he beginning o he s udied pe iod, ‘leeches we e bough by F ench
ci izens by he lagoon a ou eales pe pound (which comp ised hi y o o y dozens). Today
(1831), heyusuallypay wen y eales pe pound, while in Bayonne hey sell hem o h ee, ou o
mo e ancs pe dozen’.
59
Seoane also poin ed o a signi ican inc ease in domes ic p ices, some hing
expec ed gi en he spec acula g ow h o he demand and he sho age o he esou ce.
60
In 1839, he
p ice in Mad id had isen o se en y o one hund ed eales pe hund ed, be ween six and en imes he
p ice o wen y yea s ea lie , when ade ela ions wi h F ance we e es ablished –simila da a o ha
p o ided by he Sociedad Económica Ma i ense.
61
We mus conside ha he e enue gene a ed by
he leech ade gains impo ance agains he backd op o Spain’s demog aphic and economic
si ua ion. Mos o he Spanish popula ion li ed in u al a eas,
62
and he le el o indus ializa ion
was low,
63
as was he pe capi a g oss domes ic p oduc .
64
The consequences o he in ensi e ha es ing o leeches du ing his pe iod we e soon no iceable. A
change in demand o medicinal leeches caused he ecological deg ada ion o he esou ce h ough
inc eased ha es ing. This o e exploi a ion ook place as he ac i i y became economically in e es ing in
u al a eas. Na u al b eeding a eas su e ed a signi ican educ ion ha wo ied he local popula ion, as
e idenced by a ious es imonies. Likewise, he declining quali y o he leeches used o he apeu ic
p ocedu es was also denounced. Leeches we e classi ied acco ding o hei quali y,
65
and he inc ease in
demand led o a educ ion in he a ailabili y o hose conside ed o be o be e quali y and o he
de elopmen o audulen p ac ices. Leeches ha had no eached hei adul size o we e smalle han
ecommended we e used; he bes specimens we e mixed wi h hose o wo se quali y; and subspecies ha
had been p e iously banned o causing skin e up ions (e ysipelas)
66
we e employed, wi h ha m ul
consequences. Che alie men ioned mul iple a emp s o chea and euse leeches,
67
desc ibing cases o
ade s who we e imp isoned in F ance o mixing leeches wi h o he non- ecommended species o
selling bloa ed leeches.
68
This ci cums ance made i necessa y o look o sys ems o a oid decep ion, as
obse ed in he bidding e ms and condi ions o public ende s, which desc ibed he animals in g ea
de ail:
59
Bedoya, op. ci . (no e 32), 14.
60
Seoane, op. ci . (no e 1), 108.
61
Sociedad Económica Ma i ense, op. ci . (no e 51).
62
Acco ding o he 1860 census, 87.8% o he Spanish popula ion (13.7 million inhabi an s) li ed in u al a eas (Pila
E dozáin and Fe nando Mikela ena, ‘Algunas conside aciones ace ca de la e olución de la población u al en España en el siglo
XIX’,No icia io de His o ia Ag a ia, 12 [1996], 91–118).
63
Jo di Nadal, El acaso de la e olución indus ial en España, 1814–1913, (Ba celona: RBA, 2006).
64
Leand o P ados de la Escosu a, El p og eso económico de España, 1850–2000, (Bilbao: Fundación BBVA, 2003).
65
Che alie indica es ha , in leech ade, ou main ca ego ies we e es ablished acco ding o quali y: la ge leeches, 1,000
specimens ha weighed be ween 2.875 and 3.125 kg; la ge–medium leeches, 1,000 o which weighed be ween 1.725 and 2.250
kg; medium–small leeches, 1,000 o which weighed be ween 625 and 750 g; and small leeches, wi h a weigh o be ween 380 and
450 g o 1,000 specimens. Addi ionally, he e was a i h ca ego y, called ‘ accine leech’, 1,000 o which weighed be ween 4 and
12 kg. See Che alie , op. ci . (no e 44), 149.
66
Seoane, op. ci . (no e 1), 108.
67
Che alie , op. ci . (no e 44), 149.
68
Due o he p esence o hi udin (an an icoagulan subs ance), leeches –which can suck be ween i e and six een cubic
cen ime es o blood; see K. God ey, ‘Uses o Leeches and Leech Sali a in Clinical P ac ice’,Nu sing Times, 93, 9 (1997), 62–3–
ha e a e y slow diges ion p ocess ha may las six o nine mon hs. This is p ecisely he eason o no using bloa ed specimens,
which ough o be disca ded, as well as o he high demand o leeches.
50 Damián Copena and Ma ía Gómez-Ma ín
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
Augus o Jou die La piscicul u e e la p oduc ion des sangsues, published in 1858 and ecen ly
ansla ed in o Spanish.
112
Mo eo e , he jou nal a i med ha Spain was dependen on o eign
expo s when i would ac ually be much easie and less cos ly o b eed and mul iply he popula ion
o leeches in ou coun y. To illus a e his, he mos ele an sec ions o he abo e-men ioned book,
conce ning he choice o he soil, eed, and hygiene o be p o ided, he bes en i onmen s o
ep oduc ion, o he g ea es challenges encoun e ed, we e quo ed. The in i a ion o he jou nal
was e y clea :
I hese indica ions help each he objec i es o which hey we e published, he suppo and in e es
o hose who a e pleased o p o ide he wo king classes wi h some ideas o well-known u ili y would
be well paid, o i hey canno p o oke any a emp s, as i would be hei desi e in ela ion o his
issue, hey a leas a e no disca ded.
113
In he public in e es , he need o ad ance his indus y h ough he cons uc ion o new acili ies was
shown. The e y ansla ion o he wo k by Jou die (1858), oge he wi h he public adminis a ion’s
publica ion o o he aining ma e ials on leech b eeding, such as hose w i en by Blanco Fe nández
upon p oposal o he Real Consejo de Ag icul u a, Indus ia y Come cio, show he gene al in e es in
ad ancing knowledge conce ning his indus y and in suppo ing he inc ease o i s p oduc ion
capaci y.
114
In he F ench-led con ex cha ac e ised by he sea ch o echnological solu ions, a new
p oduc ion sys em was ac ually de eloped in Spain by González de So o, he Spanish oyal counsello o
Ag icul u e.
115
All hese sou ces indica e ha he le el o knowledge abou he li e cycle and cha ac e -
is ics o leeches du ing he high-demand pe iod was high. In his sense, he ac ha knowledge was
a ailable on he he maph odi e na u e o hese animals and on hei ep oduc ion p ocess acili a ed he
de elopmen o new echnological solu ions.
116
Wi h he same spi i , in Oc obe 1853. he Gace a de Mad id announced ‘a wonde ul disco e y ha ,
i ue, as we expec i o be, is called o be o g ea se ice o he human species’. A F ench a me had
‘ e y success ully’ ound a way o mul iply he popula ion o medicinal leeches by eeding he babies wi h
li ing animals.
117
This a icle was in e es ing also because i desc ibed he si ua ion o he indus y in
Spain du ing he second hal o he 19
h
cen u y and how i had nega i ely e ol ed wi hin a sho pe iod
o ime:
This new ag icul u al exploi a ion should be welcomed all he mo e eage ly because i s esul s a e o
he g ea es in e es o ou peninsula. I is well known ha ading wi h hese annelids oday has a
g owing impo ance o Spain’s ade balance; and ha Spain, which owns he bes species, depends
on England and F ance o supply he amoun s equi ed o consump ion. By adop ing he abo e-
men ioned me hod, ou coun y will now eco e i s e y a e species, which a e so much
app ecia ed in o eign coun ies, owa ds which well-loaded galleys pa ed a ew yea s ago and
he b eeding a eas o which a e deple ed oday due o o e exploi a ion.
118
112
Jou die , op. ci . (no e 20).
113
‘A ículo de o icio. Gobie no de p o incia, n.º 56’,Bole ín O icial de la P o incia de O ense, 2 Feb ua y 1858.
114
Blanco Fe nández, op. ci . (no e 19).
115
González de So o, Mé hode du Doc eu Gonzales de So o su l´a de ep odui e e d´ele e les sangsues (Pa is: Du e e
Édi eu , 1854). González de So o’s‘me hod’, which was published in F ench, was based on he es ablishmen o ponds o he
b eeding o leeches o di e en sizes, acco ding o he amoun o land and esh blood a ailable o eed hem.
116
Leeches a e he maph odi es (con aining bo h male and emale ep oduc i e s uc u es) and hei ypical li e cycle consis s
o h ee phases: egg (which is deposi ed inside a cocoon), ju enile, and ep oduc i e he maph odi e adul . The ypical li e span
o leeches is one o h ee yea s (W.E. Mose , F.R. Go edich, D.J. Klemm, ‘Annelida, Hi udinida [Leeches]’, in Gene E. Likens
(ed.), Encyclopedia o Inland Wa e s, [Academic P ess, 2009], 116–23, a ailable a h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/B978-012370626-
3.00155-1).
117
Gace a de Mad id, 15 Oc obe 1853.
118
Ibid.
Spanish–F ench leech ade and i s consequences 57
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
Du ing he 1870s he sea ch o solu ions accele a ed, albei wi hou ele an esul s. New ini ia i es
kep eme ging o he pu pose o p omo ing a i icial b eeding. In 1861, he es ablishmen o a b eeding
a m nea he ci y o A ila, which used he wa e o he i e G ajal, was au ho ized.
119
A simila
expe ience o he one epo ed in he own o Aluche (Mad id) in 1863 ensued, in which a la ge b eeding
a m was o be buil using ‘a p ocedu e as ye unknown’in Spain.
120
A he beginning o he 1860s, a
pa en o a b eeding and species imp o emen sys em by Augus o de Sain Pha , a esiden o he own
o Ma seille,
121
was also app o ed. This pa en , wi h a du a ion o i een yea s, was g an ed o he
p epa a ion o special meadows i iga ed wi h li ing and lowing wa e in which o ca y ou selec i e
b eeding o leeches om c ossb eeds o di e en species, which would be ed ‘daily wi h blood o all kinds
o li es ock g azing in hose same meadows’.
122
Un o una ely, hese ini ia i es –which we e exclusi ely mean o gua an ee he supply o his
medical esou ce –we e implemen ed du ing he las qua e o he 19
h
cen u y. This was oo la e,
because he decline in he use o leeches o medicinal pu poses was by hen inc easingly e iden . F om
hen un il now, he applica ion o leeches, hough no in equen , has been ma ginal.
Wi h he passage o ime, scien i ic ad ances made i possible, as om 1884, o s udy in labo a o ies
he medical p ope ies ha made he applica ion o hose annelids sui able o he apeu ical p ocedu es.
They also enabled he isola ion and use o he anaes he ic, an icoagulan , asodila o , and an imic obial
subs ances ha leeches gene a ed, wi hou he need o ac ually place leeches on pa ien s.
123
F om hen
onwa ds, esea ch wo ks, hei applica ions, and possibili ies ha e mul iplied
124
om di e en
pe spec i es,
125
lea ing di ec use as an e e -dec easing esidual p ac ice.
126
In b ie , he leech e e ha sp ead ac oss Eu ope du ing he 1820s, wi h i s epicen e in F ance, los
momen um as he u n o cen u y app oached, un il i almos disappea ed om egula medical p ac ice,
pu ing an end o he signi ican ade ela ions ha de eloped be ween Eu opean coun ies o e se e al
decades.
Conclusions
A he beginning o he 19
h
cen u y, F ançois B oussais’inno a i e medical heo y o he he apeu ic
e ec s o leeches became a popula doc ine among he new gene a ion o F ench libe al physicians. This
popula i y, condi ioned by he in luence o he libe al and mode nizing poli ical hinking ha F ance had
expo ed du ing he ini ial decades o ha cen u y,
127
g ew e y quickly, leading o an inc easing in e es
in he use o leeches o medical pu poses and a ou ing a apid de elopmen o leech ade be ween
Wes e n coun ies.
119
Gace a de Mad id, 25 Sep embe 1861.
120
Gace a de Mad id, 11 June 1863.
121
Pa icio Sáiz, Base de da os de solici udes de p i ilegios. España 1826–1878 (Mad id: OEPM–UAM, 2002), a ailable a
h p://his o ico.oepm.es.
122
Pa en eco d N.º 2502, ‘Sis ema de c ía de sanguijuelas y mejo a de sus cas as’[Leech b eeding and species imp o emen
sys em], July 28, 1862, Fondo His ó ico de la O icina de Pa en es y Ma cas (His o ical Fund o he Pa en and T adema k
O ice).
123
In 1884, John B. Hayc a disco e ed he an icoagulan subs ance ha leeches seg ega ed, and in 1904 Ca l Jackobj isola ed
i and ga e i he name o hi udin.
124
C . Mon ina i and Minelli, op. ci . (no e 5); Whi ake e al., op. ci . (no e 4).
125
F om he end o he 20
h
cen u y, o he scien i ic–medical me hods ha e explo ed i s applica ion o he ea men o
enous conges ion and plas ic, econs uc i e, and auma ological su ge y wi h posi i e esul s; Jason E. Cohn e al., ‘Leech
The apy o Complex Facial Lace a ions’,The Jou nal o C anio acial Su ge y, 32, 4 (2021), e335–7; Sa ah Lemke and And eas
Vilcinskas, ‘Eu opean Medicinal Leeches –New Roles in Mode n Medicine’,Biomedicines, 8, 5 (2020), 99; Whi ake e al.,
op. ci .(no e 4). To ca y ou hose p ocedu es acco ding o cu en heal h egula ions, leeches a e b ed in cap i i y in speci ic
a ms.
126
Luis Pa do, El ap o echamien o biológico in eg al de las aguas dulces (Mad id: G á icas Uguina, 1942), 172.
127
Nelly Tsouyopoulos, ‘La Philosophie e La Médecine Roman ique’, in M.D. G mek (ed.), Du Roman isme à La Science
Mode ne, Vol. III (Pa is: Seuil, 1999), 7–27.
58 Damián Copena and Ma ía Gómez-Ma ín
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
Wi hin only a ew yea s, leeches became one o he mos impo an medical supplies, o he ex en ha
a he end o he 1820s, he esou ce was al eady o e exploi ed and au och honous popula ions we e
h ea ened wi h deple ion, i s in F ance and, subsequen ly, in i s neighbou ing coun ies. In his sense,
Spain’s geog aphical p oximi y o F ance made i a co e ed e i o y o F ench ade s and dis ibu o s.
Thus, o Spain, he consequences o his comme cial e e we e simila o hose expe ienced in F ance: a
apid exhaus ion o he na u al esou ce, a signi ican inc ease in he p ice o he annelids, and a la e and
poo esponse om he Go e nmen ega ding he p o ec ion o he ma ke and o he medical supply.
I was no un il he ollowing decade ha he end o Spanish–F ench ade ela ions s a ed o
change, especially om he 1850s onwa ds, when he Spanish ma ke ceased o be a p o ide and became
an impo e o leeches. The need o supply he pha macies o ci ilian and mili a y hospi als, cha i y
cen es, and p isons du ing he cen al decades o he 19
h
cen u y augmen ed p essu e on he esou ce, a
ci cums ance ha , in u n, spu ed a p ocess o echnical imp o emen and inno a ion o a i icial leech
b eeding.
F om he 1860s, his he apeu ic p ac ice was supe seded, and a change in Wes e n men ali y,
pa icula ly in e ms o scien i ic knowledge, g adually helped alle ia e p essu e on he esou ce.
The e o e, he di usion o mode n, heo e ical science pu an end o he use o leeches as a medical
supply. Wi h he u n o he cen u y, he di ec applica ion o leeches o bloodle ing declined, al hough
i was s ill p esc ibed by adi ional and na u opa hic medical p ac i ione s.
In conclusion, his is a ascina ing ins ance o medicine exe ing signi ican in luence on bo h u al
p oduc ion and ansna ional poli ical economy while also deg ading he en i onmen .
Compe ing in e es . The au ho s ha e no compe ing in e es s o decla e.
Ci e his a icle: Copena D, Gómez-Ma ín M (2024). Spanish–F ench leech ade and i s consequences: F om he inc ease in
medical demand o esou ce deple ion and echnical inno a ion. Medical His o y 68, 42–59, h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/
mdh.2024.5
Spanish–F ench leech ade and i s consequences 59
h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/mdh.2024.5 Published online by Camb idge Uni e si y P ess
