The Use of 360° Video by International Humanitarian Aid Organizations to Spread Social Messages and Increase Engagement

RESEARCH PAPERS
The Use o 360

Video by In e na ional Humani a ian Aid
O ganiza ions o Sp ead Social Messages and Inc ease
Engagemen
Be a Ga cı
´a-O osa
1
•Sa a Pe
´ ez-Seijo
1
Accep ed: 23 Sep embe 2020 / Published online: 27 Oc obe 2020
The Au ho (s) 2020
Abs ac The a icle analyses 360 ideo p oduc ion in
in e na ional humani a ian aid nonp o i o ganiza ions om
2015 o 2019 as 360 ideo s o y elling is one o he la es
inno a ions in o ganiza ional digi al communica ion.
Th ough a con en analysis and in e iews, a speci ic use o
he 360 ideo o ma o pa icula issues o campaigns in
o de o b ing a dis an eali y o he o ganiza ion’s audi-
ence has been de ec ed. Thus, pu ing he use s in he shoes
o ‘‘ he o he ’’ seems o be he objec i e pu sued. NGOs
may soon begin o unde s and long- e m in e ac i i y and
engagemen no jus as ac ion and eac ion be ween o ga-
niza ion and ecei e (almos non-exis en o da e), bu
abo e all as he ecei e ’s beha iou , which hey may
s i e o o ien owa ds one o he o ganiza ion’s end goals,
depending on he communica ion s a egy se by he
o ganiza ion’s di ec o . Wi h his objec i e, common o
en i ies om o he sec o s, hey could be mo ing owa ds
an inno a i e concep ualiza ion o engagemen .
Keywo ds 360 ideos Public ela ions Engagemen 
Digi al communica ion Imme si e wi nessing Vi ual
eali y In e ac i i y
Engagemen and Public Rela ions
Public Rela ions (PR) began an impo an pa h in digi al
communica ion wi h hei audiences abou 25 yea s ago.
A e an ini ial pe iod in which hey impo ed he o line
s a egies in o he web, he o ganiza ions de eloped pa -
icula ac ions adap ed o he logic o he In e ne and o
hei ci cums ances (Ga cı
´a-O osa 2019). Du ing he las
yea s, hey ha e consolida ed hei digi al communica ion
model by inco po a ing echnological inno a ions un il
eaching he cu en hyb id communica ion model (Chad-
wick 2013; Hamil on 2016; Taiminen e al. 2015; Penney
2017). In his s age, in addi ion o combining adi ional
me hods o communica ion wi h inno a ions, PR di ec o s
seek empa hy wi h he ecei e ei he o economic easons
o o win he ecei e ’s app o al. When i comes o eco-
nomic easons, di ec o s aim o a g ea e and la ge
p esence o people in hei digi al spaces, he eby
inc easing ad e enue and ob aining big da a. When
a emp ing o ea n he ecei e ’s app o al, di ec o s seek o
gene a e sho - and long- e m engagemen . Engagemen
has become one o communica ion di ec o s’ g ea es
goals, o he poin ha some au ho s indica e ha we a e in
he e a o engagemen (Mo ehouse and Sa e 2019).
Despi e being discussed in 1990s s udies, engagemen as
a concep s ill lacks a heo e ically o med model wi h
s uc u e and a clea and cohe en explana ion (Shen and
Jiang 2019; Dhanesh 2017). The de ini ions come om
dispa a e a eas and ange om assimila ion o engagemen
wi h in e ac i i y o concep s mo e linked o psychological
commi men and philosophy wi h he cons uc ion o
beha iou wi h dis inc le els o hie a chical ac i i y
anging om he consump ion o passi e messages o
ac i e, online bidi ec ional con e sa ion, pa icipa ion and
ecommenda ion (Taylo and Ken 2014; Men and Tsai
&Be a Ga cı
´a-O osa
[email p o ec ed]
Sa a Pe
´ ez-Seijo
[email p o ec ed]
1
Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, A enida de Cas elao
s/n. 15782, San iago de Compos ela, Spain
123
Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11266-020-00280-z
2013). Dhanesh (2017) summa ises hem in wo majo
concep ualiza ions o engagemen : (1) as communica i e
in e ac ion, mani es ed as clicks, likes, iews, sha es,
commen s, wee s, ecommenda ions, and o he use -gen-
e a ed con en ; and (2) he dicho omous no ions o
engagemen as con ol based on ansac ional modes o
communica ion (public in o ma ion, wo-way asymme y,
dissemina ion o o ganiza ional messages) and engagemen
as online collabo a ion based on pa icipa o y modes o
communica ion (dialogue, co-c ea ion o con en , e c.).
In p ac ice, NGOs also sough audience pa icipa ion
and engagemen in many ways. In he i s phase o digi al
communica ion and PR, he esea ch communi y empha-
sizes he impo ance o he dialogic unc ion, basically by
applying he heo e ical amewo k p oposed by Ken and
Taylo (1998) (Aula 2011; Somme eld e al. 2012; Sisson
2017; Du-Plessis 2018; Soude 2016). Bu , a he same
ime, he li e a u e no ed he lack o in e ac i i y wi h
websi es and blogs du ing his i s s age (Lee 2012;
Cap io i and Pa do-Kuklinski 2012).
Since he onse o he wen y- i s cen u y, social media
ha e allowed o g ea e ela ionship-building and a e
pa icula ly a ac i e o NGOs wi h sca ce esou ces
(S ensson e al. 2014; Smi h 2018), hough some au ho s
al eady ques ion he bene i s ela ed o he s a egies and
ci cums ances in which hese social ne wo ks a e used
(Lam and Nie 2020; Guo and Sax on 2018). While i was
ini ially belie ed ha me e p esence on social media would
c ea e dialogue and pa icipa ion, i was soon unde s ood
ha his was in ac a s a egic decision (Smi h 2018)
hea ily in luenced—like he choice be ween online and
o line—by he social en i onmen , dependence on
esou ces (Lam and Nie 2020) and he p io i ized modali-
ies o engagemen and ela ionship wi h he public
(Campbell and Lamb igh 2020).
The heo e ical amewo k c ea ed by Lo ejoy and
Sax on (2012) is commonly used o his ype o analysis.
The au ho s p oposed one o he i s ca ego iza ions o
wee s published by nonp o i o ganiza ions, iden i ying
h ee gene al unc ions o wee s: in o ma ion, communi y
and ac ion. In p ac ice, hey di e si y he unc ions such as
ec ui ing olun ee s, campaigning o dona ions, ad o-
ca ing o change (Ciszek 2013) o es ablishing a speci ic
ela ionship wi h he media (Lee and Desai 2014). O he
au ho s s ess communica ion’s po en ial o und aising
(Sax on and Wang 2014) wi hou di ec e idence o he
connec ion be ween he equency o social media use and
he p opensi y o dona e online (Reddick and Ponoma io
2012).
In gene al, while esea che s ha e emphasised he
po en ial o social media in e ms o bidi ec ionali y,
in e ac i i y, dialogue and engagemen in he dispa a e
a eas o s udy (U z e al. 2013; Vesnic-Aluje ic 2012;
Abi bol and Lee 2017; Ji e al. 2018;Ga
´l ez-Rod ı
´guez
e al. 2014; Pain e 2015), i is a ely used (Ca im and
Wa wick 2013; S ensson e al. 2014; Maio escu 2017) and
some imes only as a complemen o pa icula dialogues on
he web.
Today, a new way o enhance audience in e ac ion,
pa icipa ion and engagemen has a isen wi h no el na a-
i es such as 360 ideo s o y elling, based on i ual
eali y echnologies and 360 ideo (Domı
´nguez 2015; Suh
e al. 2018; Bindman e al. 2018; Yoo and D umw igh
2018). Despi e being one o he leas -s udied ields du ing
he pas decade (F aus ino e al. 2018; Yoo and D um-
w igh 2018), some p elimina y indings show simila i ies
be ween he use expe ience wi h a VR headse and a eal-
li e expe ience (Wagle and Hanus 2018).
This simila i y could allow PR o connec in e ac i i y
and long- e m engagemen no only o he in e ac ion
be ween he o ganiza ion and he ecei e , bu also o he
beha iou linked o he o ganiza ion’s end goal, in a mo e
o less hie a chical way depending on he communica ion
s a egy es ablished by each di ec o . In his ega d, Dha-
nesh (2017) s esses h ee main a eas o wo k: digi al
engagemen (including nonp o i ci ic engagemen and
engagemen du ing c isis); employee engagemen ; and
s akeholde engagemen .
This a icle, in s udying 360 eali y in in e na ional
nonp o i o ganiza ions, seeks o add o he li e a u e in ha
i s , seldom-s udied a ea, which also con ains impo an
elemen s o ad ancing in engagemen , one o he aspec s
ha may eshape PR in he coming yea s (Jelen-Sanchez
2017). In he ollowing sec ion, scien i ic ad ances and
p e ious expe iences a e discussed.
Imme si e S o y elling as a Use ul Communica ion
Tool o Humani a ian Aid O ganiza ions
Wi hin he ield o PR, humani a ian aid nonp o i o ga-
niza ions ha e always been in e es ed in engagemen
(Lo ejoy e al. 2012; Cho e al. 2014) and hey ha e seen in
360 ideo s o y elling a imely and al e na i e way o
connec wi h audiences and b ing he social con ex s whe e
hey wo k close o he use s (Nash 2018; Sole -Adillon
and So a 2018; F aus ino e al. 2018). Acco ding o I om
(2018, 4269), ‘‘in ecen yea s, i ual eali y (VR) has
gained ac ion in humani a ian communica ion h ough i s
u opian p omises o cop esence, expe ien ial immediacy,
and anscendence’’. Humani a ian o ganiza ions s a ed
expe imen ing wi h 360 ideo and i ual eali y ech-
nologies a he end o 2015, while media ou le s om all
o e he wo ld (Al Jazee a, The New Yo k Times, B i ish
B oadcas ing Co po a ion, Vice News, e c.) we e ying o
p oduce hei i s imme si e con en using sphe ical ideo
(Doyle e al. 2016), an e o many o he s ha e eplica ed.
1312 Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329
123
A ecu en opic, especially among he Eu opean media
and nonp o i o ganiza ions, is mig a ion. Issues such as he
Medi e anean mig a o y wa e, a med con lic s like he
Sy ian Ci il Wa o he implica ions o clima e change a e
common opics in nonp o i o ganiza ions’ imme si e
p oduc ions (Nash 2018; I om 2018;Pe
´ ez-Seijo and
Ga cı
´a-O osa 2020). In he ield o humani a ian commu-
nica ion, an example is Clouds o e Sid a (2015), a doc-
umen a y ilm abou he Sy ian e ugee c isis p oduced by
Ch is Milk and Gabo A o a wi h he UN in pa ne ship
wi h Samsung.
The use o 360 ideo and i ual eali y echnologies o
c ea e news o non- ic ion con en is known as Imme si e
Jou nalism (De la Pen
˜a e al. 2010; Ha dee 2016), desc i-
bed as ‘‘ he p oduc ion o news in a o m in which people
can gain i s -pe son expe iences o he e en s o si ua ion
desc ibed in news s o ies’’ (De la Pen
˜a e al. 2010: 291). A
no el end has a isen unde dis inc in luences: ideo
games’ logics and na a i es (Domı
´nguez 2013), game
hinking s a egies (Longhi 2017; Domı
´nguez 2015), he-
a e, in e ac i e documen a y, and e en ilm (Elmezeny
e al. 2018; Sole -Adillon and So a 2018). As i is based on
a emedia ion o p ac ices (Sole -Adillon and So a 2018),
Imme si e Jou nalism ep esen s a good example o he
cu en hyb id scena io ha digi al jou nalism is acing
(Hamil on 2016).
Howe e , Imme si e Jou nalism has been known by
dispa a e, e en in accu a e names such as VR Jou nalism
(Owen e al. 2015; Si kkunen e al. 2016), 360s o y elling
(Elmezeny e al. 2018), o 360 ideo jou nalism (Van
Damme e al. 2019), which e lec s he common con usion
on wha au ho s and jou nalis s unde s and by i ual
eali y and 360 ideo.
Since he media a e also imp ope ly labelling sphe ical
ideos as VR expe iences (Smi h 2015), i is necessa y o
di e en ia e be ween VR jou nalism and 360 ideo jou -
nalism, hough bo h a e majo ypes o Imme si e Jou -
nalism. The i s consis s o he p oduc ion o con en
h ough 3D compu e -gene a ed image y (CGI), o en
based on ac ual e idence, and i has been d i en by Nonny
De la Pen
˜a and i s VR company Emblema ic G oup wi h
wo ks such Hunge in L.A. (2012) o Kiya (2015).
None heless, 360 ideo jou nalism o s o y elling is mo e
widesp ead (Ha dee and McMahan 2017), ends o consis
o eal image ideos wi h less in e ac i i y and agency
(Domı
´nguez 2017) bu is as e and less expensi e o
p oduce han uly VR expe iences (Pe
´ ez-Seijo and
Lo
´pez-Ga cı
´a2018).
The popula iza ion o wha a e also known as sphe ical
ideos o news p oduc ion was p ima ily due o Facebook
and YouTube. In 2015, bo h democ a ised access o such
con en by allowing he ee upload o 360 ideos on hei
social pla o ms, which helped news ou le s, nonp o i
o ganiza ions and o he p oduce s o almos elimina e o
educe dis ibu ion cos s (Wa son 2017; Mab ook and
Singe 2019). Fu he mo e, i acili a ed use s’ access o
and iewing o 360 ideos, eaching a la ge audience as
iewe s do no always need a i ual eali y headse o
wa ch he con en on Facebook and YouTube, since bo h
pla o ms allow mobile (by il ing a sma phone o able )
and web b owse consump ion (Wa son 2017; Pillai e al.
2017; He anz e al. 2019).
The hallma k o his no el digi al end is ha , o he
i s ime, use s can c oss he sc een while wa ching 360
ideos o VR expe iences wea ing a i ual eali y headse
(Domı
´nguez 2013), leading o a i s -pe son expe ience o
wha is shown and old in he news s o y (De la Pen
˜a e al.
2010;Benı
´ ez and He e a 2017). Addi ionally, when he
use s pe cei e he o he eali y ( he i ual wo ld) o be
mo e engaging han hei own physical eali y, hey a e
expe iencing wha is called p esence (Sla e and Wilbu
1997, 4). P esence he e means he pe cep ual illusion o
no-media ion (Lomba d and Di on 1997) expe ienced by a
use in a media ed en i onmen which, as a esul , leads o
he eeling o ‘‘being he e’’, in he o he o o he ’s eali y
(Sla e and Wilbu 1997; Ijssels eijn and Ri a 2003; Sla e
and Sanchez-Vi es 2016), in he i ual en i onmen ,
despi e he use ’s physical p esence in ano he eali y, ha
is, his o he e e yday eali y (Wi me and Singe 1998,
225).
Pe Suh e al. (2018), he use o VR headse s leads o
highe le els o sense o p esence, which in u n inc eases
audience engagemen . Ne e heless, Shin and Biocca
(2017: 2802) sugges ha ‘‘imme si e o d ooling in e -
aces do no , as he jou nalism indus y claims, necessa ily
enhance he sense o engagemen o sa is ac ion’’, o e en
empa hy (Bindman e al. 2018). In his ega d, he esul s
o he s udy conduc ed by Bindman e al. (2018: 8) show
ha ‘‘s ong use o na a i e echniques may be mos
impo an o make iewe s unde s and hei ole and eel a
pa o he s o y’’.
Vi ual eali y headse s allow use s o c oss he sc een
and o be imme sed in he scene, becoming a passi e is-
i o o a simula ed wi ness. The image su ounds he use s
so hey ‘‘can u n in any di ec ion while a ixed, linea s o y
un olds a ound hem’’ (Elmezeny e al. 2018, 2). Imme -
si e jou nalism p esen s new challenges, because ‘‘when
jou nalis s decide o in i e audiences o wi ness a news
e en ‘as i hey we e he e’’’ hey a e, in ac , acqui ing
‘‘new esponsibili ies owa ds audiences’’ (Sa
´nchez Laws
and U ne 2019: 1). The i s -pe son expe ience coupled
wi h he ‘‘as i I was he e’’ eeling expe ienced by use s
p omp s e lec ion on he con en ional concep o he
iewe and leads o he conside a ion o use s as imme si e
wi nesses on he scene: ‘‘imme si e media eali y po en-
ially enables wi nessing because o i s capaci y o gi e us a
Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329 1313
123
sense o embodied p esence in he con ex o a iola ion,
c isis o human igh s con ex ’’ (G ego y 2016). The pos-
sibili y o ‘‘being he e’’ (De la Pen
˜a e al. 2010), su -
ounded by he image, ep esen s he pa adigma ic case o
wi nessing (Pe e s 2011, 38). Howe e , his anspo a ion
o he o he ’s eali y is simula ed and media ed by ech-
nology, a i ual eali y headse .
None heless, his kind o imme si e wi nessing ‘‘links
he expe ience o VR wi h a mo al a i ude o esponsibili y
o dis an o he s’’ (Nash 2018, 1). Such imme si e s o y-
elling can b ing close a pa icula social eali y h ough a
simula ed jou ney o he na a i e wo ld, a i s -pe son
expe ience ha enables use s o walk in someone else’s
shoes. Consequen ly, some suppose his helps o c ea e
mo e empa he ic bonds be ween he use and he dis an
o he (Sole -Adillon and So a 2018; Ha dee 2016).
Some claim ha he use o i ual eali y and 360 ideo
o c ea e s o ies enhances empa hy, so a s onge link wi h
he dis an o he o eali y could be gene a ed (Milk 2015;
Kool 2016;Sa
´nchez Laws 2017 A che and Finge 2018).
Bu Van Damme e al. (2019, 1) conduc ed an expe imen al
s udy on dis an su e ing and ound ha while place illu-
sion and enjoymen we e highe in 360 ideos, no sig-
ni ican e idence o g ea e in ol emen wi h he dis an
o he we e ound. On he o he hand, Suh e al. (2018, 437)
ound ‘‘ ha audience engagemen is mainly de e mined by
he audience’s deg ee o p esence while iewing a 360
ideo’’. S ill, pic u e quali y could in e e e (Shin and
Biocca 2017, 2817).
On he o he hand, an expe imen al s udy abou disas e
communica ion and spa ial p esence ound ha ‘‘360
ideo ea u ing he a e ma h o a na u al disas e yields
enhanced a i udes owa ds he help ul impac o he con-
en ’’(F aus ino e al. 2018, 331). In his ega d, ano he
s udy shows ha ‘‘VR o ma s p omp ed a highe empa-
he ic esponse han s a ic pho o/ ex ea men s and a
highe likelihood o pa icipan s o ake ‘poli ical o social
ac ion’ a e iewing’’ (A che and Finge 2018). Mo e-
o e , Yoo and D umw igh (2018) ca ied ou an expe i-
men wi h use s using a 360 ideo abou a Sy ian e ugee
camp as a s imulus and disco e ed ha iewe s wea ing a
VR headse expe ienced g ea e le els o dona ion in en-
ion, i idness, in e ac i i y and social p esence han he
able use s.
The main aim o his pape is o examine how and why
nonp o i o ganiza ions a e in eg a ing 360 ideo s o y-
elling in o hei communica ion s a egies. Thus, he ol-
lowing esea ch ques ions a e posed:
RQ1: To wha ex en do Eu opean humani a ian o ga-
niza ions use 360 ideos as a ool o ell s o ies and
b ing he eali ies whe e hey wo k o ad oca e close o
he use s and o d i e engagemen ?
RQ2: Wha a e he main opics and pu poses behind
each p oduc ion (explo e a place, wi ness an e en ,
lis en o a ic im, e c.)?
RQ3: How and h ough which elemen s (audio eco d-
ings, g aphics, heade s and o he audio o isual aids) is
he mul imedia na a i e ein o ced in he 360 ideos
published by NGOs?
RQ4: Th ough which pla o ms do he humani a ian
o ganiza ions dissemina e his kind o con en ?
RQ5: To wha ex en do he 360 ideos include op ions
o engagemen ?
Me hodology
The e ec o new echnologies, o ma s and na a i es in
he ield o PR communica ion s a egies has no been
s udied a g ea deal. Al hough widely s udied in jou nal-
ism, o ganiza ional communica ion seems o ha e been
elega ed o he backbu ne . In his sense, he aim o his
p oposal is o analyse i , how and why Eu ope’s main
humani a ian aid nonp o i o ganiza ions ake ad an age o
360/VR s o y elling, an issue add essed by only a ew
s udies o da e (I om 2018; Yoo and D umw igh 2018;
F aus ino e al. 2018;Pe
´ ez-Seijo and Ga cı
´a-O osa 2020).
Many news ou le s ha e seen he po en ial o his na -
a i e o m and ha e ied o implemen i o engage use s
and signi ican ly enhance bonds be ween iewe s and s o-
ies. Based on his idea, humani a ian aid o ganiza ions and
o he nonp o i o ganiza ions ha e es ed he new, dis inc
possibili ies enabled by 360 ideo and VR echnologies.
Sample
Membe s o he Eu opean NGO Con ede a ion o Relie
and De elopmen (CONCORD) we e selec ed. The 2019
CONCORD lis included 56 o Eu ope’s majo humani-
a ian o ganiza ions, om human igh s agencies (e.g. Sa e
The Child en In e na ional) o o he s ocused on de elop-
men (e.g. Ac ion Aid) o e en en i onmen al s ewa dship
(e.g. he Wo ld Wildli e Fund). The ull lis is a ailable in
‘‘Appendix 1’’. Thei websi es and o icial p o iles on
Facebook and YouTube we e sea ched o 360 ideo
con en . The sea ch was ope a ionalised by in oducing
conc e e key wo ds in he sea ch engines (360 ideo, 360
ideo, 360, VR, Vi ual Reali y).
As a esul , he au ho s iden i ied ha only h ee o he
56 o ganiza ions had 360p oduc ions a ailable on any o
hei main pla o ms: Sa e The Child en, Wo ld Vision
In e na ional (WVI) and Wo ld Wildli e Fund (WWF).
Because o ha limi a ion and hus o en ich he analysis,
h ee ecognised nonp o i o ganiza ions no on
1314 Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329
123
CONCORD’s lis we e added o he sample because hey
had p oduced 360 ideo and also ha e a p esence in
Eu ope: The In e na ional Fede a ion o Red C oss and Red
C escen Socie ies (IFRC), Me
´decins Sans F on ie
` es
(MSF) and he Uni ed Na ions High Commissione o
Re ugees (UNHCR).
The e o e, his pape p esen s a case s udy based on six
well-known humani a ian o ganiza ions o analyse how
hey le e age his new o m o s o y elling o dissemina e
hei messages o a g ea e audience and e ec socie al
change aimed a helping he o he and he dis an eali ies.
As a esul o he sea ch, a da abase o imme si e
expe iences p oduced by hese six humani a ian agencies
was c ea ed. Au ho s compiled ideos om Ma ch o Ap il
2019 (4 weeks) and ound a o al o 37 360 ideos pub-
lished om Decembe 2015 o Ap il 2019. These a e lis ed
in Table 1.
Me hod and P ocedu e
To add ess he abo e-men ioned esea ch ques ions, wo
me hods ha e been used: Fi s , a con en analysis o he
360 ideos c ea ed and published by he nonp o i o ga-
niza ions; second, so as o make he esul s mo e obus ,
in e iews we e conduc ed wi h di ec o s o communica-
ion o pe sons esponsible o he digi al s a egies o he
analysed o ganiza ions.
A mixed me hodology was implemen ed o achie e his
pape ’s goal o examining how and o wha end some
nonp o i o ganiza ions a e using 360 ideo o c ea e
con en . The applica ion o each echnique is desc ibed
below.
Con en Analysis and Code De elopmen
Ha ing buil he da abase, he au ho s p oceeded o a
con en analysis in o de o de e mine he main ea u es o
hese speci ic p oduc ions, o ob ain an o e iew o how
humani a ian o ganiza ions le e age he echnology’s
po en ial o s o y elling and spu ing engagemen wi h he
iewing public and he e o e o answe he abo e-men-
ioned RQs.
Table 2(below) is he analysis ma ix designed by
aking in o accoun he main cha ac e is ics o 360 ideo
news s o ies and p e ious s udies on imme si e jou nalism.
Gi en he lack o s udies on he use o 360 ideos in PR,
he au ho s adap ed jou nalis ic- ela ed analysis p oposals
o be able o s udy he a o emen ioned humani a ian aid
p oduc ions, which, hough no pu ely jou nalis ic, a e
based on eal s o ies and a e published so as o sha e
speci ic in o ma ion abou a pa icula eali y.
Thus, his analysis is ocused on a iables ega ding he
in o ma i e ea men o he ideos: opic/issue, pu pose o
he piece, gen e, use ep esen a ion, ole o iewe and
s o y elle , co-p esence s a egies, deg ee o in e ac i i y,
and use o mul imedia modali ies ( ex , isuals and audio
esou ces). An ex a a iable ela ed o loca ion was
in oduced o iden i y how and whe e hese nonp o i
o ganiza ions dissemina e hei 360 ideos. All hese
elemen s ha e been adap ed om p e ious esea ch, as
no ed in Table 2.
Al hough bo h au ho s helped design he analysis
ma ix, he con en analysis o he 37 ideos as well as he
da a p ocessing wi h SPSS S a is ics 25 was ca ied ou by
only one o he au ho s, as [anonymised] has p io expe-
ience in simila s udies [anonymised]. In a-code elia-
bili y was es ed by ecoding a andom subsample,
co esponding o 20% o he da a se . One o he au ho s
coded he same da a (subsample) wice a di e en imes in
o de o check consis ency (Wimme and Dominick 2013).
Fo ha pu pose, he Cohen’s Kappa coe icien was cal-
cula ed (see ‘‘Appendix 2’’). Finally, he esul s show a
pe ec deg ee o consis ency in almos all o he a iables
(k= 1), only one has a lowe alue (Visuals: o he s,
k= 0.720), which none heless is s ill an adequa e deg ee o
consis ency (Iga ua 2006).
In e iews
Mo eo e , his a icle also d aws on in e iews wi h he
heads o communica ion o digi al s a egies di ec o s o
he nonp o i o ganiza ions ha ha e published a leas one
360 ideo on hei main social media accoun s (Facebook
and YouTube) and/o gene al websi es. Pu posi e sam-
pling was used o selec he in e iewees based on hei
oles and unc ions wi hin he o ganiza ions (E ikan e al.
2016). E en hough se e al communica ions o ice s om
a ious Eu opean na ional o ices we e con ac ed, only i e
esponses om i e nonp o i o ganiza ions we e ob ained,
one o which s a ed ha hey would no be able o pa ic-
ipa e in his ype o in e iew.
The in e iewees we e asked abou he objec i es pu -
sued by hei o ganiza ions in p oducing 360 ideos, he
e ec s o such ideos on und aising and dono suppo ,
he emo ional impac on iewe s, possible undesi ed o
nega i e e ec s s emming om iewing he con en ,
changes in he use ’s engagemen and ela ionship wi h he
public, he p oduc ion cos o 360 ideos, unding and
pa ne ships wi h ech companies o VR p oduce s, and
hei iews on he di e en esou ces used (modali ies,
opics, s o y elling and so on). The in e iews we e
designed om he con en analysis esul s. The ques ions
o he s uc u ed in e iews we e designed om he esul s
ob ained in he con en analysis.
Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329 1315
123

Quan i a i e Analysis and Resul s
Volume: How Many Videos ha e Humani a ian
O ganiza ions Published?
The i s wo ideos ound a e da ed 2 Decembe 2015 and
we e published by WWF on Facebook and YouTube
(Amazon! and Kingdom o Fo es s, espec i ely). As o
Ap il 2019, he endpoin o he da a collec ion, he
humani a ian o ganiza ions o he sample had p oduced
and published se e al p oduc ions. Al hough he 2019 da a
a e no comple e, i is clea ha om 2015 o 2016 he e
was a signi ican inc ease in 360con en p oduc ion. This
ise demons a es he in e es o humani a ian o ganiza-
ions in expe imen ing wi h his nascen o m o imme si e
s o y elling (Fig. 1).
The esul s show ha humani a ian o ganiza ions pub-
lished he g ea es numbe o 360 ideos in 2016 and 2018
Table 1 The sample o 360 ideos. Sou ce: au ho s’ compila ion
Ti le O ganiza ion Yea Time
Shukman’s Hoa e IFCR 2018 0:01:30
Rescuing People in he Medi e anean IFCR 2016 0:04:07
Medi e anean Rescue ope a ion IFCR 2016 0:01:34
Red C oss Launches Fi s Sea ch and Rescue Boa . Pa 1 IFCR 2016 0:02:00
Red C oss Launches Fi s Sea ch and Rescue Boa . Pa 2 IFCR 2016 0:00:35
Red C oss Launches Fi s Sea ch and Rescue Boa . Pa 3 IFCR 2016 0:00:42
Red C oss Launches Fi s Sea ch and Rescue Boa . Pa 4 IFCR 2016 0:01:16
Li es on Hold in Lebanon MSF 2018 0:08:01
We A e Rohingya MSF 2018 0:09:00
We Le Home Emp y-Handed MSF 2017 0:07:41
Lebanon’s Bekaa Valley MSF 2016 0:02:17
Inside Tanzania MSF 2016 0:02:09
Sou h Sudan: Fo ced o Li e in Chaos and Po e y MSF 2016 0:04:52
Mul iple Casual y Inciden MSF 2017 0:02:56
We Fled A Wa , Then We Nea ly D owned MSF 2016 0:01:39
F om he Sy ian Wa o Eu ope’s Bo de s MSF 2016 0:04:53
C isis in Bo no S a e MSF 2016 0:00:47
Li in he Time o Re uge UNHCR 2017 0:10:27
Rohingya Re ugees Fleeing o Bangladesh UNHCR 2017 0:00:59
S ep inside a Rohingya Ten Ku upalong Re ugee Camp, Bangladesh UNHCR 2017 0:01:17
On Boa d Ou Li e-Sa ing Ship Sa e he Child en 2016 0:00:54
7S o ies o 7 Yea s—S o ies a e Sy ia WVI 2018 0:04:52
Naja ’s S o y a e Sy ia WVI 2018 0:01:51
Youse ’s S o y a e Sy ia WVI 2018 0:01:43
Nis een’s S o y a e Sy ia WVI 2018 0:01:57
D eaming in Za’a a i—S o ies a e Sy ia WVI 2018 0:05:18
Mahmoud—S o ies a e Sy ia WVI 2018 0:01:59
Ma ah—Sy ian Re ugee WVI 2018 0:02:10
Taba ak—S o ies a e Sy ia WVI 2018 0:02:02
Obada—S o ies a e Sy ia WVI 2018 0:01:37
The View om he Moun ain WVI 2018 0:06:54
Ali’s S o y WVI 2016 0:05:32
Hawaii WWF 2015 0:00:59
Amazon! WWF 2015 0:00:30
Kingdom o Fo es s WWF 2015 0:03:58
Pelagos WWF 2019 0:05:11
Elephan Ge s up a e Success ul Colla ing in An i-Poaching E o WWF 2018 0:00:44
1316 Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329
123
( espec i ely, 37.8% and 37.8%). Howe e , i should be
no ed ha nine o he p oduc ions published in 2018 a e
pa o S o ies A e Sy ia, a p ojec led by WVI in pa -
ne ship wi h Con as VR, Al Jazee a’s i ual eali y s u-
dio. These 360sho documen a ies we e w i en, di ec ed
and ilmed by se en displaced child en in Jo dan’s Za’a a i
e ugee camp.
S o ies: Mig a ion as he Main In e es
Humani a ian o ganiza ions aim o show audiences he
eali ies whe e hey wo k o encou age people o suppo
hei social causes. In his ega d, in mos o he 360 ideo
p oduc ions analysed in his s udy, mig a ion was he majo
opic (75.7%), mig an s being unde s ood as displaced
Table 2 Analysis ma ix designed o he s udy. Sou ce: c ea ed by au ho s based on p e ious s udies
S o ies
Topic (Paı
´no e al. 2019; Benı
´ ez and He e a 2019; de B uin e al. 2020)
Pu pose o he ideo (Benı
´ ez and He e a 2019)
Gen e/na a i e o m (Wa son 2017; Jones 2017)
Na a i e aspec s
Use ep esen a ion in he scene
Role o he use in he s o y (Dolan and Pa e s 2015; Ba eda-A
´ngeles 2018)
S o y elle : oiceo e , jou nalis , sou ce, cha ac e , ex , e c. (Paı
´no-Amb osio and Rod ı
´guez-Fidalgo 2019)
Co-p esence (Ijssels eijn and Ri a 2003; Nash 2018)
In e ac i i y (Domı
´nguez 2017)
Mul imedia aspec s (de B uin e al. 2020)
Tex (sub i les, ides, heade s, labels, c edi s and so on)
Visuals (supe imposed images, ideos, icons, g aphics and so on)
Audio (music, dubbing, sound e ec s and so on)
Loca ion
Dis ibu ion: web, Facebook, YouTube (Pe
´ ez Seijo e al. 2018; Benı
´ ez and He e a 2019)
Fig. 1 360 ideos published by humani a ian o ganiza ions pe yea ( om 2015 o Ap il 2019). Sou ce: au ho s’ compila ion
Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329 1317
123
people o e ugees, as seen in p oduc ions such as
Medi e anean Rescue Ope a ion,Ali’s S o y o We A e
Rohingya. In he sample, clima e change is p esen only in
10.8% and wildli e in 5.4%. Te o is a acks (Mul iple
Casual y Inciden ), hunge (C isis in Bo no S a e) and
a anged ma iage (The View om The Moun ain) a e
ha dly add essed a all (2.7% in each case).
Rela ion Be ween Volume and Topics
We ha e c ossed he a iable yea wi h he a iable opic
o igu e ou i he e was any ela ion be ween he momen
o publica ion and he issue (Fig. 2). Mig a ion was he
main opic o in e es especially in 2016 and 2018, bu also
in 2017. The olume o 360 ideos ha add ess mig a ion
in 2016 (35.1% o he sample) can be unde s ood by
e e ing o he social con ex . The Eu opean mig an c isis
s a ed in 2015, and he o ay in o imme si e con en began
in ea nes a he end o ha yea and beginning o 2016
(Doyle e al. 2016;Pe
´ ez-Seijo and Lo
´pez-Ga cı
´a2018).
Excep o 2015, when i was he only issue co e ed in
sphe ical ideos, clima e change was a ely add essed. The
ideos ha do add ess i we e p oduced by he WWF.
Th ee yea s la e , he In e na ional Fede a ion o Red C oss
and Red C escen Socie ies would go on o publish Shuk-
man’s House, a sphe ical ideo abou he ise o hea in
Hong Kong, possibly linked o clima e change. The in e es
in animal li e s a s in 2018 and con inues in 2019 wi h
WWF.
The Pu pose Behind he 360

Videos
We also examined he pu pose o each imme si e p o-
duc ion in an a emp o be e unde s and he pe spec i e
adop ed o con ey each s o y. Finally, we ound ha he
main aim o mo e han hal o he p oduc ions is o show a
mig an eali y (59.5%) o c ea e social awa eness. As we
ha e obse ed, such p oduc ions a e mos ly documen a y-
s yle and hus p esen a mo e de eloped s o y elling com-
pa ed o he emaining ca ego ies. Th ough his kind o
con en , NGOs aim o b ing dis an mig an eali ies close
o he use o aise awa eness and o boos dona ion
in en ion. Some examples a e We A e Rohingya by MSF
and Li e in he ime o Re uge by UNHCR, among o he s.
The nex mos common majo pu pose o he s o y-
elling (o he ideos when s o y elling is absen ) is o
obse e an en i onmen o scena io (24.3%) enabling use s
o explo e eely in an e ol ing scene (wha we ha e called
‘‘show simple’’ in Fig. 3), e.g. Medi e anean Rescue
Ope a ion by IFCR o in Elephan Ge s Up A e Suc-
cess ul Colla ing in An i-Poaching E o published by
WWF.
The emaining imme si e p oduc ions sough delibe -
a ely o: denounce ac s o e en s (8.1%), e.g. he o ced
ma iage o unde age gi ls h ough he 360 ideo ilm The
View om he Moun ain by WVI; o show in con ex
(2.7%) how, o example, esea che s collec biopsies o
skin om whales in he WWF-p oduced documen a y
Pelagos; o simula e a si ua ion (2.7%), as in Mul iple
Fig. 2 O e iew o he e olu ion o opics by yea , om 2015 o 1 Ap il 2019. Sou ce: au ho s’ compila ion
1318 Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329
123
Casual y Inciden , in o de o ain MSF’s s a o exam-
ple; and o allow use s o isi emo e loca ions (2.7%), as
in WWF’s Kingdom o Fo es s, so as o unde s and he ole
o he Amazon in he Ea h’s clima e s abili y.
Who and How: Fo m, Gen e and S o y elle
The as majo i y o he ideos (94.6%) consis en i ely o
eal images. Tha is, while some p oduc ions include
g aphics o supe imposed images, hey include nei he
hyb id (combina ion o i ual eali y and eal-image oo-
age) no o ally syn he ic scenes. The emaining 5.4% a e
hyb id p oduc ions: on he one hand, We A e Rohingya
(Me
´decins Sans F on ie
` es 2018) includes a syn he ic scene
wi h a map ha illus a es he displacemen o he Rohin-
gya people leeing om Myanma ’s mili a y ep ession; on
he o he hand, some scenes o D eaming In Za’a a i ( om
he p ojec S o ies a e Sy ia by WVI and Con as VR
2018) inco po a e anima ed objec s o illus a e he hopes,
d eams and aspi a ions o each o he se en e ugee chil-
d en who appea in he documen a y. Figu e 4shows bo h
examples.
In e ms o gen e, 56.7% all wi hin a adi ional one:
48.6% a e documen a y-s yle, e.g. Ali’s s o y by WVI, and
only 8.1% a e 360 ideo epo s, e.g. S ep inside a
Rohingya Ten Ku upalong Re ugee Camp by UNHCR.
The emaining p oduc ions do no i in any con en ional
gen es, so we ha e c ea ed some ca ego ies o be e
unde s and hei o ma based on exis ing p oposals such as
hose by Jones (2017) and Wa son (2017). The mos
common a e simple ideos, i.e. wi h a basic na a i e
design, concei ed o be dis ibu ed on social pla o ms like
Facebook and YouTube (29.7% o he o al sample, e.g.
Medi e anean Rescue Ope a ion by IFCR, which Jones
called ‘‘social 360’’ and Wa son e e s o as ‘‘sho - o m
360’’ ideos. Such ideos lack a human na a o (some-
imes ex se es as a guide wi hin he s o y), and hus
emphasise seeing a speci ic eali y h ough one’s own eyes;
consequen ly, in o ma ion and eal es imonies ake a back
sea o explo a ion.
The na a i e o m o he o he ideos does no i in he
ea u es o he a o emen ioned gen es since 5.4% ha e
been sel -labelled as i ual eali y ilms, such as Li e in he
Time o Re uge by he UNCHR and The View om he
Moun ain by WVI. The emaining 8.1%, which we ha e
e e ed o as ‘‘o he s’’, a e composed o WWF’s sho
ideo p e iew o a longe imme si e piece abou he
Amazon, a Sa e he Child en’s dona ion campaign i led
On Boa d Ou Li e-Sa ing Ship and a Doc o s Wi hou
Bo de s’ eal-image simula ion called Mul iple Casual y
Inciden , pa o a aining cou se o MSF medics and
logis icians ha simula es a mul iple casual y inciden .
Fig. 3 Pu pose o each 360 ideo s o y. Sou ce: au ho s’ compila ion
Fig. 4 Videos wi h syn he ic elemen s. Sou ce: sc eensho o We A e Rohingya (MSF’s Facebook) and D eaming in Za’a a i (WVI’s YouTube)
Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329 1319
123
Va iable Cohen’s Kappa
Cha ac e is ics o he s o y elle
S o y elle 1.00
Gende o he s o y elle 1.00
Unde age s o y elle 1.00
Role o he s o y elle 1.00
Use in he i ual en i onmen
Use ep esen a ion 1.00
Role o he use wi h a body 1.00
Role o he use wi hou a body 1.00
Use de ec ed by cha ac e s 1.00
Cop esence wi h he s o y elle
Face o ace 1.00
Gazes 1.00
Di ec e e ences 1.00
Cop esence wi h he sou ce(s)
Face o ace 1.00
Gazes 1.00
Di ec e e ences 1.00
In e ac i i y
360 iew 1.00
Displayed menu 1.00
Basic op ions (pause, play, and so on) 1.00
Dis ibu ion
Pla o ms 1.00
Audio
Music 1.00
Kind o music 1.00
Music con inui y 1.00
Voice dubbing 1.00
Sound e ec s 1.00
Visuals
Visuals (gene al) 1.00
Image e ec s 1.00
Images/Pic u es 1.00
Videos 1.00
Tex
Lowe hi d g aphics 1.00
Sub i les 1.00
C edi s 1.00
Ti les 1.00
Tex 1.00
O he s .72
Resul s o in a-code eliabili y using Cohen’s Kappa
Appendix 3
360 ideo YouTube Facebook
Shukman’s house – 232.000
Rescuing people in he Medi e anean 710 –
Medi e anean Rescue ope a ion 293
Red C oss launches i s sea ch and escue
boa . Pa 1
240
Red C oss bunches i s sea ch and escue
boa . Pa 2
67
Red C oss launches i s sea ch and escue
boa . Pa 3
61
Red C oss launches i s sea ch and escue
boa . Pan 4
39
Li es on Hold in Lebanon 133.000
We A e Rohingya 100.000
We Le Home Emp y-Handed 14.000
Lebanon’s Bekaa Valley 1.431 36.000
Inside Tanzania – 31.000
Sou h Sudan: Fo ced o li e in chaos and
po e y
10.410
Mul iple Casual y Inciden 3.153
We Fled A Wa , Then We Nea ly D owned 8.952
F om he Sy ian Wa o Eu ope’s Bo de s 1.143
C isis in Bo no S a e 507
Li e in he ime o e uge 13.532
Rohingya Re ugees Fleeing o Bangladesh 1.850
S ep inside a Rohingya en Ku upalong
e ugee camp, Bangladesh
2.093
On Boa d Ou Li e-Sa ing Ship 1.531
7 S o ies o 7 Yea s—S o ies A e Sy ia 1.630
Naja ’s S o y A e Sy ia 82 618
Youse ’s S o y A e Sy ia 54 6.700
Nis een’s S o y A e Sy ia 130 6.900
D eaming In Za’a a i—S o ies A e Sy ia 1.422 9.100
Mahmoud—S o ies A e Sy ia 746
Ma ah—Sy ian Re ugee 250
Taba ak—S o ies A e Sy ia 564 12.000
Obada—S o ies A e Sy ia 116 9.300
The View F om The Moun ain 999
Ali ‘s s o y 1.945
Hawaii 39.000
Amazon! 184.000
Kingdom o Fo es s 45.728
Pelagos 559
Elephan ge s up a e success ul colla ing in
an i-poaching e o
1.524
Facebook and YouTube iews un il 4 h June 2020
1326 Volun as (2020) 31:1311–1329
123

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