Vladimi Pu in’s iews on he Russian na ion
and Russian his o y as he eason
o he agg ession agains Uk aine
Vadim Sido o
ABSTRACT:
Russia’s agg ession agains Uk aine is pe cei ed by many as simply an ad en u is ic endea o o
Vladimi Pu in and he esul o his desi e o main ain his pe sonal powe in Russia i sel and ex-
end his in luence beyond i s bo de s. P oponen s o such iews y o explain Vladimi Pu in’s ap-
peal o Russian chau inism and i s ideologues as pu ely si ua ional and populis , and p esen he
cu en egime in Russia as oppo unis ic and lacking aclea ideology and ideological goals. This
pape howe e a gues ha Vladimi Pu in’s policy owa ds Uk aine, including he wa unleashed
agains i , s ems om his doc inal iews, which ha e been unequi ocally ou lined by him o e he
yea s in a ious speeches and a icles, bu igno ed by he wo ld due o a lippan a i ude owa ds
hem. These iews ha e no only ahis o ical dimension, bu also an e hnological one, as hey a e
based on ace ain and e y speci ic unde s anding o Russian and Uk ainian e hnici ies, which is
an a bi a y combina ion o p imo dialis and cons uc i is a gumen s. Along wi h he p esen a-
ion o hese iews hemsel es, he a icle demons a es he disc epancy be ween he p opaganda
my hs esul ing om hem and he ac ual ac s abou Russian and Uk ainian poli ical and e hnic
his o y.
KEYWORDS:
Uk aine, Russian Empi e, So ie Union, na ionali y, big Russian na ion, Uk ainian na ion, p imo -
dialism, cons uc i ism
CONTEXT
The “solu ion o he Sude enland ques ion” by he Thi d Reich is a ex book example
o agg ession jus i ied by he need o “ euni e” one, “di ided” people. Wha Vladi-
mi Pu in is ying o do oday wi h espec o Uk aine is jus i ied by asimila logic.
Wi h one impo an di e ence— Adol Hi le did no deny he exis ence o he Czech
people. On he con a y, he p oceeded om he ac ha he Sude enland should “ e-
u n” o Ge many because he majo i y o hei popula ion is no e hnic Czechs, bu
e hnic Ge mans1.
1 “…i is mos na u al ha we Ge mans a e compelled o ake an in e es in his p oblem.
Among he majo i y o na ionali ies ha a e being supp essed in his s a e he e a e
3,500,000 Ge mans. These Ge mans, oo, a e c ea u es o God. The Almigh y did no c ea e
3,500,000 Sude en Ge mans o deli e hem o e o aha e ul o eign egime a he head
o as a e ha was cons uc ed a Ve sailles. And He has no c ea ed 7,000,000 Czechs o
ac as he gua dians o hese Ge mans…” / Adol Hi le — Rede au dem Reichspa ei ag
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40 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2023
Likewise, Vladimi Pu in also belie es ha he Uk ainian e i o ies, which he
is ying o o ce ully inco po a e in o Russia, a e popula ed by Russians. Bu no
because hey ou numbe Uk ainians in hose egions, bu because he does no ec-
ognize he exis ence o adis inc Uk ainian na ion2. Wha ’s no ewo hy is ha he
eaches such aconclusion using an a gumen a ion, which is acon lic ing amalga-
ma ion o na ionalism and an i-na ionalism, he eby o ming ahyb id idea o he
e i al o “his o ical Russia”. In e hnological and his o ical e ms such an ideology
is an a emp o e ise he esul s o he na ion-building p ocess ha ook place in
he 20 hcen u y and ga e ise o mode n-day na ion s a es wi hin he Eas e n Sla ic
ealm o he o me Russian Empi e, employing dispa a e a gumen s o bo h p imo -
dialism and cons uc i ism.
LEGAL, POLITICAL AND ETHNIC FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN UKRAINE
The exis ence o he s a e o Uk aine wi hin i s in e na ionally ecognized bo de s
is legi imized by h ee ac o s: legal, poli ical and e hnological. In legal e ms, inde-
penden Uk aine, wi hin he bo de s o he o me Uk ainian So ie Republic, was
ecognized by dozens o s a es al eady du ing Decembe 19913.
Wha ’s equally impo an is ha Russia i sel had ecognized Uk aine wi hin i s
bo de s ha cons i u ed he Uk ainian So ie Socialis Republic wi hin he o me
übe die Sude enk ise, 1938-09-12, h ps://a chi e.o g/de ails/19380912Adol Hi le Rede
Au DemReichspa ei agUebe DieSude enk ise34m30s
2 The b ochu es o he Russian Minis y o De ense, p epa ed o he pa icipan s in he wa
agains Uk aine and he adminis a i e o icials in he Russian-occupied e i o ies open-
ly claim ha “P ojec Uk aine” is an a i icial c ea ion, jus like he so-called “Uk ainian
language”, ha om i s incep ion i was buil on he denial o Russia (as “an i-Russia”),
e e y hing Russian and Musco i e (“Moskal”), did no ha e acons uc i e p og am, and
ha “Uk aine is apoli ical p ojec c ea ed a he behes o he Aus o-Hunga ian go e n-
men la e suppo ed by Ge many and Poland a he beginning o he 20 h cen u y wi h
he aim o weakening he Russian Empi e and ea ing away pa s o i s e i o ies om
i ”. The au ho s o he b ochu e p oclaim: “No o ‘Uk ainianism’, ‘Uk aine’, ‘Uk ainians’,
‘Uk ainiza ion’, yes o ‘Lesse Russians’ (Malo ossi), hei cul u e, adi ions and language
(dialec s)!” See h p:// egion.expe /manual/ o ade ailed elabo a ion upon he di e -
ence be ween he concep s o “Lesse Russian” and “Uk ainian” wi hin he no ion o he
“Russian Wo ld”.
3 Decembe 2— Poland and Canada, Decembe 3— Hunga y, Decembe 4— Li huania and
La ia, Decembe 5— Russia, Bulga ia and Slo enia, Decembe 6— Cuba, Decembe 8—
Czechoslo akia, Decembe 9— Es onia, Decembe 12— Geo gia, Decembe 16— Tu -
key, Decembe 18— A menia, Sweden and No way, Decembe 23— Kazakhs an, Decem-
be 25— USA, Mexico, I an, Tunisia, Is ael, Decembe 26— Ge many, Thailand, B azil,
India, Aus alia, Decembe 27— People’s Republic o China, F ance, Vie nam, Decembe
28— Japan, I aly, Decembe 30— Sou h Ko ea and Finland, Decembe 31— G ea B i -
ain, Spain, G eece (Websi e o he Ins i u e o Na ional Memo y o Uk aine h ps://old.
uinp.go .ua/publica ion/ iznannya-uk aini-yak-nezalezhnoi-de zha i).
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VADIM SIDOROV 41
USSR. On No embe 19, 1990, he chai men o he Sup eme So ie s o he Russian
and Uk ainian So ie Socialis Republics, ha we e s ill pa o USSR bu we e al-
eady d i ing owa ds independence, had signed a ea y4, which s a ed ha hese
epublics ecognize each o he as so e eign s a es and commi hemsel es o e ain
om ac ions ha could cause damage o s a e so e eign y o he o he pa y (A -
icle 3 o he T ea y). In his ag eemen , a i ied by he Sup eme Council o Russia on
No embe 23, 1990, Russia and Uk aine o malized hei in en ion o “de elop hei
in e s a e ela ions based on he p inciples o so e eign equali y, non-in e e ence
in in e nal a ai s, enuncia ion o he use o o ce o economic me hods o p es-
su e” (P eamble), and also, ha hey mu ually “ ecognize and espec he e i o ial
in eg i y o he Russian So ie Fede a i e Socialis Republic and he Uk ainian So ie
Socialis Republic wi hin he bo de s cu en ly exis ing wi hin he USSR” (A icle 6
o he T ea y).
On Decembe 8, 1991, Russia, Uk aine and Bela us, as he ounding membe s o
he So ie Union, signed he Belo ezh Acco ds5, in which hey s a ed ha “The USSR
as asubjec o in e na ional law and geopoli ical eali y ceases o exis ” (P eamble),
decla ed ha hey we e c ea ing he Commonweal h o Independen S a es (A icle1)
and con i med ha hey “ ecognize and espec each o he ’s e i o ial in eg i y and
he in iolabili y o exis ing bo de s wi hin he Commonweal h” (A icle 5). The al-
eady independen and in e na ionally ecognized s a es o Russia and Uk aine con-
i med he p inciples o he ea y hey concluded on No embe 19, 1990, by signing,
on June23, 1992, he Ag eemen “On he Fu he De elopmen o In e s a e Rela ions”6.
And in he ag eemen on iendship, coope a ion and pa ne ship be ween he Russian
Fede a ion and Uk aine, concluded on May 31, 19977, Russia and Uk aine con i med
hei adhe ence o he p inciples o he wo abo e-men ioned ag eemen s. They also
e-decla ed ha hey “build ela ions wi h each o he based on he p inciples o mu-
ual espec , so e eign equali y, e i o ial in eg i y, in iolabili y o bo de s, peace ul
se lemen o dispu es, non-use o o ce o h ea o o ce, including economic and
o he me hods o p essu e, he igh o peoples o eely dispose o hei own des iny,
non-in e e ence in in e nal a ai s, obse ance o human igh s and undamen al
eedoms, coope a ion be ween s a es, conscien ious ul illmen o in e na ional ob-
liga ions unde aken, as well as o he gene ally ecognized no ms o in e na ional law
“(A icle 3), and also “ espec he e i o ial in eg i y o each o he and con i m he
in iolabili y o exis ing bo de s be ween hem” (A icle 2).
The poli ical legi imacy o Uk aine’s independence wi hin i s in e na ionally
ecognized bo de s was based on he ee sel -de e mina ion o i s ci izens o all
4 Sou ce: Elec onic collec ion o legal and egula o y documen s o Russia. h ps://docs.
cn d. u/documen /1900094
5 Sou ce: Elec onic collec ion o legal and egula o y documen s o Russia, h ps://docs.
cn d. u/documen /1900745
6 Sou ce: Elec onic collec ion o legal and egula o y documen s o Russia, h ps://docs.
cn d. u/documen /1901214
7 Sou ce: Elec onic collec ion o legal and egula o y documen s o Russia. h ps://docs.
cn d. u/documen /1902220
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42 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2023
“na ionali ies”8 in he e e endum on i s independence held on Decembe 1, 1991.
90.32% o he 84.18% o all eligible o e s who ook pa in he e e endum o ed
o Uk aine’s independence9. Mo eo e , he as majo i y o esiden s o no only
i s wes e n and cen al egions, bu also o he eas e n and sou he n egions, as well
as C imea, o ed o independence. The esul s we e as ollows10: Done sk Region—
73.78% in a o wi h 83.90% u nou , Luhansk Region— 80.65% in a o wi h 83.86%
u nou , Zapo izhzhia Region— 80.59% wi h 90.66 u nou , Khe son Region11—
83.40% wi h 90.13% u nou , Mykolai Region— 84.10% wi h 89.45% u nou , Odesa
Region— 75.01% wi h 85.38% u nou , C imean Au onomous Republic— 67.50% wi h
54.19% u nou , he ci y o Se as opol— 63.74% wi h 57.07% u nou .
Finally, om an e hnological pe spec i e, he legi imacy o Uk aine wi hin i s in-
e na ionally ecognized bo de s was jus i ied by he p edominance in mos o i s
e i o y o people who iden i y as Uk ainians by “na ionali y”, because he epublics
wi hin he So ie Union we e o med and he bo de s be ween hem we e dema -
ca ed p ecisely in acco dance wi h he e hno-na ional p inciple.
Acco ding o he las census conduc ed in he USSR in 1989, people o Uk ainian
“na ionali y”12 cons i u ed 72.73% o he popula ion o Uk aine13. Mo eo e , hey
o med he absolu e majo i y no only in he wes e n (e.g., L i — 90.37%) and cen al
(e.g., Kie — 89.40%) egions o Uk aine, which Vladimi Pu in and some ideologues
o his egime a e willing o condi ionally conside Uk ainian14, bu also in hose
which hey conside unequi ocally Russian. Acco dingly, in Done sk Region, e hnic
Uk ainians accoun ed o 50.71%, in Luhansk Region ( hen Vo oshilo g ad)— 51.88%,
Zapo izhzhia Region— 63.07%, Khe son Region— 75.75%, Mykolai Region— 75.55%
and Odesa Region— 54 .60%15.
8 In he So ie Union, “na ionali y” as an e hnici y was alegal ca ego y, which was ixed in
he passpo s o So ie ci izens and hei pe sonal iles
9 S a emen on he esul s o he all-Uk ainian e e endum, Decembe 1, 1991, h ps://web.
a chi e.o g/web/20131203032951/h p://www.a chi es.go .ua/Sec ions/15 -V_Re /index.
php?11
10 Ibid
11 In Sep embe 2022, Russia decla ed he ou abo e-men ioned egions as pa s o i s e -
i o y based on he e e endums held unde occupa ion
12 This e m is used o people who had he co esponding en y in he “na ionali y” column,
which was manda o y in he So ie passpo s, and/o hose who chose he co esponding
na ionali y du ing he popula ion census
13 O icial websi e o he all-Uk ainian census: h p://2001.uk census.go .ua/ us/ esul s/
gene al/na ionali y/
14 Wi h he ca ea ha hese Uk ainians a e, in p inciple, Russians who ha e enounced
hei na ionali y and eplaced i wi h an a i icially one c ea ed by he e o s o he Poles
and Aus ians: “E e y hing changes. Including coun ies and socie ies. And i is likely ha ,
pa o one people, a some poin o i s de elopmen , due o anumbe o easons and his-
o ical ci cums ances, may happen o ega d i sel as asepa a e na ion.” (Vladimi Pu in,
“On he his o ical uni y o Russians and Uk ainians”, 2021)
15 Coun ywide popula ion census in he So ie Union in 1989. Dis ibu ion o he u ban and
u al popula ion o he egions o he epublics o he USSR by sex and na ionali y. A -
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VADIM SIDOROV 43
The only egion o Uk aine in which e hnic Uk ainians did no make up he
majo i y o he popula ion a he ime o i s independence was he C imean egion,
wi hd awn om Russian SFSR and ans e ed o Uk ainian SSR by decision o
he So ie leade ship in 1954. In i , in 1989, ha is, sho ly be o e he aboli ion o
he USSR, e hnic Uk ainians accoun ed o 25.75% compa ed o 67.05% o e hnic
Russians (in he ci y o Se as opol— 22.38% o 71.58%)16. Howe e , e en in spi e o
his, in 1991, he majo i y o C imean o e s (67.50%) and in pa icula Se as opol
esiden s (63.74%) o ed o he independence o Uk aine17, which means ha i was
suppo ed by asigni ican pa o he local e hnic Russian popula ion. In addi ion,
i ’s impo an o no e ha a he ime o he ini ial na ional- e i o ial delimi a ion
o he Russian and Uk ainian epublics a e he collapse o he Russian Empi e,
he a io be ween e hnic Russians and Uk ainians18 in C imea was qui e di e en
om ha a he end o he So ie Union. Acco ding o he las census in he Russian
Empi e in 189719, 35.55% o he popula ion o he mode n e i o y o C imea we e
C imean Ta a s, 33.11% “G ea -Russians” and 11.84% “Li le-Russians”20. Fu he -
mo e, a he ime C imea was pa o ala ge Tau ida Go e no a e, in which “G ea -
Russians” we e amino i y— 27.9%, whe eas as “Li le-Russians” cons i u ed 42.2%
and C imean Ta a s 13.6%.
Why did his a io change so d ama ically by 1991? The eason is ob ious. In 1944,
by he decision o S alin, all C imean Ta a s21, as well as pa o he Bulga ians, G eeks
and A menians22, we e depo ed om C imea, and esiden s o Russia began o mo e
in hei place. As a esul , acco ding o he popula ion census ha ollowed in 1959,
only 0.03% o C imean Ta a s emained in C imea, whe eas e hnic Russians al eady
accoun ed o 71.43%. In iew o his, he exclusion o C imea om he Russian So ie
Republic and i s ans e o he Uk ainian So ie Republic wi hin he So ie Union in
1954 may seem odd, since in he pe iod be ween he censuses p eceding he depo -
chi al copy o May 31, 2017, a he Wayback Machine Demoscope h ps://web.a chi e.o g/
web/20170531070757/h p://demoscope. u/weekly/ssp/ esp_nac_89.php? eg=
16 Ibid
17 S a emen on he esul s o he all-Uk ainian e e endum, Decembe 1, 1991
18 In he Russian Empi e, e hnic Russians in he mode n sense we e called “G ea e-Russians”
(Veliko ossi), and e hnic Uk ainians— “Li le-Russians” (Malo ossi). The e hnological as-
pec s o hese concep s a e discussed below
19 He e and he ea e , e e ences a e made o “The esul s o he i s gene al popula ion
census in he Russian Empi e in 1897”. Vishne sky Ins i u e o Demog aphy a he High-
e School o Economics h p://www.demoscope. u/weekly/ssp/census.php?cy=0
20 C imea du ing he p e-wa and pos -wa pe iod. S a is ical compendium. Fede al S a e
S a is ics Se ice on C imea and Se as opol, 2020. h ps://clck. u/33L7b
21 Dec ee o he S a e Commi ee o De ense o he USSR da ed May 11, 1944 “On he C ime-
an Ta a s”. Sou ce: h ps:// u.wikisou ce.o g/wiki/Постановление_ГКО_№_5859сс_
от_11.05.44
22 Dec ee o he S a e Commi ee o De ense o he USSR da ed June 2, 1944 “On he e ic ion
o Bulga ians, G eeks and A menians om he e i o y o he C imean ASSR”. Sou ce:
h ps:// u.wikisou ce.o g/wiki/Постановление_ГКО_№_5859сс_от_11.05.44
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44 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2023
a ion o he C imean Ta a s (in 1939)23 and ollowing i (1959)24, he pe cen age o
e hnic Uk ainians in C imea inc eased om 13.68% only o 22.28%, bu ha o e hnic
Russians om 49.58% o 71.43%. I is exac ly his pa icula ci cums ance ha makes
he ans e o C imea o Uk aine in 1954 un ai in he eyes o Vladimi Pu in25. How-
e e , he depo a ion o he indigenous inhabi an s o C imea, who we e adap ed o
i s landscape, and he pos -wa de as a ion b ough he u gen necessi y o economic
es o a ion and, in pa icula , sol ing he wa e supply in he peninsula. Gi en i s
e i o ial connec ion wi h he sou h o Uk aine, he So ie leade ship decided o
ans e i o he la e 26. And hose e y same p oblems a ose in C imea again, in
2014, a e i s sepa a ion om sou he n Uk aine. This ime a ound, Vladimi Pu in
wan ed o sol e hem by annexing he en i e sou he n Uk aine o Russia.
Also, one needs o conside ano he impo an poin . Al hough delimi a ion o he
bo de s be ween he Russian and Uk ainian So ie epublics was mos ly ca ied
ou based on he e hnic composi ion on hose e i o ies, his benchma k was no
always ollowed. This is p ecisely wha he ideologues o Pu in’s Russia and Pu in
himsel allude o, a guing ha asigni ican numbe o e i o ies wi h amajo i y
Russian popula ion we e included in Uk aine27. Howe e , he census da a sugges s
he exac opposi e. As i u ns ou , in ac , mo e e i o ies wi h majo i y Uk ai-
nian popula ion had been included in Russia han ice e sa.
In all he go e no a es es ablished by he Russian Empi e on he e i o y o mode n-
day Uk aine, e hnic Uk ainians, acco ding o he las census o 1897, made up he ma-
jo i y: 73.5%— in Volyn, 80.9%— in Podolsk, 79.2%— in Kie , 66 .4%— in Che nigo ,
23 Na ional popula ion census in he USSR in 1939. E hnic composi ion o he epublics in
he USSR. Ins i u e o Demog aphy a he Highe School o Economics h p://www.dem-
oscope. u/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_39.php? eg=5
24 Na ional popula ion census in he USSR in 1959. E hnic composi ion o he epublics in
he USSR. Ins i u e o Demog aphy a he Highe School o Economics h p://www.dem-
oscope. u/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_59.php
25 Vladimi Pu in: “C imea was always Russian”. Komsomolskaya P a da. 18Ma ch, 2014
h ps://www.kp. u/daily/26207/3093047/
26 “In iew o he e i o ial a ac ion o he C imean Region o he Uk ainian SSR, hei
common economy combined wi h close economic and cul u al ies be ween he C imean
Region and he Uk ainian SSR, he Council o Minis e s o he RSFSR decides he ollow-
ing: I is o be conside ed expedien o ans e he C imean Region om he RSFSR o he
Uk ainian SSR”, Dec ee o he Council o Minis e s o he Russian So ie Fede a i e So-
cialis Republic om Feb ua y 5, 1954. No.156. u.wikisou ce.o g/wiki/Постановление_
Совета_Министров_РСФСР_от_05.02.1954_№_156
27 Vladimi Pu in: “…mode n Uk aine is en i ely he p oduc o he So ie e a. We know and
emembe well ha i was shaped— o asigni ican pa — on he e i o ies o his o i-
cal Russia. As p oo i ’s enough o compa e he ex en o he e i o ies euni ed wi h he
Russian s a e in he 17 h cen u y wi h hose wi hin he Uk ainian SSR a he ime when i
le he So ie Union”, A icle by Vladimi Pu in “On he His o ical Uni y o Russians and
Uk ainians”, July 12, 2021, h p://en.k emlin. u/e en s/p esiden /news/66181
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VADIM SIDOROV 45
93%— in Pol a a, 53.9%— in Khe son, 42.2%— in Tau ida (wi h 27.9% o e hnic Rus-
sians), 80.6%— in Kha ki , 68.9%— in Yeka e inosla . Only in some sepa a e dis-
ic s wi hin hese go e no a es did e hnic Russians (“G ea -Russians”) make up he
majo i y, as was he case in he Odessa dis ic o he Khe son Go e no a e (37.4% o
“G ea -Russians” wi h 21.9% o “Li le-Russians”), Mglinsky (78, 2%), No ozybko sky
(94.2%) and S a odubsky dis ic s (92.9%) o he Che nigo Go e no a e, Ke ch-Yeni-
kalsky (59.8%) and Se as opol (68.8%) ownships o he Tau ida Go e no a e.
Howe e , all o hem, wi h he excep ion o he Odessa dis ic o he Khe son
Go e no a e, which was an encla e wi h aRussian majo i y su ounded by p edomi-
nan ly Uk ainian dis ic s, we e ans e ed o he Russian so ie epublic. A he
same ime, he e i o y o he bo de dis ic s wi h an e hnically Uk ainian ma-
jo i y emained in he Russian so ie epublic: Bi yuchinsky (70.2%), G ay o on-
sky (58.9%), Valuysky (51.1%), No ooskolsky (51.0%), Yeysky (73.9%), Yeka e inoda
(51.8%), Tem yuk (75.2%). The las h ee we e pa o he Kuban egion, in which, on
he whole, he “Li le-Russians” made up he majo i y— 47.4% compa ed o 42.6% o
he “G ea -Russians”, bu which, ne e heless, was included in So ie Russia, and no
So ie Uk aine. The e o e, i one adhe es o he e hnic p inciple when de e mining
he bo de s o he Russian and Uk ainian so ie epublics, he dis ibu ion o e -
i o ies be ween hem did no ake place o he de imen o Russia a all, bu qui e
o he con a y.
PUTIN’S ARGUMENTATION: FROM STALIN’S LOGIC
TO THE LOGIC OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
As we can see, he bo de s be ween Russia and Uk aine, ecognized by bo h coun ies
a e he dissolu ion o he USSR and hei ans o ma ion in o independen s a es,
ep esen ed he s a us quo ha de eloped as a esul o he na ion-building p ocess
and na ional- e i o ial dema ca ion o he wo coun ies and peoples ha ook place
in he 20 h cen u y.
Wha , hen, is he p emise o Vladimi Pu in’s policy o delegi imizing Uk ainian
s a ehood and he na ion?
Vladimi Pu in conside s Uk ainian s a ehood, and o ala ge ex en e en he
Uk ainian na ionali y i sel , o be he p oduc o he policies o Vladimi Lenin, o
which he coun e poses he iews o Joseph S alin on he op imal s uc u e o he
u u e mul ina ional So ie s a e ha came o eplace he o me Russian Empi e28.
28 “Le me emind you ha a e he Oc obe Re olu ion o 1917 and he subsequen Ci il
Wa , he Bolshe iks began es ablishing anew s a ehood, and qui e sha p disag eemen s
a ose be ween hem. S alin, who in 1922 combined he pos s o he Gene al Sec e a y o
he Cen al Commi ee o he RCP and he People’s Commissa o Na ionali ies, p oposed
building he coun y on he p inciples o au onomy, ha is, gi ing he epublics— i.e.,
he u u e adminis a i e- e i o ial uni s, ex ensi e powe s when hey we e o join asin-
gle s a e. Lenin c i icized his plan and o e ed o make concessions o he na ionalis s—
“ad oca es o independence” as he called hem. E en ually, i was hese Leninis ideas o
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46 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2023
In he ea ly wen ies o he las cen u y, he Russian communis s, ha ing es ab-
lished subdued he independen na ional epublics ha had ea lie eme ged on he
uins o he Russian Empi e, and u ned hem in o so ie epublics unde hei con-
ol, decided o uni e hem in o asingle s a e29. Lenin p oposed he c ea ion o a o -
mally equal Union be ween So ie Russia and hose so ie epublics ha had no ye
been included in i 30. S alin, ins ead, p oposed o inco po a e hem in o he so ie
Russian epublic, much like some o he epublics had al eady been included in i
some ime p io .
I Lenin spoke om he s andpoin o uni ing he o mally equal na ional epub-
lics in o he So ie Union, S alin, in con as , spoke om he s andpoin o p ese ing
G ea e Russia wi hin app oxima ely he bo de s o he o me Russian Empi e. Rus-
sians, nowadays, e e o he la e as “his o ical Russia”, and hus conside Lenin and
he Bolshe iks, who ecognized he epublics ha a ose on i s uins, as i s des oy-
e s. Pu in himsel also exp essed simila iews31, howe e , in his opinion, “his o i-
acon ede a e s a e s uc u e backed by he man a o he igh o na ions o sel -de e mi-
na ion up o secession ha ended up o ming he ounda ion o he So ie s a ehood: i s ,
in 1922, when hey we e ensh ined in he Decla a ion on he Fo ma ion o he USSR, and
hen, a e Lenin’s dea h, in he Cons i u ion o he USSR in 1924. This gi es ise o many
ques ions. The i s and in ac he mos impo an one being: why was i necessa y o sa -
is y so gene ously any o hose na ionalis ambi ions ha we e gaining ac ion on he
ou ski s o he o me empi e? To ans e o he newly, and o en a bi a ily, o med ad-
minis a i e uni s— i.e., he So ie epublics, huge e i o ies ha o en had no hing o do
wi h hem a all. I epea , o ans e hose e i o ies oge he wi h he popula ion o his-
o ical Russia. Mo eo e , hese adminis a i e uni s, we e as ama e o ac , gi en he s a-
us and o m o na ion s a e-like o ma ions. Again, Iask mysel : why was i necessa y o
make such gene ous gi s, which he mos a den na ionalis s had ne e e en d eamed o
be o e, and e en gi e he epublics he igh o secede om he uni a y s a e wi hou any
p e-condi ions? F om he an age poin o he his o ical a e o Russia and i s peoples, he
Leninis p inciples o s a e building u ned ou o be no jus amis ake, bu , as one would
say, much wo se han amis ake. A e he collapse o he USSR in 1991, his became abso-
lu ely ob ious”, (Add ess o he P esiden o he Russian Fede a ion, Feb ua y 21, 2022)
h p://k emlin. u/e en s/p esiden /news/67828
29 The Fo ma ion o he So ie Union: communism and na ionalism 1917–1923 / Richa d
Pipes, Ha a d Uni e si y P ess, Camb idge, Massachuse s London, England, 1954,
1964, six h p in ing, VI The es ablishmen o he Union o So ie Socialis Republics,
p.242–294
30 A he same ime, some o he na ional epublics we e ully inco po a ed in o so ie Rus-
sian epublic and subsequen ly became au onomous epublics wi hin i , while he epub-
lics nominally independen o Russia ecei ed he s a us o union epublics wi hin he
USSR, and no wi hin Russia i sel — o he disappoin men o Vladimi Pu in and his ol-
lowe s
31 In 2012, Vladimi Pu in w o e: “Ou na ional p oblems and hose pe aining o do wi h im-
mig a ion a e adi ec consequence o he dissolu ion o he USSR, which, in i s essence,
is his o ically he g ea e Russia, which aces i s o igins back o he 18 h cen u y when
i was o med” (Russia and he Na ional Ques ion, Vladimi Pu in, Neza isimaya Gaze a,
23.01 .2012 h ps://www.ng. u/poli ics/2012-01-23/1_na ional.h ml)
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VADIM SIDOROV 47
cal Russia” a e i s collapse in 1917, was ac ually ec ea ed in he o m o he So ie
Union, because, al hough in he cou se o he dispu e be ween Lenin and S alin, he
o me had o mally p e ailed, in p ac ice i was he app oach o he la e ha had
e en ually won32. Fo mally, he ede al USSR was in ac acen alized s a e, which is
appa en ly why Pu in conside s i a o m o “his o ical Russia.”33 Howe e , because,
a he end o he day, i was Lenin’s app oach ha had ound o mal ecogni ion, he
na ional epublics la e e en ually seized he oppo uni y and le he USSR a he
end o he 20 h cen u y, aking ad an age o he diminishing powe o he Commu-
nis Pa y in Moscow. Which, acco ding o Pu in, esul ed in “his o ical Russia losing
40% o i s e i o y”.34
Bu wha Pu in ega ds as an ex emely ha d and uncaccep able loss o “his o i-
cal Russia” is he loss o Uk aine, pa icula ly hose o i s e i o ies ha he conside s
unequi ocally Russian. This, acco ding o Pu in, is also he consequence o Lenin’s
policies, whom he conside s he c ea o o Uk aine35. And, in ega d, he appeals no
so much o Joseph S alin, bu a he o he eali y ha exis ed in he Russian Empi e
be o e he 1917 e olu ion.
I mus be no ed ha unlike he So ie Union, he Russian Empi e did no consis
o na ional epublics. E en i he G and Duchy o Finland, he Kingdom o Poland
and he Emi a e o Bukha a wi hin i could s ill be conside ed some so o na ional
au onomies, he es o i s e i o y consis ed o go e no a es— i.e., adminis a i e
uni s ha did no ha e ana ional cha ac e . F om Pu in’s s a emen s on his opic, i
ollows ha he conside s such an a angemen o “his o ical Russia” o be he op imal
one36. By he way, no only he ea ly Joseph S alin would ag ee wi h him in his, who
32 “In p ac ice, S alin ac ually ully implemen ed no Lenin’s, bu p ecisely his own ideas
o s a e s uc u e. Bu he did no in oduce he co esponding changes o he legal docu-
men s, like he Cons i u ion o he coun y, and he did no o mally e ise he p oclaimed
Leninis p inciples upon which he USSR was buil . Yes, he e was no need o his indeed.
Unde he o ali a ian egime e e y hing wo ked as in ended anyway, wi h an added bo-
nus ha i looked beau i ul, a ac i e and e en supe -democ a ic o he ou side wo ld. I
is ne e heless e y sad ha he legal ounda ions, upon which ou s a ehood was o med,
we e no duly cleansed o he odious, u opian, e olu ion-inspi ed an asies ha a e de-
s uc i e o any no mal coun y.” (Vladimi Pu in, Add ess o he P esiden o Russia,
Feb ua y 21, 2022)
33 Answe ing aques ion in 2021 abou his mos impo an accomplishmen , Vladimi Pu in
said ha he conside s i o be he e-assembly, he es o a ion o Russia as auni a y cen-
alized s a e (Pu in spoke abou he main miles one o his p esidency, Ves i.Ru, Ma ch 21,
2021, h ps://www. es i. u/a icle/2539566)
34 See “Pu in called he collapse o he USSR a agedy”, Decembe 12, 2021, TASS. h ps://
ass. u/poli ika/13179271
35 “…So ie Uk aine a ose as a esul o he policy o he Bolshe iks, he e o e, e en oday,
one can wi h good eason call i “Uk aine named a e Vladimi Ilyich Lenin”. Since he is
i s au ho and a chi ec ” (Vladimi Pu in, Add ess o he P esiden o Russia, Feb ua y 21,
2022)
36 In 2012, du ing his p ess con e ence, Vladimi Pu in s a ed he ollowing: “In he Russian
Empi e he e was no di ision in o na ional- e i o ial o ma ions, he e we e simply go -
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54 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2023
as So ie Russian an h opologis s68, poin ed ou he di e ences be ween he ibes
o he D e lians, Polians and Se e yans, who de e mined he cul u al and an h o-
pological dis inc ness o Uk ainians, on he one hand, and he ibes o Ilmen Sla s,
Vya ichs and K i ichs69, who de e mined he dis inc ness o Russians in ana ow
sense. The ques ion o in e mixing o hese Sla ic ibes wi h he non-Sla ic70 ones
is also apoin o con en ion; whe eas alo o ideologues o Uk ainian na ionalism
poin o he in e mix u e o he Sla ic ances o s o p esen -day Russians wi h he
au och onous Finno-Ug ic ibes ha li ed in he no h-eas o Rus‘, ce ain Rus-
sian heo is s, in u n, a emp o explain he de-Russi ica ion o Uk ainians no only
wi h Polish cul u al in luence, bu also wi h hei in e mix u e wi h nomadic Tu kic
ibes ha used o popula e sou he n Uk aine71.
One way o ano he , he uno icial a emp s o amalgama ing he “G ea e-Rus-
sians” and “Li le-Russians” in o one single na ion no wi hs anding, he e hnic di -
e ences be ween hem we e ob ious e en o he uling ci cles o he Russian Em-
pi e. Tha ’s why, al eady in he he popula ion census o 1897, he na i e speake s o
“G ea e-Russian”, “Li le-Russian” and Bela usian “dialec s” we e g ouped sepa a ely.
I was he esul s o his census ha subsequen ly became he basis o delinea ing
he eh nic e i o ies o each o hese people, which app oxima ely co esponded o
he u u e bo de s o hei na ional epublics.
UKRAINE WITHIN THE USSR AND AFTER:
BETWEEN NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
Howe e , while in e p e ing he o ma ion o he Uk ainian and Russian epublics
a e he collapse o he Russian Empi e, Vladimi Pu in again swi ches o he posi-
ions o adical cons uc i ism o e a ism, appealing o he no ion o s a ehood and
common s a e cul u e, wi hin he con ex o which he e hnic di e ences be ween
he “G ea e-Russians” and “Li le-Russians” lose hei meaning and become insig-
ni ican . A e all, acco ding o his hinking, he c ucial ac o ha unde lined he
inclusion o Uk aine in o Russia in he 20 h cen u y, despi e i s e hnic composi ion,
was he ac ha he independen s a e p oclaimed by he Uk ainian na ional e olu-
iona ies could no de end i sel 72 and became pa o he USSR, which he conside s
a o m o his o ical Russia.
68 “O igin o he Peoples o Eas e n Eu ope”, Aleksee V.P., Ins i u e o E hnog aphy named
a e Mikloukho-Maclay, 1969, Chap e 5 “C aniological ype o Eas Sla ic peoples and
hei o igin”, pp.162–204
69 The la e a e he ances o s o bo h pa o Bela usians and pa o Russians
70 “O igin o he Peoples o Eas e n Eu ope”, Aleksee V.P.
71 “O igin o Uk ainian sepa a ism”, N.Ulyano , 1966, Mad id, New Yo k
72 “The case o he UPR (Uk ainian People’s Republic— V.S.) shows how uns able we e a i-
ous kinds o quasi-s a e o ma ions ha a ose on he e i o y o he o me Russian Em-
pi e du ing he Ci il Wa and associa ed u moil” (“On he his o ical uni y o Russians
and Uk ainians”, Vladimi Pu in, 2021); “I is also impo an o unde s and ha Uk aine,
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VADIM SIDOROV 55
On No embe 7, 1917, a e he Bolshe iks seized powe in Pe og ad and o e h ew
he Russian P o isional Go e nmen , he Cen al Council o Uk aine (Rada), which had
p e iously been in nego ia ions wi h ha go e nmen , p oclaimed he Uk ainian Peo-
ple’s Republic (UPR). The o icial p oclama ion s a ed ha he epublic is being c ea ed
on he e i o ies o hose p o inces (go e no a es) o he Russian Empi e ha we e
majo i y Uk ainian, wi h he addi ion ha sepa a e pa s o o he p o inces whe e
Uk ainians cons i u e he majo i y can decide o join i in line wi h he no ion o sel -
de e mina ion73. This decision was me wi h hos ili y by hose who would la e o m he
wo sides o he Russian Ci il Wa , namely bo h by he so-called “whi es” (an i-com-
munis s) and he so-called “ eds” (communis s), al hough o mally hey would indica e
di e en easons o hei ejec ion o he UPR and o he simila independen s a es
and na ional au onomies ha we e p oclaimed on he uins o he Russian Empi e.
Gene al An on Denikin, who commanded he “whi es” o ces ope a ing on he e -
i o y o Uk aine, openly spoke ou denying no only Uk ainian s a ehood, bu also an
independen Uk ainian na ion, saying ha he was igh ing o a“Uni ed and Indi is-
ible Russia” and “ he uni y o he Russian ibe”74. In con as o he Russian “whi es”,
he Russian “ eds” publicly ecognized he igh s o he peoples o he o me Russian
Empi e (including he Uk ainian people) o sel -de e mina ion, howe e , hey sough
o ensu e ha i was ealized in he o m o So ie epublics unde hei con ol.
In he “ci il wa ”75 ha was ough on he e i o y o Uk aine, he opposing o ces
we e Uk ainian na ional epublicans, Russian “whi es”, Russian “ eds”, who had p o-
claimed he Uk ainian People’s Republic o So ie s as opposed o he UPR, and also
he ana chis -in e na ionalis s in he sou h o Uk aine led by Nes o Makhno. In he
end, as a esul o his mul ila e al con on a ion wi h he pa icipa ion o a ious
in e nal and ex e nal o ces on he e i o y o he o me Russian Empi e, bo h he
“whi e” Russians and mos o he non-communis na ional epublics we e de ea ed
by he Russian communis s, who p oceeded o es ablish hei con ol o e much o
he e i o y o he o me Russian Empi e76.
in ac , has ne e had as able adi ion o ue s a ehood” (Add ess o he P esiden o he
Russian Fede a ion, 2022)
73 “The e i o y o he Uk ainian People’s Republic includes lands popula ed mainly by
Uk ainians: Kie egion, Podolia, Volyn, Che nihi egion, Pol a a egion, Kha ki egion,
Yeka e inosla egion, Khe son egion, Tau ida (excluding C imea). The inal de e mina-
ion o he bo de s o he Uk ainian People’s Republic, ega ding he accession o pa s o
Ku sk, Chełm, Vo onezh and o he adjacen p o inces and egions, whe e Uk ainians con-
s i u e he majo i y, mus be es ablished wi h he consen o he people esiding in hose
e i o ies”, ІІІ Uni e sal o he Uk ainian Cen al Rada, No embe 7, 1917, h ps://likbez.
o g.ua/iii-dec ee-uk ainian-cen al- ada.h ml
74 See “Add ess o Denikin o he people o Lesse Russia”, Augus 12, 1919, h ps://
u.wikisou ce.o g/wiki/Обращение_Деникина_к_населению_Малороссии
75 In his pa icula case, he e m “ci il wa ” e lec s he iew o Russian his o iog aphy,
while Uk ainian his o iog aphy sees i as he wa o Uk ainian people o na ional libe a-
ion agains he Russian in ade s.
76 Wi h he excep ion o he Bal ic s a es, Finland and Poland (including i s wes -Uk ainian
and wes -Bela usian e i o ies i con ained back hen in 1939)
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56 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2023
I bea s no ing howe e ha , acco ding o some schola s o he Russian Ci il
Wa 77, he “ eds” managed o p e ail o e he “whi es” in no small pa due o hei
lexibili y wi h ega ds o he na ional ques ion, which in u n ea ned hem he sym-
pa hies o he in ellec ual eli es o he non-Russian na ionali i es; he sympa hies
ha we e oo ed bo h in he weakness o hei own s a es and he hos ili y o he
“whi es” o any kind o na ional sel -de e mina ion. Consequen ly, once in powe , he
“ eds” eplaced he go e ne a es o he o me Russian Empi e wi h na ional epub-
lics con olled by Moscow— some as au onomous s a es wi hin So ie Russia, and
o he s as i s o mal coequals wi hin he USSR, which was es ablished on Decembe
30, 1922 by So ie Russia, Uk aine, Bela us and T anscaucasia.
The eali ies o he So ie Uk aine and he policy o he So ie Moscow owa ds
i we e hus de e mined by his duali y o he na ional and he communis -in e na-
ional. The na ionaliza ions we e ollowed by he a emp s o oo ou na ionalism,
and he c ea ion o Uk ainian na ional cad es al e na ed wi h o ced Russi ica ion78.
Mo eo e , a e he di ision o Poland by he So ie Union and he Thi d Reich, and
he ensuing annexa ion o i s Uk ainian and Bela usian pa s by he USSR, he na-
ional libe a ion s uggle o Uk ainians, which a ha ime was aking place in Pol-
ish Uk aine, sp ead o So ie Uk aine and con inued he e un il 1950s. The e o e,
Uk ainian na ionalism emained an exis en ial enemy o he So ie egime79, bu a
he end o he 80s o he las cen u y, wo mo al blows we e deal o he la e in So-
ie Moscow i sel — i s by Mikhail Go bache , who began he democ a iza ion o
he USSR, and hen by Bo is Yel sin, who, in his s uggle wi h he So ie leade ship
decided o be on he Russian Republic and he aboli ion o he USSR.
Vladimi Pu in has on se e al occasions called he collapse o he USSR he g ea -
es geopoli ical ca as ophy o he 20 h cen u y80. Bu no because he conside s i he
op imal o m o go e nmen (i should be emembe ed ha he does no sha e he
iews o i s c ea o — i.e., Lenin, bu a he ag ees wi h S alin in ha he na ional
epublics should ha e been included in Russia), bu because he conside s i as a“ o m
o his o ical Russia”81. In such an assessmen o he USSR, Pu in is in ac co ec in
many ways, albei no o mally. O icially, he USSR was aunion o coequal na ions
wi h he igh o sel -de e mina ion (Pu in conside s i amis ake)82, which o med an
impo an pa in he sel -awa eness no only o he na ional in elligen sia, bu also
77 The Fo ma ion o he So ie Union: communism and na ionalism 1917–1923 / Richa d
Pipes, p. iii
78 “K emlin’s Empi e: So ie -s yle colonialism”, Abdu akhman A o khano , P ome eus-Ve -
lag, Ga misch-Pa enki chen, 1988, Pa II Russia, USSR and Uk aine, pp.112–142
79 Ibid
80 Pu in explained why he called he collapse o he So ie Union he g ea es ca as ophy o
he 20 h cen u y, 13June, 2017: h ps:// ia. u/20170613/1496353896.h ml. Pu in called he
collapse o he USSR he g ea es geopoli ical ca as ophy, 25Ap il, 2005: h ps://www.
p a da.com.ua/ us/news/2005/04/25/4387750/
81 “So ie Union is his o ical Russia, claims Pu in” 17June, 2022 h ps:// ia. u/20220617/
sss -1796292184.h ml
82 “Pu in cla i ied his wo ds ha Lenin’s ideas des oyed he USSR”, 25Janua y 2016 h ps://
ia. u/20160125/1365138857.h ml
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o he communis eli es o hose So ie epublics. Wha ’s mo e, ha sel -awa eness
was being o ended when i was becoming clea ha all hese assu ances do no co -
espond o eali y83. Tha is why, a e he collapse o he communis dic a o ship,
hose na ional-communis sen imen s in he So ie epublics quickly u ned in o
na ional-an i-communis , aimed a comple e libe a ion no only om he Russian
Empi e, bu also om he So ie Union as i s ac ual einca na ion.
FAILED NATION-BUILDING AND RESSENTIMENT
IN THE “HISTORICAL RUSSIA”
As he Russian Republic sepa a ed om he So ie Union, o some ime, ini ially, he
idea was gaining ac ion ha Russia should abandon no only communism, bu also
i s impe ial pas comple ely and be e-buil as apos -impe ial na ion s a e84. Bu his
was hampe ed by he ac ha Russia, despi e he clea p edominance o e hnic Rus-
sians ( o me “G ea e-Russians”) on i s e i o y, who, unlike in he Russian Empi e
and in he So ie Union, whe e hey accoun ed o less han hal o he o al popula-
ion, now accoun ed o awhopping 81.5%85, s ill con ained no only millions o indig-
enous non-Russians bu also signi ican chunks o e i o ies which cons i u ed he
au onomous na ion s a es o hese peoples ( o me au onomous So ie epublics)86.
Also no less o ap oblem was he lack o unde s anding o how he na ional iden-
i y o e hnic Russians can be o med wi h he ejec ion o he impe ial he i age. In
83 In an in e iew wi h Uk ainian TV p esen e Dmi y Go don in 2016, he i s p esiden
o Uk aine, Leonid K a chuk, complained ha a his business ips o Moscow du ing he
So ie e a he was con on ed wi h he “G ea e-Russian” chau inism o he So ie leade -
ship, he jus could no openly alk abou i hen (Se an o Two Uk aines, Komme san ,
11May 2022, h ps://www.komme san . u/doc/5347437)
84 See “Russia all alone by i sel ”, Igo Sha a e ich, «Nash So emennik», 1992, № 1
85 Coun ywide popula ion census in he So ie Union in 1989. B eakdown by gende
and na ionali y o he u ban and u al popula ion o he epublics o he USSR. A chi-
al copy om 31May 2017 on Wayback Machine Demoscope h ps://web.a chi e.o g/
web/20170531070757/h p://demoscope. u/weekly/ssp/ esp_nac_89.php? eg=
86 In he So ie Union, he epublics we e o wo ca ego ies— (i) he So ie epublics (SSR),
15 in o al, which cons i u ed he So ie Union and o mally we e i s coequal membe s,
and (ii) au onomous epublics wi hin hose So ie epublics, in pa icula wi hin he Rus-
sian So ie Socialis Republic. A e he ans o ma ion o he la e in o an independen
Russian Fede a ion a e he collapse o he USSR, he au onomous epublics wi hin i be-
came simply epublics, which a e e e ed o as s a es in pa ag aph 2 o a icle 5 o he
Cons i u ion o he Russian Fede a ion. P io o Russia’s annexa ion o pa s o Uk ainian
e i o y in 2014 and 2022, he e we e, in o al, 21 such epublics wi hin he Russian Fed-
e a ion, named a e he peoples na i e o hei e i o y (such as Chechnya, Ta a s an,
Bashko os an, e c.). In addi ion, Russian Fede a ion included and s ill includes one au on-
omous egion (“Oblas ”)— i.e., Jewish Au onomous Oblas , and se e al au onomous dis-
ic s (“Ok ugs”)— i.e., Nene s, Khan y-Mansiysk, Chuko ka and Yamalo-Nene s Au on-
omous Ok ugs. Mo eo e , du ing he p esidency o Vladimi Pu in, ce ain au onomous
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58 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2023
Tu key, du ing i s ans o ma ion om amul ina ional empi e in o aTu kish na-
ion s a e, his p oblem was sol ed h ough a e alua ion o Tu kish iden i y om
an impe ial-O oman, o aTu kish-Ana olian na ion87. Russia did no ha e i s own
Mus a a Kemal, no i s own Ana olism, he e o e, as a esul o he ailu e o demo-
c a ic ans o ma ion, he neo-So ie and neo-impe ial essen imen e en ually i-
umphed, wi hin he con ex o which Russia is pe cei ed as acon inua ion o he
USSR, and ha , in u n, as acon inua ion o he Russian Empi e, all o which os en-
sibly ha e been and con inue o be opposed by nume ous ex e nal and in e nal en-
emies, who ha e wan ed o des oy hem.
The na ional democ a ic e olu ions o 2004 and 2014 in Uk aine (Maidan Re olu-
ions) agains he pos -So ie uling class associa ed wi h he K emlin we e pe cei ed
pa icula ly pain ully by Vladimi Pu in and his associa es, because hey challenged
bo h he neo-So ie and adi ional-impe ial componen s o he hyb id So ie -impe-
ial complex ha was aking hold in Russia. As a esul , om he he o ic abou he
s uggle o a iendly o neu al Uk aine, Vladimi Pu in and his associa es mo ed on
o claim ha he e y c ea ion o Uk aine and he ecogni ion o asepa a e Uk ainian
people we e amis ake. The same is claimed in ega ds o he o he na ional epub-
lics oo, bu i hei c ea ion by he clea ly non-Russian peoples o he o me USSR
is pe cei ed a he as a o ced and i e e sible e il88, abou Uk aine, in u n, hey
eached o he conclusion ha his “e il” can be and mus be e e sed wi h he aboli-
ion o Uk ainian s a ehood and na ional iden i y.
I is exac ly o his eason why Vladimi Pu in is no con en wi h annexing
only he e i o ies whe e e hnic Russians in he na ow sense (i.e., “G ea e-Rus-
sians”) cons i u e he majo i y, as was done wi h C imea in 2014. In he ull-scale wa
launched on Feb ua y 24, 2022 he sough o conque and annex also hose e i o ies
ha acco ding o all he censuses in he Russian Empi e and he So ie Union had
aclea e hnic Uk ainian majo i y. The p oblem is he conside s Uk ainians as such
a ic i ious na ion.
While Pu in calls himsel “ he bigges na ionalis in Russia”89, he Russian s a e
p opaganda explains he wa agains Uk aine as awa agains Uk ainian na ional-
p o inces ha had exis ed be o e we e abolished— i.e., Komi-Pe myak, Taimy , E enk,
Ko yak, Us -O da Bu ya and Agin-Bu ya Au onomous Ok ugs), also named a e hei
espec i e peoples
87 An In ellec ual His o y o Tu kish Na ionalism: Be ween Tu kish E hnici y and Islamic
Iden i y, Umu Uze , Uni e si y o U ah P ess, 2016
88 In 2012, du ing his p ess con e ence, Vladimi Pu in s a ed he ollowing: “In he Russian
Empi e he e was no di ision in o na ional- e i o ial o ma ions, he e we e jus go e -
no a es. This applied bo h o he e i o ies ha a e now pa o he Russian Fede a ion
and hose ha a e no . Fo example, he e was he Ti lis Go e no a e. And i unc ioned
well. Bu is i possible o e u n o he pas ?“ (“Pu in: The change in e i o ial di ision canno
be associa ed wi h he solu ion o he na ional ques ion”, Decembe 20, 2012, h ps:// eg-
num. u/news/poli /1606900.h ml)
89 Vladimi Pu in: “The bigges na ionalis in Russia is me”, Oc obe 24, 2014 du ing
aQ&Asession a he Valdai Fo um, h ps://you u.be/ 8UgW9l ZFQ
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VADIM SIDOROV 59
is s90. This migh come acc oss (and o en does) like ideological schizoph enia, how-
e e , his schizoph enia s ems om he un e lec ed and essen imen al na u e o
Russian iden i y in Pu in’s Russia, which could de elop nei he in o aMusco i e/
G ea e-Russian e hnic iden i y no in o apos -So ie and pos -impe ial ci ic iden i y.
Ins ead o elying on one o hese models o on hei syn hesis, he Russian uling
class and asigni ican pa o socie y decided o e u n o he no ion o “his o ical
Russia” as he Russian Empi e. Which has al eady ailed wice— once in i s explici
o m in 1917, and he second ime in i s implici einca na ion as USSR in 1991.
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