Me olingualism in P ague:
The Adap a ion and Managemen
o Mul ilingualism in aMul ie hnic Bake y Shop
Minyoung Pa k
ABSTRACT:
The aim o his pape is o shed ligh on how o dina y language use s in aglobalized ci y adap o
and manage hei mul ilingual si ua ions in which di e se communica i e p oblems occu . The sub-
jec o his s udy is amul ie hnic bake y shop in P ague. Va ious languages, such as English, Czech,
Ko ean and Chinese a e used as ameans o e e yday in e ac ion be ween he owne s and cus om-
e s in he shop. Language Managemen Theo y (Je nudd & Neus upný, 1987; Neus upný & Nek apil,
2003) will be employed as a heo e ical amewo k in o de o unde s and and analyze he ollowing
esea ch ques ions: 1) how do he owne s o amul ie hnic bake y shop adap o hei mul ilingual
si ua ion?, 2) how do he owne s o amul ie hnic bake y shop manage hei language use du ing he
wo k? Simple managemen (on he mic o-le el) and o ganized managemen (on he mac o-le el)
will be analyzed based on he da a ga he ed om obse a ions, eco dings, language biog aphy in-
e iews, and ollow-up in e iews by he au ho . This pape will illumina e how socio-economic,
communica i e and linguis ic managemen a e in e wined and wha consequences may ollow a -
e implemen ing he adjus men plan.
KEY WORDS:
me olingualism, mul ilingualism, Language Managemen Theo y, e e yday li e, simple manage-
men , o ganized managemen
1 INTRODUCTION
Globaliza ion is a e m wi h which we a e amilia . As aconsequence o echnologi-
cal ad ancemen , he mobili y o people, goods, oods, in o ma ion, and cul u e has
been d ama ically acili a ed. Acco ding o he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion, he size o
wo ld ade in goods and se ices has amoun ed o 22 illion US dolla s in 2020, and
281 million o he wo ld popula ion eside in acoun y o he han hei coun y o
bi h (i.e., 3.6% o he wo ld’s o al popula ion) acco ding o he In e na ional O gani-
za ion o Mig a ion (2022, pp.3–4). These globaliza ion ends ha e ini ia ed nume -
ous changes (e.g., mig a ion, educa ion, language policy, cul u al exchange, e hnic
iden i y issues) in ou socie y (S ude & We len, 2012). These changes ha e become
ac ucial ea u e o e e yday li e in cosmopoli an ci ies in Eu ope such as Ams e dam,
B ussels o P ague, in which English as a o eign language is used as alingua anca
enabling communica ion wi h o eign people.1 These global ends ha e commenced
1 The numbe o o eigne s in P ague is 236,229 in 2021 (i.e., 17.9% o he whole popula ion
o P ague) and he numbe o o eign isi o s in he i s qua e o 2022 is app oxima e-
ly 1.85 million acco ding o he Czech S a is ical O ice.
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100 STUDIE ZAPLIKOVANÉ LINGVISTIKY 2/2022
new mul ilingual language si ua ions, and hese ha e been adecisi e subjec o a i-
ous linguis ic esea che s (e.g., Sain -Geo ges & Webe , 2013; Ho ne e al., 2014).
This pape aims o explo e he e e yday language p ac ices in abake y shop in
which ame olingual con ex is p esen by asking he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
1) how do he owne s o amul ie hnic bake y shop adap o hei mul ilingual si ua-
ion, 2) how do he owne s o amul ie hnic bake y shop manage hei language use
du ing wo k. These wo ques ions will be answe ed wi hin he amewo k o Lan-
guage Managemen Theo y on he mic o and mac o le els. Language Managemen
Theo y is a heo e ical amewo k ha delinea es he co ec ion p ocess o communi-
ca i e p oblems no only in e ms o linguis ic bu also in e ms o socio-cul u al and
socio-economic pe spec i es. This heo y makes i possible o unde s and how he
p ocess o adap a ion o mul ilingual si ua ions es ablishes communica i e no ms in
he wo kplace om a ious pe spec i es, how he dynamic use o a ious languages
in he wo kplace p oceeds in he ongoing in e ac ion (i.e., mic o-le el) and how hese
accumula ed expe iences wi h communica i e p oblems b ing abou he es ablish-
men o language policy in amul ie hnic bake y shop in P ague (i.e., mac o-le el).
2 MULTILINGUALISM
As desc ibed abo e, mul ilingualism is one o he c ucial e ms ela ed o he opic
o his pape . Be o e analyzing he adap a ion and managemen o mul ilingualism
in amul ie hnic bake y in P ague, i is necessa y o look in o he concep a leas
b ie ly. A onin and Single on (2008, pp.1–2) depic ea u es o cu en mul ilingual-
ism as ollows:
(1) Mul ilingualism is ubiqui ous, on he ise wo ldwide, and inc easingly deep
and b oad in i s e ec s.
(2) Mul ilingualism is de eloping wi hin he con ex o he new eali y o global-
iza ion.
(3) Mul ilingualism is now such an inhe en elemen o human socie y ha i is
necessa y o he unc ioning o majo componen s o he social s uc u e (in
he b oad sense, encompassing, in e alia, echnology, inance, poli ics, and
cul u e).
As he au ho s sugges , cu en mul ilingualism is no limi ed o geog aphically close
languages o na ions. We can see and isi nume ous Asian, A ican, and Ame ican
shops o es au an s in a ious Eu opean ci ies. I is undeniable ha Eu opean coun-
ies do no solely ge in luenced by o he closely loca ed Eu opean coun ies bu also
by a ious coun ies om di e en con inen s. Addi ionally, mul ilingualism is no
longe associa ed wi h speci ic social s a a, cul u es, and na ions, bu as an inhe en
elemen o ou socie y, i in luences people, cul u e, language, economics, and poli-
ics wi hin he con ex o globaliza ion.
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MINYOUNG PA K 101
Wi h espec o speci ic esea ch subjec s wi hin his con ex , social aspec s o
cu en mul ilingualism and mul ilingualism and social inclusion a e signi ican op-
ics closely ela ed o he cu en pape . These opics will be in oduced in he ollow-
ing subsec ions.
2.1 SOcIAL ASPEcTS OF cU ENT MULTILINGUALISM
Va ious p oblema ic ea u es and p ac ices de i ed om mul ilingualism in socie y
ha e been he leading esea ch a ge in esea ch on mul ilingualism. This opic o-
cuses on how socie y and mul ilingualism a e in e wined. A ypical opic can be, o
ins ance, mino i y language use wi hin he hos communi y. Single on e al. (2013)
inqui ed abou he language p ac ices o mino i y language use s in I eland wi hin
he amewo k o mul ilingualism and indi idual speake s’ social and physical ime.
The au ho s e ealed ha mino i y language speake s manage hei languages ac-
co ding o a e y speci ic pa e n o daily ime alloca ion and places, and hey usu-
ally emain in one language mode o he majo i y o ime. These indings shed ligh
on he ac ha mul ilingualism is signi ican ly di e se and complex and canno be
p ope ly in es iga ed by employing asimple concep o globaliza ion.
2.2 MULTILINGUALISM AND SOcIAL INcLUSION
Mul ilingualism and social inclusion ha e become one o he mos signi ican e-
sea ch opics due o he apid p ocess o globaliza ion and he di e si y o languages
and cul u es in asocie y. I b ings a en ion o how o dina y language use s wi h
a ious linguis ic and cul u al capi als (Bou dieu & Passe on, 1990) in eg a e in o
asocie y. This social phenomenon is elucida ed in nume ous se ings. Pennycook and
O suji (2011), o ins ance, demons a e he complexi y o mul ilingualism in u ban
spaces in which ixi y and luidi y o language ideologies and p ac ices p e ail. In
ha pape , hey a gue ha simple e minology such as plu alism does no p ope ly
indica e how dynamic, hyb id, and complica ed ou e e yday li e in mul ilingual se -
ings is, and ha i is equi ed o in es iga e such a opic wi hin he concep o me o-
lingualism ocusing on daily linguis ic p ac ices o o dina y language use s in mul-
ilingual ci ies. Ma ácz and Adamo (2017), on he o he hand, ake mul ilingualism
and social inclusion a he na ional le el in o accoun . They claimed ha he “one na-
ion— one people— one language” doc ine los i s meaning, and in he p esen age
o globaliza ion, linguis ic di e si y has been ecognized as an una oidable phenom-
enon. A he na ional le el, mul ilingual s a es in socie y ha e been de eloping, bu
his does no gua an ee ull equali y o languages. Annamalai (2003), o ins ance,
demons a es he impo ance o powe ela ions be ween he majo i y and mino i y
and how hey a e in e wined in ou socie y by employing Sku nabb-Kangas’ (1989)
ca ego iza ion o mul ilingual language policies. This ca ego iza ion, in opposi ion o
adi ional language policy (e.g., o hog aphy e o ms and s anda diza ion o e ms),
is associa ed wi h h ee kinds o policy goals: 1) policy o elimina ion o mul ilin-
gualism, 2) ole ance o mul ilingualism, 3) main enance o mul ilingualism. Elimi-
na ion o mul ilingualism p ima ily deals wi h he p ese a ion o monolingualism
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achie ed by p ohibi ing and penalizing he use o mino i y languages in public and
p i a e domains. Tole ance o mul ilingualism does no egula e he use o mino i y
languages in p i a e domains bu excludes hem in public domains. Main enance o
mul ilingualism suppo s he igh s o mino i y language speake s and he ecology
o mino i y languages (Annamalai, 2003, pp.119–122).
3 METROLINGUALISM
Pennycook and O suji (2015) explo e e e yday mul ilingual p ac ices in an u ban a ea
such as Sydney and Tokyo wi hin he amewo k o “mul ilingualism om below”
and “me olingualism”. Mul ilingualism om below is de i ed om he concep o
mul icul u alism om below, which is unde s ood as “ag ounded app oach o look-
ing a he e e yday p ac ice and li ed expe ience o di e si y in speci ic si ua ions
and spaces o encoun e ” (Wise & Velayu ham, 2009, p.3). This concep , he e o e,
gene ally does no deal wi h op-down language policy o language no ms as asoci-
e al sys em ha in luences he language use o lay people. Ra he , mul ilingualism
om below explo es how people in e ac in e e yday communica ion and how hei
language p ac ices ope a e on he mic o-le el o shed ligh on he e e yday p ac ice
and li ed expe ience o linguis ic di e si y. Me olingualism e e s o he p ac ice o
c ea i e language use in e e yday in e ac ion and he mixing o di e en linguis ic
codes in u ban con ex s. This dynamic and hyb id use o language anscends es ab-
lished social, cul u al, poli ical, and his o ical bounda ies (Pennycook & O suji, 2010,
pp.243–248). Mo eo e , in hei p e ious pape (Pennycook & O suji, 2011), he au-
ho s explain he po en ial aims o me olingualism: i desc ibes how people o di -
e en and mixed backg ounds use, play wi h, and nego ia e iden i ies h ough lan-
guage. Me olingualism does no assume aconnec ion be ween language, cul u e,
na ionali y, o geog aphy bu a he seeks o explo e how such ela ions a e p o-
duced, esis ed, de ied, o ea anged (ibid., p.419). Wi hin his heo e ical ame-
wo k, Pennycook and O suji explo ed how e e yday mul ilingual p ac ices ake
place in e ms o mobili y, spa ial epe oi es,2 con i iali y, and me olingua an-
cas. Mo eo e , in hei la e pape (Pennycook & O suji, 2017), he au ho s u he
de elop he heo y and in oduce he no ion o globaliza ion om below. I e e s
o ansna ional lows o people and goods as pa o in o mal and small-scale eco-
nomic exchange (ibid., pp.434–435). This new concep does no con ine i s heo e ical
bounda y o one u ban a ea bu b oadens i s scope o nume ous u ban a eas in e -
connec ed wi h o he ci ies and na ions and p ope ly elucida es how hese ansna-
ional exchanges ini ia e new cul u al and linguis ic phenomena in u ban con ex s.
Fo ins ance, Pennycook and O suji explo ed how some labels o signs w i en on he
2 This e m is c ucial o unde s anding Pennycook and O suji’s pape s. I is ase o epe -
oi es o linguis ic esou ces es ablished by accumula ed linguis ic expe iences in pa -
icula spaces. This no ion links he epe oi es o med h ough indi idual li e ajec o-
ies o he pa icula places in which hese linguis ic esou ces a e deployed (Pennycook
& O suji, 2015, p.83).
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MINYOUNG PA K 103
p oduc s inaugu a e ab oad se o in e ac ions. Acco ding o hem, o eign p oduc s
(e.g., spice, o eign ish species) and hei labels o signs (i.e., ma e ial a e ac s) es-
ablish he spa ial layou in apa icula space and gene a e aspa ial epe oi e in
which in e ac ions ega ding p oduc s, buying, selling, and nego ia ions ake place.
As aconsequence, he in e connec edness o local and global objec s, people, and lin-
guis ic esou ces econ igu es he scope o he in e ac ion om local o wide con-
nec ions ac oss he subu b, he ci y and he p ocess o globaliza ion (ibid., p.438).
As a as spa ial epe oi e in an u ban con ex is conce ned, i is one o he mos
c ucial no ions ha ap ly explain e e yday language p ac ices in acosmopoli an ci y.
Sen (2016), in his pape , accoun s o he no ion o spa ial epe oi e in ela ion o he
habi ual language use o immig an s in ashopping cen e . Acco ding o him, “ he e-
pea ed expe iences o shopping in such s o es c ea e spa ial memo ies and habi ual
p ac ices ha p oduce new o ms o communal expe iences o immig an s. In he
cou se o epea ed expe ience, no only spa ial memo ies bu also spa ial epe oi es,
which include bo h linguis ic and o he esou ces, a e c ea ed” (ibid., p.71). In o he
wo ds, epea ed expe iences wi h e e yday li e p ac ices ou inize apa icula way
o language use in ace ain place. This concep o ou inized language use allows us
o desc ibe ou e e yday language p ac ices in a ious places in which o eigne s o
immig an s communica e wi h hos communi y g oups.
Pennycook and O suji (2019) augmen he ange o me olingualism o include
digi al echnology a eas. Due o he ecen p oli e a ion o digi al echnologies such
as sma phones and social ne wo k se ices, adi e en ype o spa io empo al en-
anglemen has become pa o ou e e yday li es (see Pink & Mackley, 2013). Addi-
ionally, Thu low and M oczek (2011) sugges ha “ echnologies a e indeed embedded
in complex ways in o he banal p ac ices o e e yday li e” (ibid., pp. xxi –xx ). Fo
ins ance, ad e isemen s o es au an s and hei e iews on he in e ne o social
ne wo k se ices such as Facebook and Ins ag am ha e become mundane mul ilin-
gual p ac ices in ou socie y. In his pape , Pennycook and O suji a gue ha “ he mo-
bile phone […] is no simply amedium o en e ainmen , bu pa o he p ocess by
which people en angle he lines be ween wo k and pleasu e and make e e yday en-
i onmen s in ongoing ways a he in e ace be ween wo k and home” (ibid., p.182).
This a gumen poin s o he ac ha echnological ad ance is no solely apassi e and
subse ien implica ion o ou socie y bu an ac i e and dynamic ool ha enables us
o c ea e anew place in which mul ilingual p ac ices ake place e e y day.
4 LANGUAGE MANAGEMENT THEORY
As an analy ical amewo k, Language Managemen Theo y (he ea e LMT) will be
employed o analyzing he da a. This heo y plays ac ucial ole in his pape , he e-
o e, in his sec ion, he heo e ical concep o LMT will be b ie ly elucida ed.
LMT was c ea ed by B.H.Je nudd and J.V.Neus upný (1987), who ollowed up on
language planning heo ies elabo a ed in he 1960s and 1970s. Ini ially, LMT delin-
ea ed he co ec ion p ocess o a ious p oblems occu ing in in e ac ion. The e m
“language managemen ” is unde s ood as a en ion o language as asys em as well as
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104 STUDIE ZAPLIKOVANÉ LINGVISTIKY 2/2022
language use (Nek apil & She man, 2015. The heo y deals wi h managing communi-
ca i e p oblems no only in e ms o linguis ic bu also socio-cul u al and socio-eco-
nomic pe spec i es. In o de o p ope ly in es iga e he language co ec ion p ocess
in in e ac ion wi hin he amewo k o LMT, i is necessa y o di e en ia e be ween
wo p ocesses in language use. Acco ding o Nek apil (2009, p.1), hose a e di ided
in o wo g oups: “(1) he p ocess which enables he gene a ion o u e ances o com-
munica i e ac s, and (2) he p ocess whose objec is he u e ances o communica i e
ac s hemsel es, whe he hey ha e al eady been gene a ed, a e cu en ly gene a ed
o a e an icipa ed”. In o he wo ds, he i s p ocess deals wi h how aspeake gene -
a es u e ances in in e ac ion, and he second p ocess de o es a en ion o he me a-
linguis ic beha io o aspeake (i.e., “beha io owa d language” in Fishman’s e -
minology). I is he second p ocess ha is deemed he p ima y a ge o he heo y.
Acco ding o Neus upný (1978), me alinguis ic beha io s in in e ac ion a e di ec ed
bo h o one pa icula discou se and he language sys em as awhole, so, as we ha e
men ioned abo e, he heo e ical dema ca ion be ween simple (on he mic o-le el)
and o ganized (on he mac o-le el) managemen is es ablished. On he mic o-le el,
LM is ac i e and dynamic. Fo ins ance, du ing acon e sa ion, one o he pa ici-
pan s no es ade ia ion om he no m o expec a ion (e.g., ap onuncia ion p ob-
lem o ap oblem wi h selec ing he deg ee o poli eness), and s/he may e alua e i
nega i ely and design and implemen an adjus men in o de o emedy he com-
munica i e p oblem. This p ocess can be conduc ed du ing he in e ac ion o a e
he in e ac ion (Nek apil & She man, 2015, pp.6–7). On he mac o-le el, language
p oblems a e analyzed in de ail by an ins i u ion (e.g., ag oup o linguis ic expe s
no e some de ia ions om he no m o expec a ion and e alua e hem nega i ely,
and hus design an adjus men ), and he ins i u ion gi es o dina y language use s
an ins uc ion on how o sol e he p oblems (i.e., implemen an adjus men design).
This p ocess may ake a ela i ely long ime due o he ac ha he da a o he
no ing s age should be ga he ed in an accumula ed linguis ic da abase gained om
laypeople. Ade ailed accoun o he LM p ocess co e ing i s main s ages can be p e-
sen ed as ollows:
Figu e 1 demons a es how language managemen p ocesses wo k. The e may be
six s ages in ol ed:
1) ade ia ion om he no m occu s
2) apa icipan o communica ion (o an ins i u ion) no ices i
3) apa icipan o communica ion (o an ins i u ion) e alua es i as posi i e o
nega i e
4) apa icipan o communica ion (o an ins i u ion) plans an adjus men o he
de ia ion
5) apa icipan o communica ion (o an ins i u ion) implemen s he adjus men
The p e equisi e o he language managemen p ocess is ob iously p oducing an u -
e ance o acommunica i e ac (i.e., pa ole, pe o mance). I he e is no u e ance o
communica i e ac ( e bal o non e bal) a all, i is likely ha an in e ac ion o com-
munica ion p oblem will no occu . The i s s age is ela ed o ade ia ion om he
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MINYOUNG PA K 105
no m (i.e., asou ce o he communica i e p oblem) occu ing in in e ac ion. Com-
munica i e p oblems can eme ge du ing an in e ac ion.
Misp onuncia ion, o hog aphic mis akes, and imp ope language use in e ms o
socio-cul u al speci ici y a e he c i e ia o ade ia ion om no ms o expec a ions
(e.g., linguis ic, socio-cul u al, and socio-economic) o pa icipan s in he in e ac-
ion. The second s age e e s o he no ing o ade ia ion. Some communica i e p ob-
lems can occu du ing he con e sa ion (i.e., he i s s age), and one o he pa ici-
pan s can no e he de ia ion ha ini ia es hose p oblems. The hi d s age conce ns
he e alua ion o he no ed de ia ion. A e he no ing s age, he agen who no ed
ade ia ion can e alua e i . Ade ia ion can be e alua ed ei he posi i ely o nega-
i ely. I he no ed de ia ion is e alua ed posi i ely, i is no conside ed ap oblem.
Fo ins ance, du ing acon e sa ion wi h a o eigne , ana i e speake can no e some
misp onuncia ions. Howe e , i he na i e speake can comp ehend hei speech and
unde s and ha he gi en language used in he con e sa ion is asecond language
o acon e sa ion pa ne , i migh happen ha he na i e speake does no ca e
abou ha p oblem. On he o he hand, i he no ed de ia ion is e alua ed nega i ely,
i migh be deemed an inadequacy o ap oblem, and he agen migh con inue he
managemen p ocess. The ou h s age is ela ed o aplan o he no ed de ia ion.
I he agen who no ed he de ia ion e alua ed i nega i ely, s/he could plan an ad-
jus men design in o de o emedy he p oblem. Fo ins ance, aplan o adi ec o
indi ec co ec ion o he misp onuncia ion o he con e sa ion pa ne is a ypi-
cal example o planning an adjus men design. The las s age deals wi h he ac ual
Communica i e ac
No
De ia ions
De ia ions om
he No ms
Unno ed No ed
E alua ed
No
E alua ed
Adjus men
No Designed
Adjus men
Designed
No
Implemen ed Implemen ed
iGu e 1:The language managemen p ocess (Nek apil, 2009, p.3).
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implemen a ion o he adjus men design in in e ac ion. A e planning an adjus -
men design, he agen can implemen his/he adjus men in ongoing in e ac ion o
a e he in e ac ion.
I is no ewo hy ha all o hese s ages need no be ca ied ou . In o he wo ds,
he language managemen p ocess can cease a any s age. The a ionale can be a i-
ous: alinguis ic eason (e.g., insu icien compe ence in agi en language used in he
in e ac ion), asocio-cul u al eason (e.g., inabili y o emedy he no ed p oblem due
o poli eness in ahie a chical socie y), o asocio-economic eason (e.g., inabili y o
emedy he no ed p oblem due o an unbalanced ela ion be ween manu ac u e and
cus ome ).
5 METHODOLOGY
The da a employed in his esea ch we e ga he ed om obse a ions and eco dings
by he au ho (abou 30 hou s) and in e iews ( ollow-up in e iew and language
biog aphy in e iew) wi h he pa icipan s. Obse a ions we e conduc ed 12 imes
by he au ho as acus ome in he bake y shop. Being acus ome was ac ucial pa
o his da a ga he ing p ocess since i enabled he au ho o obse e and eco d how
he owne s o he bake y shop in e ac wi h cus ome s o a ious na ionali ies (e.g.,
Czech, Chinese, Ko ean, Vie namese, Japanese, Canadian, Russian, Slo akian) de ac o
in ana u al se ing and how hey manage hei language use in a ious wo king con-
ex s. Unde he owne s’ and cus ome s’ consen ,3 some o he con e sa ions we e
eco ded and used as ma e ials o a ollow-up in e iew in o de o analyze and in-
e p e signi ican phenomena ha occu ed du ing he con e sa ion wi h cus om-
e s. The ollow-up in e iew e e s o ame hodological app oach de eloped om he
s imula ed ecall in e iew ha ocuses on sel - e ela ion. Acco ding o Gass and
Mackey (2000), i alludes o wha is o en desc ibed as hink-aloud. The c ucial aspec
o he s imula ed ecall in e iew is elucida ed as ollows: “Apa icipan p o ides an
ongoing epo o his o he hough p ocesses while pe o ming he same ask […]
[i ] in ol es ap omp ed in e iew, o example, wa ching a ideo o an e en , lis-
ening o an audio eco ding o an e en , o e en seeing apiece o w i ing jus com-
ple ed” (ibid., p.10). In acco dance wi h he s imula ed ecall in e iew, he ollow-up
in e iew employs a ideo o an audio eco ding o apa icula linguis ic beha io
o apa icipan as achecking de ice in o de o e eal he pu pose and men al p o-
cess o language use o he esea che and alida e hei hypo hesis ega ding agi en
phenomenon.
Language biog aphy is a esea ch me hodology based on na a i es o an in-
o man ega ding his o he language use. Acco ding o Nek apil (2004), ea u es
and aims o his me hodology can be desc ibed as ollows: “alanguage biog aphy is
3 As a as he consen om cus ome s is conce ned, announcemen s wi h ab ie explana-
ion o he esea ch opic and a eques o pe mission o eco d we e placed on he en-
ance and cash desk. In addi ion, he bake y shop owne s asked cus ome s i hey al eady
had ead he announcemen and consen o i .
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MINYOUNG PA K 107
a biog aphical accoun in which he na a o makes he language, o a he languages,
he opic o his o he na a i e— in pa icula , he issue o how he language was ac-
qui ed and how i was used” (ibid., p.9). One o he signi ican ea u es o alanguage
biog aphy is ha i enables a esea che o cap u e e e yday language use o he in-
o man in amo e p ac ical way. Due o he ime and inancial ac o s, i is s enuous
o a esea che o in es iga e e e y aspec o e e yday language use o he in o man
in ana u al se ing. Howe e , employing alanguage biog aphy me hodology makes
i possible o explo e he in o man ’s mundane language use in de ail. In addi ion,
30 hou s o obse a ions and eco dings a e insu icien o deeply unde s and how
speake s o a ious languages communica e, manage hei language use, emedy
p oblems, and achie e communica i e goals. The e o e, alanguage biog aphy me h-
odology becomes asa is ac o y solu ion o emedy hese me hodological p oblems.
8 in e iews we e conduc ed (4 ollow-up in e iews o each pa icipan and 4
language biog aphy in e iews wi h all pa icipan s). The eason o he di e en
numbe o pa icipan s in he ollow-up in e iews and he language biog aphy in-
e iews is ha in a ollow-up in e iew, he pa icipan was equi ed o demons a e
why he o she gene a ed speci ic language uses ha became subjec s o his esea ch.
In con as , in alanguage biog aphy in e iew, i was mo e e icien o le he pa ici-
pan s discuss some episodes ega ding hei language use a he wo kplace since he
opic is b oade du ing he discussion, and i elici s mo e dynamic episodes ela ed
o he esea ch opic. Fu he , hose episodes a e mos ly epe i i e e en s ha all
pa icipan s ha e expe ienced o ex ao dina y e en s ha hey canno o ge . In
many cases, he pa icipan s emembe hose e en s in de ail and na a e p oblem-
sol ing p ocesses a he wo kplace in aconc e e way. Thus, alanguage biog aphy
in e iew en iches he da a wi h aluable in o ma ion ha 30 hou s o obse a ions
and eco dings canno p o ide.
6 DATA
6.1 BAKE Y SHOP AS A ESEA cH SITE
This pa icula bake y shop was chosen as a esea ch si e o se e al easons:
1. Me olingualism is well e lec ed in his wo kplace. The bake y shop is loca ed
in acosmopoli an ci y, P ague, and a ious languages a e used in e e yday in-
e ac ions in o de o achie e communica i e goals.
2. The bake y shop has a ela i ely small space and quie a mosphe e. These en-
i onmen al ac o s enabled me o ocus on obse a ion and eco ding.
3. Language da a om na u ally occu ing in e ac ions can be ga he ed. As an
o dina y cus ome , Iha e wi nessed nume ous communica i e, socio-cul-
u al, and socio-economic p oblems in na u ally occu ing si ua ions. Since
he pa icipan s a e my acquain ances, Iha e equen ly isi ed he bake y
shop and could obse e he linguis ic beha io s o he pa icipan s and cus-
ome s o awhole day wi hou in e up ion.
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Example 3:10 Ins uc ions in Japanese ( om an uns uc u ed in e iew, ansla ed
by he au ho ).
16 A: igonmoeyo?
Wha a e hese?
17 P1: ah: ilbonsonnimdul omeon junun anneguliya.
Ah, hose a e ins uc ions o Japanese cus ome s.
18 A: oe e onge i soyo?
Why do you ha e hose hings?
19 P1: ilbonsonnimduli onunde gusa amdu i eongo ul zal mo he gu eso keikdo
myu bon munapeso ddulo u igo gu eso senggakhe zi. ilbono o igol iyagi-
hezuza.
Many Japanese come he e and shop, bu hey do no speak English well. They
some imes d op acake igh in on o ou shop. So, we hough ha i is neces-
sa y o make ins uc ions in Japanese in o de o hem o unde s and wha hey
should do wi h ou cake.
20 A: oh: banungun o esoyo?
Oh, wha we e he eac ions?
21 P1: umchung joahado a.
They lo e i so much.
In Example 3, he LM p ocess o language policy is ep esen ed. As desc ibed abo e, one
o he bake y owne s is e hnically Chinese. In o de o b oaden hei a ge ma ke , he
owne s employed he Chinese language (e.g., ad e ising in Chinese on Ins ag am and
making a ese a ion in Chinese). As aconsequence, i b ough abou amassi e in lux
o Chinese cus ome s. O e ime, hei a ge cus ome s we e b oadened o include
Japanese cus ome s. Some mino acciden s (e.g., d opping he cake) some imes occu ,
and he owne s wan ed o a oid hem by displaying speci ic ins uc ions. Howe e ,
hey no iced ha some Japanese cus ome s who egula ly buy hei cake and desse s
do no ha e su icien compe ence in English. Since he owne s do no speak Japanese,
ansla ion was he sole op ion. The e o e, one o he owne s con ac ed he Japanese
iend who speaks English, and she eques ed a ansla ion o some o he ins uc ions.
The owne s s a ed o pu hese ins uc ions in Japanese on hei cake boxes and
w apping pape s on eshly baked b ead when Japanese cus ome s come o shop.
This e o was e alua ed posi i ely by nume ous Japanese cus ome s (e.g., hey said
” hank you” wi h asmile and made posi i e commen s abou he ins uc ions in Japa-
nese in hei in e ne e iew o he bake y). The e o e, i became a ixed ule ( hei
10 he o iginal language is Ko ean ( he uppe ow) and he ansla ed language is English
( he lowe ow). P1 e e s o pa icipan 1 and A e e s o he esea che .
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company policy), and he owne s also decided o ansla e hese ins uc ions in o
Chinese o hei egula Chinese cus ome s.
iGu e 3:T ansla ion o ins uc ions in o Japanese.11 The con en s o he ins uc ions in Japanese a e:
“Since he cake is qui e all, he uppe side o he cake may ouch he pape box. Please be ca e ul.”;
“The w apping pape is open because he b ead is s ill ho . Please close i a e he b ead cools down.”
iGu e 4:T ansla ion o ins uc ions in o Chinese.12 The con en s o he ins uc ions in Chinese a e:
“Since he cake is qui e all, he uppe side o he cake may ouch he pape box. Please be ca e ul.”;
“The w apping pape is open because he b ead is s ill ho . Please close i a e he b ead cools down.”
As aconsequence o LM on he mac o-le el (i.e., he company language policy), he e
has been an in lux o Chinese cus ome s, and Chinese cus ome s e en made pos s on
Ins ag am and in hei communi y in o de o ecommend his bake y shop.
11 In he pic u es, he ed labels on he plas ic bag a e in Ko ean and hey mean: 1) Japanese:
cake, 2) Japanese: ho b ead. I is w i en in Ko ean since all he owne s do no ha e linguis-
ic compe ence in Japanese . They, howe e , ha e o iden i y wha he ins uc ions a e o .
12 In he pic u es, he blue labels on he plas ic bag a e in Ko ean and hey mean: 1) Chinese:
cake, 2) Chinese: ho b ead. I is w i en in Ko ean since he o he h ee owne s do no
ha e linguis ic compe ence in Chinese. They, howe e , ha e o iden i y wha he ins uc-
ions a e o when he Chinese-speaking owne is no p esen in he shop.
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I is also o in e es ha he bake y’s new language policy has unexpec ed conse-
quences: massi e numbe s o egula Chinese cus ome s s a ed o isi hei shop on
aspeci ic day. In in e iews wi h he owne s, i was e ealed ha Chinese cus ome s
egula ly come and buy swee b ead and desse s especially on Sa u day mo ning. I
is p obable ha mos Chinese cus ome s li e in a ious dis ic s, and he shop closes
a 4 pm. Due o hei wo k o hei s udies, i is no easy o hem o isi he bake y
shop on wo king days. The e o e, hey come and buy b ead especially on Sa u day
mo ning.13 Du ing ha ime, Chinese becomes he dominan language in he bake y
shop. I is no a ixed ule es ablished by he owne s. Howe e , h ough he pa e n-
ing o hei cus ome isi s (in o de o a oid unnecessa y o e -p oduce, he owne s
analyze he consump ion o each p oduc o each day o he week acco ding o cus-
ome s’ na ionali y), he owne s ealized ha app oxima ely 95 pe cen o cus ome s
who isi hei shop on Sa u day mo ning a e Chinese. The owne s hus bake mo e
swee b ead and desse s speci ically o hem, and pa icipan 4, who is hal Chinese,
concen a es solely on communica ion and nego ia ion wi h cus ome s on Sa u day
mo ning. This phenomenon can be in e p e ed as aspa io empo ally-speci ic epe -
oi e. I can be de ined as anego ia ed language p ac ice ha epea edly eme ges in
aspeci ic ime and space. This phenomenon can be di e en ia ed om o he spa ial
epe o ies by he ac ha his nego ia ed language p ac ice epea edly occu s only
a apa icula ime, e en hough he space is iden ical.
In ou example, he nego ia ed language p ac ices in he bake y shop a e: use
Czech o Czech cus ome s, English o o eign cus ome s, Chinese o Chinese cus-
ome s, and Ko ean o Ko ean cus ome s. These ou languages a e usually in e -
wined in he shop, bu English and Czech a e used dominan ly. Howe e , e e y Sa -
u day mo ning, he language p ac ice in he shop changes. Ala ge numbe o Chinese
cus ome s communica e ia WeCha and Ins ag am on wo king days, and hey pick
up he b ead and pay o i on Sa u day mo ning. This ou inized consump ion pa -
e n es ablishes he aci business and language no ms ha Chinese becomes adomi-
nan language in he shop and pa icipan 4 akes esponsibili y.
I is o pa icula impo ance o ocus on he consequence o implemen ing an
adjus men design ha can gene a e anew ype o communica i e si ua ion in which
new no ms and language managemen p ocesses a e p esen . A e es ablishing he
language policy, he owne s no e ade ia ion om he no m (i.e., dominan usage
o Chinese ha only pa icipan 4 can manage) and e alua e i nega i ely ( om he
socio-economic pe spec i e, an in lux o Chinese cus ome s is c ucial, bu only he
pa icipan 4 can explain he ins uc ions in Chinese). They design he adjus men
ha pa icipan 4 will manage communica ion wi h cus ome s on Sa u day mo n-
ing and implemen i as anew language policy. This is an example o an ex ended
language managemen cycle (Nek apil & She man, 2009; Kimu a, 2014) in which one
o ganized managemen gene a es ano he o ganized managemen (i.e., simple man-
agemen > o ganized managemen > simple managemen > o ganized managemen
> simple managemen ).
13 The bake y shop is closed on Sunday.
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Example 4:14 Two accoun s on Ins ag am ( om an uns uc u ed in e iew, ans-
la ed by he au ho ).
22 A: hongbonun o okehe soyo?
How do you p omo e you p oduc s?
23 P3: Ins ag am u o heyo. won enun gezungi dugeyo nunde hana o zu yo soyo.
We do i on Ins ag am. Ac ually, we had wo accoun s, bu we dele ed one o hem.
24 A: oeyo?
Why?
25 P3: won e zungguko gyezungi ang eongo gyezung du eyo nunde (.) ollowe
suga zundagoheso upse soyo.
We had an accoun in Chinese and an accoun in English, bu we ealized ha
i we ha e wo accoun s, he o al numbe o ollowe s on Ins ag am could be
smalle . Tha is why we dele ed he accoun o Chinese.
Pa icula ly when anew shop is opened, in o ma ion ega ding new p oduc s, opening
e en s, and ese a ions on social ne wo k se ices a e signi ican o business own-
e s. As we can see in Figu e 5, he bake y shop owne s made wo accoun s on Ins ag am
in Chinese and Ko ean + English since hei shop was new and was no widely known.
Howe e , he owne s no ed ade ia ion om he no m (ahighe numbe o ollo-
we s means mo e e icien p omo ion): he ac ha hei ollowe s a e di ided in o wo
g oups (Chinese and Ko ean + English e sions). Since he o al numbe o ollowe s
is c ucial in o de o ad e ise hei shop ap ly, hey nega i ely e alua ed his pheno-
menon. The owne s, he e o e, decided o dele e he Chinese accoun and w i e apos
in Ko ean and English. The in e iew wi h he owne s e ealed ha he eason o his
was he numbe o Chinese cus ome s which had accumula ed o e he pas wo mon-
hs a e opening he bake y shop. In he i s mon h, hei p ima y a ge we e Ko ean
cus ome s. Howe e , o e ime, he e has been an in lux o o he e hnic g oups, such
as Czech, Chinese, Japanese, and Vie namese. They an icipa ed ha all Czech, Chinese,
Japanese, and Vie namese cus ome s could speak English o ace ain deg ee, and he-
e o e apos only in Ko ean and English would be su icien . Howe e , since one o he
owne s is e hnically Chinese, hey could u ilize he linguis ic compe ence as an ad an-
age o hei business in o de o ini ia e in ima e appo wi h Chinese cus ome s. In
he second mon h, he o al numbe o Chinese cus ome s was becoming la ge and
la ge , bu he pe cen age o Chinese cus ome s ou o he o al numbe o cus ome s,
including o he e hnici ies, s opped g owing and he Chinese accoun on Ins ag am
los i s signi icance. Mo eo e , compa ed o o he popula bake y shops o ca és, he
owne s had a ela i ely small numbe o ollowe s on Ins ag am.
14 The o iginal language is Ko ean ( he uppe ow) and he ansla ed language is English
( he lowe ow). P3 e e s o pa icipan 3 and A e e s o he esea che .
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iGu e 5:Pos s on Ins ag am— Chinese and English e sion.15
Hence, his socio-economic eason ini ia ed hei decision o dele e he Chinese
accoun on Ins ag am. F om his example, i is no ewo hy ha LM is no aone-way
and s aigh o wa d, bu dynamic p ocess in which a ious ac o s can simul ane-
ously s op o in luence he u he p ocess. No ably, nume ous no ms based on so-
cio-cul u al and socio-economic pe spec i es as ly a ec he no ing s age and he
adjus men planning s age. Neus upný and Nek apil (2003) demons a e ha he co-
ec sequence o language managemen may be socio-economic managemen > co-
mmunica i e managemen > linguis ic managemen (ibid., p.186). In o he wo ds,
socio-economic managemen o i s mo i a ion, which is deeply connec ed o inan-
cial p o i , may p ecede and ini ia e communica i e and linguis ic managemen . In
he adjus men planning s age, pa icula ly, di e se socio-economic o socio-cul u al
ac o s ha e amassi e impac on he adjus men planning choice o alanguage use .
As we can see in Example 4, he main easons o dele ing he Chinese accoun we e
he e ec i eness o p omo ion (i.e., he numbe o ollowe s) and he small pe cen-
age o Chinese cus ome s among cus ome s. I was no acommunica i e o linguis ic
15 The con en o he pos : Ch is mas cake (18cm); S awbe y cake; Bake y 60 baked Ch is -
mas cakes: Ch is mas cake 18cm (wi h s awbe y) 850 Czech c owns, mini-Ch is mas
cake 12 cm 350 Czech c owns. 1) Ch is mas w ea h shape (wi h bluebe y), 2) San a Claus
shape (wi h aspbe y), 3) Rudolph shape (wi h O eo c eam).
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MINYOUNG PA K 119
p oblem, bu asocio-economic p oblem which in luenced he language p ac ice in
social ne wo k se ices.
Howe e , i is likely ha he language ideology connec ed wi h he use o Eng-
lish also plays ac ucial ole in he decision-making p ocess. In pa icula , he belie
in English as alingua anca becomes ad i ing o ce o choosing he adjus men
design. I igge s apa icula language p ac ice (i.e., pos ing in English o o eign
cus ome s) in aspeci ic space (i.e., online space). The e o e, i can be a gued ha LM
is adynamic p ocess in which nume ous no ms (e.g., ideologies, socio-cul u al, and
socio-economic ac o s) simul aneously in luence he no ing and adjus men plan-
ning s age.
8 CONCLUSION
Wi hin he amewo k o me olingualism and LMT, Iha e analyzed how he own-
e s o he mul ie hnic bake y shop adap and manage hei language use in amul i-
lingual se ing.
Th ough he lens o me olingualism, Iha e explo ed he owne s’ c ea i e lan-
guage p ac ices and mixed use o di e en language codes in e e yday in e ac ions
in an u ban con ex . Amul ilingual signboa d, amenu, pic u es o p oduc s, and
in e ac ions in he bake y shop illumina e how he owne s and cus ome s use, play
wi h, and nego ia e iden i ies h ough languages (Pennycook & O suji, 2011).
F om he pe spec i e o LMT, Iha e in es iga ed how he owne s adap o hei
linguis ic en i onmen and how hey manage hei language use o emedy language
p oblems a he wo kplace.
On he mic o-le el, i was e ealed ha amundane way o sol ing communica i e
p oblems in in e ac ions can be desc ibed as amanagemen p ocess. Addi ionally,
i is ce ainly o impo ance ha a ious ac o s s ongly in luence he adjus men
planning p ocess. The phenomenon o English as alingua anca, he ideology o he
gi en dis ic , and he spa ial epe oi e may in luence he language use s’ adjus -
men planning p ocess. In ou example, he owne and he clien migh expec ha
hei in e locu o can speak English a leas o some deg ee because English is usu-
ally conside ed aglobal means o in e -communi y communica ion (Seidlho e , 2016,
p.20). This no m can become ac i e ium o designing an adjus men . The ideology
o he gi en dis ic may also play ac ucial ole. The owne and he clien migh ex-
pec ha English can be used as ameans o communica ion since P ague 6, in which
he bake y shop is loca ed, is ahighly p es igious dis ic in e ms o educa ion. This
dis ic ea u e may become ac i e ium o designing an adjus men . Las ly, he spa-
ial epe oi e may also become he no m ha in luences an adjus men design p o-
cess. In ou example, o eign p oduc s (desse s in Ko ean s yle, he smell o Ko ean
b ead) and ma e ial a e ac s (labels and ilingual signs) may es ablish he spa ial
layou and o m apa icula language p ac ice ha e en i s - ime isi o s can ecog-
nize. This language p ac ice is nego ia ed and epea ed by he owne s and cus ome s,
and i gene a es spa ial epe oi e no ms in he gi en space. Fu he mo e, we lea n
ha a ious ac o s may end he LM p ocess, especially in he implemen a ion s age.
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Al hough he owne s ealize ha he shop’s name does no co espond o hei in en-
ion, hey canno change he signboa d due o economic issues. I demons a es ha
some imes he implemen a ion p ocess canno be execu ed no only due o insu i-
cien language compe ence bu also socio-economic easons.
On he mac o-le el, i was e ealed ha he pa icipan s use an o ganized man-
agemen s a egy as ac ucial means o sol ing language p oblems. The owne s no ed
Japanese cus ome s’ epea ed p oblems (e.g., acciden ally d opping he cake), and o
emedy he p oblems, hey s a ed pu ing ins uc ions in Japanese on he cake box.
In his example, i is also o impo ance ha language managemen on he mac o-
le el can ha e unexpec ed consequences. Due o posi i e eac ions and amassi e in-
lux o Japanese cus ome s, he owne s es ablished anew language policy o make
ins uc ions in Chinese oo. This new policy had unexpec ed consequences— la ge
numbe s o Chinese cus ome s s a ed o isi he shop on Sa u day mo nings. This
phenomenon gene a es aspa io empo ally-speci ic epe oi e in he shop. On Sa u -
day mo ning, Chinese becomes adominan language in he shop, and only pa icipan
4, who is hal Chinese, handles communica ion and nego ia ion wi h he cus om-
e s. This language p ac ice epea edly occu s only a his pa icula ime, and has
become anew language policy in he bake y shop. Addi ionally, we lea ned ha lan-
guage policy may gene a e economic p o i s o he policymake s. The pa icipan s
no iced ha hei ollowe s on Ins ag am we e di ided in o wo g oups (Chinese and
English), which hinde ed e ec i e p omo ion. The e o e, he owne s emo ed he
Chinese accoun , and i became hei business policy. This online p omo ion policy
esul ed in he uni ica ion o he o al numbe o ollowe s, and i allowed he owne s
o p omo e hei shop mo e e icien ly. F om hose wo examples on he mac o-le el,
i is e ealed ha LM is no aone-way and s aigh o wa d, bu dynamic p ocess in
which a ious ac o s can simul aneously in luence he ollowing p ocesses. No ably,
no ms based on socio-cul u al and socio-economic pe spec i es a e signi ican o
he no ing and planning an adjus men s age, and unexpec ed consequences om
language managemen on he mac o-le el can ini ia e anew chain o o ganized lan-
guage managemen p ocesses.
Acknowledgemen s
This wo k was suppo ed by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund p ojec “C ea i i y and
Adap abili y as Condi ions o he Success o Eu ope in an In e ela ed Wo ld” ( eg. no.: CZ.02.1.01
/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000743).
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TRANSCRIPTION CONVENTIONS
[ ] he onse and ending o simul aneous alk o wo speake s (o e lap)
? ising in ona ion
. alling in ona ion
, con inuing in ona ion
: leng hening o he p eceding syllable
= sudden inse ion o he ollowing exp ession o u n, wi hou pause
(la ching on)
(.) sho pause
(..) longe pause
(…) long pause
() unin elligible poin
p esumed, bu no comple ely in elligible exp ession
((laughs)) commen ed by he ansc ibe
- sudden in e up ion o he wo d o cons uc ion
Ne e s ong emphasis on asyllable o wo d
… omi ed po ion o he ansc ip
Minyoung Pa k | Depa men o Linguis ics, Facul y o A s, Cha les Uni e si y
<pa km@ .cuni.cz>
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