The Russian -Chinese T ade in Kyakh a,
I s O ganisa ion and Commodi y S uc u e,
1727–1861
Michal Wanne
This s udy is a ollow ‑up o he a icle ocused on he ea ly Russian ‑Chinese diplo‑
ma ic and business ela ionships.1 Unlike his s udy ha mos ly explo ing he gen‑
esis o diploma ic ela ionships and he ea ly o m o he Russian ‑Chinese ca a an
ade exis ing un il 1727, i only deals wi h he Russian
‑Chinese ade in Kyakh a
in 1727–1861 when he s able cen es o ade exchange eme ged in acco d wi h he
T ea y o Kyakh a, and he ade ha had been a he andom ook mo e o less ou‑
ine o m, anyhow la ge luc ua ions would keep occu ing.
The ex en , complexi y and di e se ange o he heme on one hand, and he lim‑
i ed cha ac e o he con ibu ion on he o he hand, do no make i possible o co e
he whole issue. The e o e, he au ho pu posely omi ed he quan i ica ion o he
ade and single s ages du ing he aced pe iod as he in ends o look a hese aspec s
in ano he s udy. This a icle desc ibes he o ganisa ion and p ac ice o he Russian‑
‑Chinese ade exchange in Kyakh a and May ‑ma ‑chen, s a e egimen a ion o he
ade in Russia and China, he commodi y s uc u e o he Russian and Chinese ex‑
po ; las no leas , he also includes some undamen al p oblems o logis ics ha con‑
side ably impac ed he cha ac e o he ade in Kyakh a.
THE TREATY OF KYAKHTA AND THE CONSTRUCTION
OF TROITSKOSAVSK AND KYAKHTA
Signed by a Russian en oy, Sa a Lukich Raguzinski ‑Vladisla ich, and he Chinese
go e nmen ’s plenipo en ia ies, Chabin, Tegu and Tulishen, as ea ly as on 21s Oc o‑
be 1727 a e long and complica ed e o , he ex o a new Russian ‑Chinese ea y
was o mally exchanged on he Kyakh a Ri e on 14 h June 1728. The e o e, his docu‑
men has been known h ough he his o y as he T ea y o Kyakh a. This con ac ing
documen would be he sound undamen als o he Russian ‑Chinese ela ionship o
nex 130 yea s.
A icle 4 o he T ea y had speci ied e ms o he ade exchange. Russians we e
allowed o ade in he ca a an o m unde he ollowing: “… ee me chan s will be al‑
1 M. WANNER, Fi s Russian ‑Chinese Diploma ic Rela ions and Business Rela ionship 1689–1728,
in: P ague Pape s on he His o y o In e na ional Rela ions, Vol. 17, No. 2, 2013, pp. 66–76.
36 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2014
lowed o come o Beijing once in h ee yea s, p o iding hei numbe , as speci ied a o e ime,
does no exceed 200.” The Chinese pa y was obliged o mo e ma ke places om U ga
( oday’s Ulan Ba o ) and Qiqiha (in Manchu ia; called Tsi sikha in Russian) o wo
si es a he Russian
‑Chinese bo de . One o hem was si ua ed on he Kyakh a Ri e
nea by Selenginsk, ano he in Tsu ukhai (also Tsu ukhai ui) on he A gun Ri e
( oday’s P ia gunsk) whe e “… o build houses and enclose hem in ence o palisade” had
been allowed. Me chan s could conduc ade in a sa e en i onmen han had ex‑
is ed un il he day. The ade nego ia ed in he T ea y was no liable o du y.2
Rela ed o he alks a oo on he Kyakh a Ri e , 4.3 km ou side Ba suko skiy win e
esidency, whe e Russian bo de pa ols had esided, a new o ess and me chan ’s ou ‑
ski s (sloboda) in Kyakh a began being buil by a plan de eloped by Raguzinski. Th ee
hund ed and i y Russian soldie s om Yaku sk egimen , and hi y Cossacks om
Udinsk ( oday’s Ulan ‑Ude) would be engaged in building he o ess ounded on he
day o S . T ini y in 1727. Fi e Russian me chan s had been i s o a i e he e in No‑
embe ha yea . In Decembe 1727, Cap ain Fyodo Knyaginkin esponsible o he
o ess cons uc ion p o ided Raguzinski wi h in o ma ion abou he comple ing
a mill ‑house and abou he i s g ound c ops ( o one Mongolian o ice o he Chinese
A my); eeling sa is ied he s a ed “… lou has been g ound e y well— i is ex emely ine”.3
O he cons uc ion wo ks on he si e began ea ly in he sp ing o he yea 1728.
Howe e , i s dwelling houses had appea ed in T oi skosa sk as ea ly as in he au‑
umn o 1727, namely wooden ba acks o o ice s and ga ison, and s ables, ba ns,
s o ehouses. The no h co ne became home o S . T ini y and S . Sa a Se bian
Chu ch. Th ee hund ed and wen y ‑se en dwelle s (186 men and 141 women) in i y‑
‑nine houses we e epo ed o li e in Kyakh a in 1758.4
Toge he wi h he bo de o ess cons uc ion also wo ks on he me chan s’ slo‑
boda had been ca ied ou . Repo ed o be he e a he end o 1728 by Cap ain I. I.
T ens, who had been cha ged wi h he cons uc ion, we e wen y ‑nine a mhouses
(ou o 32 planned in he ins uc ion) and a ma ke hall 33.6 m in leng h wi h wen y‑
‑ ou shops. La e on, a go e no ’s house was buil , oo, so he numbe o houses
would inc ease o six y. The si e i s hos ed a ai a ended by en Russian and ou
Chinese me chan s on 25 h Augus 1728.5
Fou hund ed and i y ‑ h ee ade s wi h hei goods on six y hund ed and hi y
ho ses, and wo camels wen h ough he o ess in he pe iod be ween 1s Oc obe
1729 and 1s Janua y 1730. Fi s , me chan s did no ha e o pay any du y, bu we e p o‑
ided wi h no p o ec ion. Ne e heless, as ea ly as in 1729 hey paid 112 ubles and 97
kopeks o he ma ke s ands, and in 1730 i was as much as 232 ubles and 17 kopeks.6
2 V. S. MYASNIKOV (Ed.), Russko ‑ki ayskiye dogo o no ‑p a o yye ak y, (1689–1916), Moscow
2004, Doc. No. 5, pp. 43–44.
3 Quo ed by A. N. KHOKHLOV, Kyach inskaya o go lya i yeyo mes o poli ike Rosii i Ki aya (20–
e gody XVIII .–50–e gody XIX .), in: Dokumen y op o e gayu p o i al’si ikacii is o ii ussko‑
‑ki ayskikh o nosheniy, Moscow 1982, p. 104.
4 L. FILIPOVA, Osno anie Kyach y, in: Kyakh inskaya s a ina— Al’manakh, Kyakh a 2003, p. 5.
5 E. P. SILIN, Kyakh a XVIII. eke, I ku sk 1947, p. 41; E. P. SILIN, P edme y kyach inskoj o ‑
go li XVIII. eke, in: Kyakh inskaya s a ina— Al’manakh, Kyakh a 2003, p. 18.
6 KHOKHLOV, p. 105.
MIcHAL WANNER 37
In 1730, a new ma ke own called May ‑ma ‑chen, oday’s Al anbulag, began be‑
ing buil on Chinese ( oday’s Mongolian) side o he bo de . Mos ly me chan s om
he P o ince Shanxi would go he e and be o ganised in one guild oge he wi h he
locals. Wha shows he cha ac e o his se lemen is a desc ip ion o he own da ‑
ing om 1770s. “Hal a e s ou side his (Kyakh a) sloboda lie Chinese Nayma chins.
They ha e been buil alongside a wooden wall, and ein o ced by a mound, wi h h ee b oad
s ee s called Uppe , Cen al and Lowe ( ha one si ua ed close o he Kyakh a Ri e ), and
one c osswise; he e a e, a a guess, h ee hund ed and i y Chinese yu s made o loam,
h ee Chinese emples, i e ga es; he numbe o ci izens, ha is Chinese me chan s, who
se e o wo k, as well as Mongols, who a e he e o se e gua d du y, di e s, ne e heless,
acco ding o he no es he e we e mo e han a housand people he e.”7
THE TRADE ORGANISATION IN KYAKHTA AND MAY -MA -CHEN
All impo ed Russian goods had been s o ed in a s o ehouse in T oi skosa sk. Be o e
he anspo o he Kyakh a’s sloboda, he goods we e checked by cus oms o ice s,
ade s and commission me chan s, who su eyed amoun and quo ed p ices, how‑
e e , he p ice would be de ini ely se a e wa ds a a mee ing in Kyakh a be o e
opening he ading i sel . The goods ha had no been sold we e subjec o ano he
nego ia ion o e dec ease in p ice.
A Chinese me chan , who had been in e es ed in he goods, i s explo ed he pos‑
sibili ies o ade. Then he would go o Kyakh a by himsel , and iew impo ed goods
in a s o ehouse o elsewhe e. Nex , he would go o an owne ’s house, and ag ee on
p ice o e a cup o ea. P o iding he p ice had been se bo h buye and selle wen o
he s o ehouse and w apped up he goods, hen le o May ‑ma
‑chen, whe e a Rus‑
sian me chan would pick he goods he needed. Finally, a e ag eeing on he goods
and p ice, he Russian me chan would lea e his assis an in May ‑ma ‑chen o a ange
he goods anspo , and wen back o Kyakh a o gi e necessa y ins uc ion as o how
o dis ibu e and accep goods. P o iding he Chinese me chan had educed he p ice
du ing ha ansac ion, he had o pay a hea y penal y.8 Nego ia ions we e conduc ed
in a a he di icul ‑ o ‑unde s and local Chinese language ha included some Rus‑
sian wo ds, which would be slowly de eloping in o he so
‑called Kyakh a language.9
The ade was mos ly in ‑kind exchange in o m. Chinese me chan s lacked enough
capi al, he e o e would buy Russian goods on us , and would be unlikely o pay i
back. The Chinese pa y’s deb s ood a 20,313 ubles, 58 kopeks only in 1746.10
7 Ibidem, p. 106.
8 Ibidem, p. 115.
9 “Kyakh a language” o “kyakh a pidgin” de eloped a he u n o he 19 h and 20 h cen u‑
ies in Amu Region, Manchu ia and T ans ‑Baikal. His lexical page was mos ly o Russian
o igin, while he g amma mos ly o Chinese o igin. In China, his simple language was
augh o o icials in ol ed in ade wi h Russia. This language i ually disappea ed in he
i s hal o he 20 h cen u y. C . A. Y. MUSORIN, Leksika kyakh inskogo pidzhina, No osi‑
bi sk 2004, pp. 79–86.
10 KHOKHLOV, p. 106.
38 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2014
The ade in Kyakh a had been g owing pe manen ly bu a he slowly, pa ly due
o he s ic egula ions imposed by he Chinese cou agains Chinese me chan s,
and he policy o isola ion in in e na ional ela ionship. In luenced had also been by
a sha ed idea abou he p ima y ole o a ming and seconda y ole o c a and ade.
Such a pe spec i e was exp essed e y well by a Chinese, who had commen ed on he
Russian ‑Chinese ade ag eemen o Feb ua y 1792, penning abou he ade in Kyakh a
“pu poseless o China”, and “ he simple eason he G ea Empe o ole a es he ade is he
jus lo es he poo in bo h coun ies, and has been o mally eques ed by he Russian Sena e.“11
Thus he cou o China would ollow he policy o isola ion and limi and egula e
he ading ac i i y. A me chan who had exp essed in e es in he ade wi h a o ‑
eign coun y had o ob ain a ading pe mi om he sea Ci y’s local go e nmen
in exchange o a ee. The pe mi included a ade ’s name and su name, a lis and
amoun o he ecei ed goods, he da e and place o bi h, and place he was planning
o se ou on his jou ney; he pe mi had o be p oduced by a me chan in he mili a y
adminis a ion in Zhangjiakou (Kalgan in Russian language) o ano he place on he
ou e. These documen s would be in es iga ed by cus oms o ice s om he Minis y
o Dependan Colonies (Li ‑ an jüan also called G ea T ibunal) in Ug a and Kyakh a.
Supposing a me chan had aken ano he ou e he was imposed a se e e punishmen :
i s , wo mon hs o ca ying a wooden amewo k on he back, nex o y ‑ ime bea ‑
ing wi h a bamboo cane, inally depo a ion o his home p o ince. The punishmen
also included con isca ion o hal o his goods.12
Using nume ous g an ed pe mi s, he Beijing (Peking) Go e nmen had been able
o e ec i ely con ol he amoun o goods anspo ed o he Russian bo de . The pe ‑
mi s we e checked by he local bodies e e y h ee yea s. To gi e an example, wo hun‑
d ed and six y ‑eigh pe mi s we e issued in 1850 o i y ‑six business i ms. La ge
companies go six pe mi s, middle ‑sized ou , and he smalles jus one. Six y ad‑
ing i ms engaged in ade in Kyakh a exis ed in Zhangjiakou (Kalgan) in he pe iod
be ween 1851 and 1855, which would alloca e ou hund ed o i e hund ed pe mi s.13
I was a dza guchi14 who was in cha ge o supe ising Chinese me chan s and he
local Chinese ‑Mongolian popula ion. He possessed as business and judicial au‑
ho i y, and mo e o en han no he would impose illegal le ies on me chan s’ goods
o make some money o himsel , and sued hose who had complained abou sha p
p ac ices. Me chan s we e obliged o in o m he dza guchi on p ices, Russian goods,
and he like, and obey his ins uc ions on wha i had been possible o impossible o
buy in Russia. They we e equi ed o ba gain, and quo e as lowes pu chase p ices as
possible. They we e expec ed o e use o dina y Russian goods and indica e ha such
goods migh be impo ed in o China by someone else. They we e no allowed o show
ha any o he Russian p oduc s we e essen ial o China. The Chinese we e supposed
o be iendly o Russian me chan s, bu also o ga he maximum numbe o in o ‑
ma ion on he Russian Go e nmen , o pass i on he dza guchi, who was obliged o
11 Ibidem, pp. 117–118.
12 Ibidem, p. 118.
13 Ibidem, p. 119.
14 Dza guchi o cza guchi ( om Manchu ian), o ice o he Minis y o Dependan P o inc‑
es.
MIcHAL WANNER 39
conduc disin o ma ion ac i i ies agains he Russians. The me chan who had kep
back any piece o in o ma ion gained om he Russians ecei ed punishmen , like
hose who would ha e aded wi hou a pe mi . This also applied o he goods impo
o expo beyond he pe mi ed amoun , o e ela ions conce ning any in o ma ion
economic in cha ac e ela ing o he na ional economy in China.15
As o he o ganisa ion, he Chinese impo had been a anged by companies. The
companies’ pensions we e coun ed up e e y h ee o ou yea s, and a deposi o was
paid o ha pe iod 3 o 4% o yea ly ‑pu capi al, o he membe s o a company go an
equal sha e o he p o i . One o he Russian au ho s had penned: “The Chinese ade
wi h us using companies, o be e exp essed h ough i ms consis ing o se e al pe sons […]
now mo e han a hund ed and i y, se en y o hem un hei own shops in May ‑ma ‑chen,
Kyakh a, he o he send hei ea o he me chan s’ commission se led in May ‑ma ‑chen o
sell i in Kalgan.”16
The egimen a ion a he bo h sides o he bo de had been slowing he g ow h o
he ade. The Chinese we e no disposed o impo huge amoun o goods, he e o e
pa o he impo ed goods would be always le o e o Russian me chan s. As s a ed
by he di ec o o he cus oms o ice in Kyakh a, I. O. Seli on o , on 3 d Sep embe
1805: “…Russian me chan s always ha e some o he goods le […] since ano he pa y is no
in e es ed in hem in such an amoun , he e o e inc ease is nea ly impossible.”17
In pu sui o p o i , some o he Chinese me chan s would sec e ly buy also un‑
sold Russian goods, so would pu posely b eak he go e nmen s dec ee. Usual we e
sha p p ac ices in he ade. As s a ed in one accoun o he ade in Kyakh a w i en
in 1744, o some ime la e : “They a e eally ha sh and ough a hei business, nego ia‑
ions a e conduc ed in decen manne — in de ail. Chea ing hey conside o be success and
swi ness, so icke y is equen in hei ade, in o eign goods hey sh ink ei he size o
weigh , o deli e goods o ou me chan s di e en om wha ag eed; me chan s a e no
expe ienced enough, hey do no check he goods, and ha ing absolu e us hey accep de‑
li e y sepa a ely, he e o e bea cos s and he Chinese ake p o i s.”18
Wha we e among a ou i e icks we e w ong con en s o single packages. As
ollows om he le e o 1827 om wen y ‑six Kyakh a’s me chan s o he Russian
go e nmen : e e y cibic19 o e men ed ea would con ain i y o i y ‑nine pounds in‑
s ead o six y, con en s o non ‑ e men ed ea was six y o six y ‑ ou ins ead o eigh y
pounds, e ce e a. Acco ding o he Russian bo de line adminis a ion o ice’s accoun
o 1812, many Chinese me chan s would sec e ly buy eas o Russian co n and dis‑
ibu e o Mongolian owns in he egion, o o Zhangjiakou (Kalgan) o Beijing.20
One e ec i e ba ie on he Russian side had been he s a e ‑o ganised ade and
ading ca a ans domina ing Russian ‑Chinese ade o long. Likewise elsewhe e, i
was mos ly because o he s a e ea ed he loss o p o i , which, howe e , had been
15 C . Chinese go e nmen al ins uc ions o dza guchi— ibidem, pp. 119–123.
16 Ibidem, p. 115.
17 Ibidem, p. 123.
18 Ibidem, pp. 124–125.
19 Cibik o us a . The box wi h he edge abou 60 cm long, co e ed wi h skin. Designed o
he land anspo o ea weighing up o 35 kg.
20 KHOKHLOV, p. 126.

40 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2014
ha dly e e ea ned. The imposed es ic ions na u ally gene a ed in e es in smug‑
gling, whose dimensions seem o be di icul o es ima e, bu undoub edly we e as
la ge as he s a e ade olume. The p i a e ade had been pene a ing he Russian‑
‑Chinese ade only g adually. I was no un il Ca he ine II’s eign when he mos sig‑
ni ican e o ms we e in oduced. In 1762, he Tsa ina abolished he exis ing p ac ice
o s a e ca a ans, and opened he Kyakh a’s ade o p i a e capi al. Also he s a e
monopoly o e ade in u ended ha yea .21
Whe eas ade s om he P o ince Shanxi domina ed on he Chinese side, ad‑
e s om cen al Russia we e on he Russian. Likewise he ading companies es ab‑
lished a e he ade had passed in o p i a e owne ship also in Russia domina ed on
he Chinese side. As ea ly as in 1768, six companies o he ade wi h China a ose
on he Russian side (Moscow, Tula, A khangelsk, Vologda, Tobolsk, I ku sk). I was
a co po a ion o me chan s om one own, who would go o Kyakh a wi h one ype
o goods. Thei ask was o anspo goods o he Chinese bo de . These me chan s
did no sha e hei capi al bu aded as indi iduals. The la ges and he mos powe ‑
ul was a Moscow company impo ing bea e and o e pel s, clo h and o he so s
o manu ac u ed p oduc s. The one om Tulsa impo ed mos ly am and ca pel s o
Kyakh a, whe eas he companies om A khangelsk and Vologda impo ed no he n‑
‑Russian u ( ox, o e and dog’s), and some o he Moscow goods. The companies
om Tobolsk and I ku sk impo ed Sibe ian hides, u and Russian lea he .22
These companies elec ed a supe io ou o hei mids , who would pu alue on he
Russian goods in ended o exchange. Rela ed o he new egula ions o he Russian
go e nmen in Kyakh a, a p ac ice o companies (one om each o he companies)
was o icially in oduced in 1800 wi h he aim o se uni o m p ices o bo h Russian
and Chinese goods. Howe e , he company es ablishmen b ough abou squabbles
be ween Russian and Chinese me chan s ha would begin o appea mo e o en han
no . Consequen ly, some o he me chan s wen away, and inally a company was al‑
lowed o ha e only ou me chan s ading in Kyakh a wi h hei own capi al.23
Engaged in he Kyakh a’s ade had been me chan s om di e en owns in Rus‑
sia. Ou o six y me chan s doing ade in Kyakh a ei he pe sonally o h ough as‑
sis an s o commission me chan s in he pe iod be ween 19 h Feb ua y 1806 o 1s
Ap il 1807 we e: wo me chan s om Moscow, ou om Kaluga, wo om Tula, one
om Ku sk, wo om Nezin, one om To ma, ou om Veliky Us yug, one om
Sol ‑Vychegodsk, h ee om Vologda, one om Kholmogo y, one om Kazan, h ee
om Tobolsk, one om Ta a, ou om Tomsk, wen y om I ku sk, nine om Ve ‑
chneudinsk, and one om Selenginsk. In he mid ‑19 h cen u y me chan s om mo e
han wen y owns o ci ies we e engaged in he ade in Kyakh a.24
The me chan s om Eu opean Russia wen o Kyakh a e e y now and again. They
did ade he e h ough hei assis an s o local commission me chan s. To Kyakh a
hey impo ed woollen, co on o hempen ab ics, pa ially also sheep, ca o squi ‑
21 KURTZ, pp. 108–110.
22 KHOKHLOV, p. 127.
23 I. BABET, Kyach inskaya o go lya, in: Kyakh inskaya s a ina— Al’manakh, Kyakh a 2003,
pp. 15–16.
24 KHOKHLOV, p. 128.
MIcHAL WANNER 41
el skins. Sibe ian me chan s ading mos ly in u and Russian lea he would go o
Kyakh a by hemsel es, and did no use he se ice o assis an s, who had o be paid,
and supposed o speak Chinese. Nine een me chan s would a ange hei business
hemsel es, wen y h ough hei assis an s, he es did hei ade h ough he local
commission me chan s ou o he six y men ioned me chan s doing ade in Kyakh a
be ween 1806 and 1807. They asked ou o eigh kopeks pe one ea ned uble. In he
ea ly 1830s, en me chan s a anged hei business hemsel es, nine h ough hei
assis an s and he es h ough commission me chan s ou o he six y ha had been
engaged in he ade in Kyakh a. Fou commission me chan s conduc ed hei own
ade ou o ou een li ing in Kyakh a.25
The local commission me chan s also se p ices on goods. Mo e o en han no i
was a he expense o Sibe ian me chan s, mos ly due o he delayed sales o goods.
The Sibe ian me chan s deli e ed goods he e in Sep embe , howe e , he ade
would no begin un il Janua y o Feb ua y, as he goods om he cen al pa o Russia
would no a i e he e un il in win e . These all had been slashing he p ice o goods.
The e o e, many Sibe ian me chan s ga e up ading in Kyakh a. The change did no
come un il he 1840s and he 1850s when Sibe ian me chan s gained he abolish‑
men o some o he measu es, and hei ole in he Kyakh a’s ade would expand.26
Pe mi s bound o guilds c ea ed ano he majo ba ie . In 1721, he popula ion o
Russian owns di ided in o “solid ci izens”— di ided in o wo guilds by hei p op‑
e y, and “middle people”— he manually wo king and na ies. Bu ghe s in he c a
guilds sepa a ed om bo h o he guilds in 1722. The emaining ca ego y o ci izens
ans o med in o ano he guild in 1742. Bound o he guild membe ship de i ed om
he amoun o p ope y and o he c i e ia we e p i ileges (mos ly he igh o con‑
duc home and o eign ade and business, ha ing a passpo , ee a elling, own
ehicles, and he like) bu also du ies ( o egis e in owns) and special axes. The
sys em o guilds would be de eloping, e
‑ e o med, bu would no be abolished un‑
il 1863. F om 1s Janua y 1801 o 1855 only he i s ‑guild me chan s we e allowed o
ake pa in he ade i espec i e whe e hey had come om. The second ‑guild and
hi d ‑guild me chan s we e allowed o ake pa only in small ade. Undoub edly, i
es ic ed Russian
‑Chinese ade exchange, bu ac ed as s imulus o many Sibe ian
me chan s’ e o o ge in o he i s guild a a ime.27
Small ade was conduc ed all he yea ound, and consis ed in selling poul y o
ca le, building s u and a ming p oduc s o he Chinese. Also bu ghe s om T oi s‑
kosa sk and o he Zabaikalsk’s owns, as well as Bu ya s, who would b ing camels,
ho ses and ams o Kyakh a, we e engaged in he small ade. The ade was no la ge
in ex en , and ea ned jus a minimum p o i in he o m o cus oms du ies.28
The cus oms du ies had been collec ed in he o ice in Kyakh a on he Russian side,
howe e , in 1766, due o he co up ion wo ies in he Chinese ade s’ side, i mo ed
25 I. POPOV— L. FILIPOVA, Kyakh inskoe kupeches o, in: Kyakh inskaya s a ina— Al’manakh,
Kyakh a 2003, p. 45.
26 KHOKHLOV, p. 129.
27 C . V. I. RAZGON, Sibi skoe kupeches o XVIII— pe oy polo ine XIX eka: Regional’nyy as‑
pek p edp inima el’s a adicionnogo ipa, Ba naul 1999.
28 KHOKHLOV, pp. 129–130.
42 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2014
o Pe opa lo sk lying u he o he No h. Founded la e on in 1766 we e also he
T oi sk’s comme cial expedi ion (in T oi sk o ess in T oi skosa sk) and he I ‑
ku sk Comme cial Police Headqua e s.29
THE RUSSIAN EXPORT
Mos ly hides we e expo ed om Russia o China. Sheep anned hides o sheep aw
hides we e exchanged in la ge amoun . In he 1770s and 1770s, six y housand o one
million hides we e expo ed ia Kyakh a. The la e 18 h cen u y saw annual inc ease in
expo by one 1,200,000 hides. Despi e he d op in he 19 h cen u y, he impo o hides
would s ill ha e i s own impo ance. Ye 600,000 hides we e expo ed in 1850. In he
19 h cen u y, nea ly hal o sheep anned hides we e bough in Zabaikalsk.
The anned hide was pa ly used as consume ma e ial o cibics— ea cases aced
wi h lea he . Eigh y housand hides o ea case acing we e used e e y yea in he
ea ly 1850s. The demand o hides needed o he ea ade esul ed in inc ease in
p ices, which would igge c isis in lea he manu ac u ing in he I ku sk’s Gube ‑
nyia and Zabaikalsk egion, since he g ow h in p ices had caused inabili y o he
p oduc ion o compe e. 7 o 16% o he Russian expo was exploi ed o Russian
lea he in he i s hal o he 19 h cen u y. In 1850 o 1852, Sibe ian me chan s in
Kyakh a used 116.7 housand pieces o Russian lea he and anned hides on a e age.30
Ano he impo an commodi y was u . Chinese houses we e no hea ed he e o e
cold in win e , which would lead o demand o u he e. Fu was bough on Tu‑
ukhansk o Yenisei ma ke s, and had come om Yaku sk, Kamcha ka Pennisula, bu
also o he egions in Sibe ia. The mos popula wi h Chinese me chan s we e squi el
skins; hei expo a ied be ween wo and ou million pieces yea ly. Besides squi ‑
el skins, i was also sable, e mine, ox, o e , bea e and lynx pel s. Illegal u ade
was lou ishing un il he s a e monopoly on u ended in he 1760s.31
Fu was Russia’s p incipal expo in o China in he la e 18 h cen u y and he ea ly
19 h cen u y, comp ising 70% o he Russian expo . The da a collec ed by P. F. Gal‑
lyakho ski, he di ec o o he cus oms o ice in Kyakh a, show ha 208,699 kg o u
we e expo ed in 1823, whe eas in 1824 i was 226,228 kg;32 249,879 kg in 1825; 734,592
kg in 1826; and 1,341,339 kg in 1827.33
The Russian ‑Ame ican company es ablished in 1799 as a ool o economic de elop‑
men anked among he mos impo an as o ade in u . The ade be ween China
and Alaska had been conduc ed since he 1760s. On 31s May 1810, he company es ab‑
lished i s own con o in Kyakh a.34
29 KURTZ, p. 102.
30 KHOKHLOV, p. 127.
31 E. P. SILIN, P edme y kjakh inskoj o go li XVIII. eke, in: Kjakh inskaya s a ina— Al’manakh,
Kyach a 2003, p. 18.
32 KHOKHLOV, p. 112.
33 Ibidem.
34 N. EBINARKHOVA, To go lya ossiysko ‑ame ikanskoy kompanii s Ki ayem che ez Kyach u, in:
Zemlya I ku skaya, No. 12, 2000, p. 18.
MIcHAL WANNER 43
Russian me chan s had been expo ing sea bea e , sable, ox pel s, also sea o ‑
e s in smalle amoun , om Alaska o Kyakh a whe e hey exchanged i o Chinese
goods. Wha is mo e, me chan s om I ku sk had been o ganising hun ing expedi‑
ions o he Ku il Islands, o he Aleu ian Islands. One o he majo o ganise s o
such ade was I an Shelekho , he ounde o he Russian
‑Ame ican company. The
company es ablishmen helped inc ease u no e o he business wi h hese com‑
modi ies, and would posi i ely e lec on Kyakh a’s ade.35
A e he s a e monopoly in he u ex e nal ade ended in 1762, he e was a high
g ow h in he ade olume: in Kyakh a i g ew om 1.4 million ubles o 8.4 million
ubles be ween 1760 and 1800. Be ween 1757 and 1784 u comp ised 85% o he Rus‑
sian expo in o China. Ano he pe iod saw he dec ease in amoun , bu he ade
in u would s ill a exceed he olume o he ade in me al, ab ics, ca le o o he
so s o goods. Fu was he p ima y commodi y o he Russian expo in o China un il
he 1840s, bu would be displaced by woollen and co on ab ics, pa ly because ani‑
mals o he ma ke ed u had been nea ly killed o . I is bes illus a ed by he d op
in he Russian
‑Ame ican company’s expo in o Kyakh a o one hi d nea ly in all
commodi ies. A e he Opium Wa s, China go glu ed by wes e n goods, he e o e
he in e es in he Russian u would be on he wane.36 In he 1850s, ab ics comp ised
50% o he Russian expo .37
The ollowing Table shows he sha e o he Russian u expo in o China be ween
1757 and 1840:38
Yea s 1757–1784 1790–1800 1824–1828 1836–1840
Sha e o u 85% 70% 50.7% 34.5%
able 1
Ca le had an impo an ole o play mos ly in he ea ly s age o he Kyakh a’s ade.
In 1699, ou hund ed and eigh y ‑eigh pieces o ho ned ca le and wo hund ed
and hi y ‑six ho ses we e anspo ed om I ku sk o Ne chinsk. A e he ade
had mo ed o Kyakh a, he e was e en inc ease in he ca le ade. I was ho ses o
c ea e high demand in China. Six y hund ed housand ho ses in ended o exchange
we e bough in K asnoya sk domain in 1758, which would esul in inc ease in ho se
p ices om i e ‑se en ubles o i een ubles. Be ween 1759 and 1761 ho se expo
comp ised 2.5% o he Russian expo . The ade in ca le sha ply dec eased, and
amoun ed o only 0.23% o he Russian expo in he pe iod be ween 1847 and 1850.39
Also 2,100 m o 10,500 m o clo h, mos ly coa se, as well as i on, in, wax, sal pe e,
mica, el , coine s, g inds ones, pain s, mi o s, wagons, hemp, Tyumen ca pe s, b o‑
35 E. P. SILIN, Rossiysko ‑ame ikanskaya kompaniya, in: Kyakh inskaya s a ina— Al’manakh, Kyak‑
h a 2003, pp. 16–17.
36 EBINARKHOVA, p. 19.
37 KHOKHLOV, p. 136.
38 The able is p epa ed acco ding da a p esen ed by KURTZ, p. 110.
39 KHOKHLOV, pp. 111–112.