Coun abili y in he his o y o English:
E idence om g amma s and dic iona ies
Ondřej Tichý (Cha les Uni e si y, P ague)
ABSTRACT
Since a leas he mid wen ie h cen u y, coun abili y has been ali ely opic in many ields o lin-
guis ics as well as an impo an subjec in he ield o eaching English as asecond/ o eign language.
Ye he de elopmen o his ca ego y in he his o y o English has been li le esea ched and ne e
comp ehensi ely desc ibed. This pape looks a he cu en s a e o he desc ip ions o he eme -
gence o his ca ego y in he his o y o English. I no es apossible connec ion be ween i s p omi-
nen s a us in he desc ip ions o P esen -Day English and o English as aglobal language (s udied by
many non-na i e lea ne s as well as linguis s). I maps he his o y o he desc ip ion o he ca ego y
in g amma s and dic iona ies om he ou een h un il he ea ly wen ie h cen u y, and p epa es
he g ound o a ollow-up co pus-based esea ch o he de elopmen o coun abili y in English.
KEYWORDS
coun abili y, diach ony, g amma , his o y o English, lexicog aphy
DOI
h ps://doi.o g/10.14712/18059635.2022.1.3
1 INTRODUCTION
Qui k e al. no e ha “[ ]he di ision o nouns acco ding o coun abili y in o coun
nouns and noncoun nouns is basic in English” (1985: 247). Unsu p isingly, con em-
po a y g amma s (bo h comp ehensi e and unde g adua e-le el) as well as lea n-
e ’s dic iona ies o P esen -Day English (PDE) ea u e his di ision e y p ominen ly.
Ipu s ess he e on P esen -Day, since he ca ego y o coun abili y is conspicuously
missing in bo h g amma s and dic iona ies o Old as well as Middle English (OE, ME).
I seems qui e su p ising, hen, ha aca ego y ha is so p ominen ly p esen in he
desc ip ion o con empo a y English bu almos comple ely missing in he ep esen-
a ions o i s ea lie pe iods has so a ecei ed almos no a en ion om adiach onic
pe spec i e and ha li le a emp o explain i s o igins has been made so a .
The p esen s udy1 aims o a leas s a o amend his gla ing de ici by iden i y-
ing poin s o in e es such as pe iods o change, g amma ical cons uc ions o lexical
i ems, and mo e speci ic ques ions ha will in o m he me hodology o he ollowing
co pus-based p obes. I will s a in he i s pa by e iewing he cu en li e a u e
on he de elopmen o he ca ego y o coun abili y in English. The second pa o he
1 This wo k was suppo ed by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund p ojec “C ea i -
i y and Adap abili y as Condi ions o he Success o Eu ope in an In e ela ed Wo ld”
( eg. no.: CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000734).
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40 LINGUISTICA PRAGENSIA 1/2022
pape will hen ocus on his o ical desc ip ions o he ca ego y in g amma s, glos-
sa ies and dic iona ies, since hese may e lec bo h he changes in he g amma ical
sys em i sel as well as i s unde s anding and concep ualiza ion by he con empo a y
g amma ians, eache s and lexicog aphe s. Such an o e iew may be impo an be-
cause i seems ha he p esen p ominence o he ca ego y in he desc ip ions o
English and eaching ma e ials may be o some deg ee me a-linguis ic in na u e—
due in pa no only o he speci ic o mal ealiza ion o coun abili y in PDE bu also
due o how and why i has been desc ibed.
2 COUNTABILITY IN PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH
This pape has no ambi ion o discuss ou cu en unde s anding o coun abili y. The
li e a u e on he opic is ex ensi e, pa icula ly om ecen yea s— in ac six i ems
om a e y selec i e lis om he pas decade (An es 2019; Chie chia 2015; Doe jes
2012; Filip 2021; G imm and Wahlang 2021; Kha lamenko 2020; Kiss e al. 2021, 2016;
Kulka ni e al. 2013; Lie e s e al. 2021; Mol mann 2020) come om he las wo yea s.
The b ead h o he discussion is also wide, as he p oblem has been app oached om
anumbe o angles. Due o i s connec ion o he concep ualiza ion o he deno a ion,
i has been examined especially ex ensi ely in he ields o philosophy o language,
logic, me eology, cogni i e linguis ics o seman ics (among o he s). Ahighly in o -
ma i e selec ion o li e a u e has been p o ided by S ini asan and Ba ne (2020)
amongs o he s.
In compa ison o he unc ional aspec s examined in hose ields, o mal g am-
ma ical aspec s o coun abili y in PDE appea ela i ely simple, al hough ha dly
s aigh o wa d in hei p ecise desc ip ion. Con empo a y g amma ical desc ip-
ions mos ly no e he di e ences in he o ma ion o plu al and in de e mina ion be-
ween he wo classes o nouns: coun (ables) and non/un-coun (ables),2 bu wi hou
ail also poin ou he seman ic o deno a ional basis o his di e ence. Acco ding
o Bibe :
“Coun able nouns e e o en i ies which can be coun ed; hey ha e bo h singula
and plu al o ms (acow, wo cows, e c.). Bo h in he singula and he plu al he e
is acon as be ween de ini e and inde ini e o ms (acow . he cow, cows . he
cows). Uncoun able nouns e e o en i ies which canno be coun ed and do no
a y o numbe . Though hey do no combine wi h he inde ini e a icle, hey al-
low acon as be ween an inde ini e and ade ini e o m (e.g. milk . he milk). The
2 Uncoun ables a e also called mass nouns. Ip e e o use uncoun able nouns, because he
e m is less connec ed wi h he seman ics unde lying he class. In my opinion, he e m
mass desc ibes his seman ics a he imp ecisely— he majo i y o uncoun ables seem
o be abs ac nouns ha do no seman ically exp ess mass (see sec ion 5 below o o he
e ms ha ha e been used o un/coun ables). No e ha his pape does no ake any spe-
ci ic s ance on he compe ing in e p e a ions o he link be ween he g amma ical/ o mal
ca ego y o coun abili y and he seman ics o he lexis in ol ed.
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mos ypical uncoun able nouns a e singula , bu we also ind plu al nouns which
do no a y o numbe and do no combine wi h nume als.” (2000: 241)
Mos g amma s also no e ha his dis inc ion is ha dly clea -cu and ha some (o
e en he majo i y o ) lexical i ems a) can swi ch hei class membe ship based on
con ex , b) exhibi dual-class membe ship, c) ea u e indi idual senses belonging o
di e en classes, o d) canno be ca ego ized by abina y classi ica ion. The numbe
o sugges ed classes, in ac , shows as eady inc ease o e ime. Ea ly desc ip ions like
Ma zne ’s (1874) o Jespe sen’s (1924, 1942), Bloom ield’s (1933) o la e Quine’s (1960)
in oduce he wo basic classes, bu Qui k e al. (1985) o Ba ne and Snedeke (2005)
inc ease he numbe o h ee, Allan (1980) o eigh , Wie zbicka (1988) o ou een and
ecen ly G imm and Wahlang (2021) o i een. Classi ica ions wi h ahighe numbe
o classes o en unde s andably o m acline, while Allan (1980), e.g., speaks o coun -
abili y p e e ences and le els o coun abili y, a he han o well-de ined classes. The
classi ica ions, na u ally, depend on he de ail, he c i e ia and especially hei aims
bu i is clea e en om such asho lis ha he p oblem is no i ial.
3 DIACHRONIC DESCRIPTIONS
Wha has been published on he de elopmen o coun abili y in English has so a
been a he agmen a y in i s co e age. While Fische (1992) no es he absence o
he inde ini e a icle in he case o abs ac nouns and uncoun ables in ME,3 and se -
e al desc ip ions o Ea ly-Mode n English (EModE) men ion he ca ego y, i is only
in passing. EModE desc ip ions no e he wo d- o ma ion p ocesses wi h espec o
coun abili y (Lass 1992), he changeable na u e o lexical class membe ship as com-
pa ed o PDE (Gö lach 1991: 80 and 143) o he change in coun abili y p e e ence o
asingle classi ie (S ang 1970: 139). Denison has commen ed bo h on he si ua ion in
La e-Mode n English (LModE) as well as on he s a e o cu en esea ch s a ing ha
“[i] seems e y likely ha he e is asys ema ic p ocess o change om noncoun o
coun o some nouns, bu ull e idence is no ye a ailable” (1998: 96). Bo h Rozumko
(2002) and Sinkko-La ala (2009) explo e hese changes in LModE, bu only on a ew
selec ed nouns. None o he con ibu ions abo e ha e, howe e , a emp ed o shed
ligh on he o igin o he ca ego y in English o desc ibe i s o e all de elopmen . An
excep ion is as udy by Toyo a claiming ha :
“Ea lie English su p isingly has a easonably poo coun ing sys em and can be
conside ed aclassi ie language. PDE, on he o he hand, is anon-classi ie lan-
guage and his change seems o ha e happened a ound he lME/eModE pe iods.
The ea lie lack o aclea dis inc ion be ween he coun and mass nouns was in
pa due o he pauci y o ea lie mass nouns and classi ie s, and his seems o
ha e been esol ed by language con ac wi h F ench and La in. Howe e , i is a -
3 She also quo es Rissanen’s 1967 s udy poin ing o Ea ly ME as as ill la gely o ma i e pe-
iod o he use o inde ini e a icles (Fische , 1992: 221).
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42 LINGUISTICA PRAGENSIA 1/2022
gued he e ha his was also due o he change in speake s’ wo ld- iew, i.e., he
way speake s o ea lie English ea ed ce ain objec s di e en ly om ha o
PDE speake s.” (2009: 128)
This dis inc ion o non/classi ie languages is based on Lyons (1977: 227), whe e clas-
si ie languages a e cha ac e ized as equi ing classi ie s such as ‘apound o bu e ’
(used in English o quan i ica ion o uncoun ables) o any nominal quan i ica ion o
indi idua ion, making no di e ence be ween un/coun ables. I is, howe e , su p is-
ing ha Toyo a would, on he one hand, no e ha OE uses almos no ue classi ie s (he
men ions one, ses e , in his o e iew) and, on he o he , cha ac e ize i as aclassi ie
language. Apa om ha , his claims ha OE does no dis inguish un/coun ables a e
di icul o accep wi hou mo e de ailed examina ion. Toyo a seems o ha e dismissed
some o mal dis inc ions such as he pa i i e geni i e because hey do no co espond
o he dis inc ions in PDE. He also dismisses nume als, no ing ha “[ ]h oughou he
his o y o English, he nume als a e only used wi h coun nouns, bu ea lie ins ances
o mass noun did no ha e any classi ie s […], which makes hese ins ances look su-
pe icially qui e simila o hose o coun nouns” (Toyo a 2009: 120), bu hen only
gi es examples o quan i ied uncoun ables wi h his only classi ie .4
Mo eo e , he e a e s udies such as Ma ckwa d ’s (1970) on he his o y o he
quan i ie s much and many showing clea dis ibu ional p e e ences in OE, Kha la-
menko’s (2020) explo ing speci ic neu e plu al ma ke s signaling (non-)indi idua-
ion, o Kemenade and Vincen ’s (1997: 81–82) iden i ying P o o-Ge manic geni i e
objec s wi h uncoun ables. While none o hem deal di ec ly wi h coun abili y and
in ha sense hei e idence is agmen a y, hey s ill seem o sugges ha , con a
Toyo a’s claims, coun abili y was ac ually exp essed o mally in OE, hough by di -
e en means han in PDE. Consequen ly, in o de o unco e he oo s o he PDE
sys em, acomp ehensi e analysis o coun abili y in OE will be necessa y as pa o
u u e esea ch on he de elopmen o coun abili y in English.
4 TYPOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Wha e e was he exac s a us o coun abili y in OE, i is clea ha i s o mal exp es-
sion has changed conside ably as compa ed o PDE. The mos gla ing di e ence lies
pe haps in he use o a icles— hese ha e been shown by G imm and Wahlang (2021:
19) o be he s onges indica o s o coun abili y in PDE, ye he a icle sys em had no
4 In ac , such quan i ica ions a e no a e, e.g. i ig punda goldes ‘ i y pounds o gold’. Toy-
o a (2009: 120) also dismisses anumbe o OE wo ds as no ue classi ie s, bu as “coun -
able nouns e e ing o small pa s”. One o hose is dǣl ‘deal, pa , po ion’, bu wha a e
examples such as he ollowing one i no classi ie s used in he quan i ica ion o uncoun -
ables: Nim ecedes anne dæl, huniges wegen dælas wel geclæsnodes, wæ e es eo ðan seoð þonne
oð þæ þ iddan dæl þæ e wæ an. ‘Take one po ion o inega , wo po ions o honey well
cleansed, ou h pa o wa e , hen boil down o he hi d pa o he luid’? All he OE ex-
amples come om The Dic iona y o Old English Web Co pus (2009).
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ye de eloped by he OE pe iod. I a he same ime i can be shown ha case ma king
was an impo an o mal signal o coun abili y in OE, he di e ence be ween he wo
pe iods can be a leas pa ly asc ibed o he o e all ypological change: om a ela-
i ely syn he ic OE o he la gely analy ical PDE. The g amma icaliza ion o he nu-
me al ān ‘one’ would ha e hus gi en ise no only o he a icle pa icipa ing in he
eme ging ca ego y o de ini eness, bu also o one o he mos impo an o mal sig-
nals o he ca ego y o coun abili y in PDE. By i s ea ly nume al s a us and hus as-
socia ion wi h coun able concep s, i has become es ablished speci ically as ama ke
o coun abili y in singula nouns— o he o he way a ound, i s absence has become
in e p e ed as asignal o he uncoun able class o nouns. This mus ha e al eady hap-
pened by he ME pe iod, since, as we will see below, he dis inc ion was al eady p es-
en in ea ly glossa ies and dic iona ies a he end o he pe iod.
In ac , such ade elopmen would ha e e y close pa allels elsewhe e. S a k
(2005: 458–459) desc ibes he de elopmen o coun abili y in I alian (and o he Ro-
mance languages) om La in. Re e ing o Gil (1987), she dis inguishes h ee ypes
o languages: I. languages like Japanese ha need classi ie s o quan i y any ype o
noun ( e e ed o abo e by Toyo a 2009, a e Lyons 1977, as classi ie languages) and
ha ha e no obliga o y explici ma king o coun abili y; II. languages like La in,
Czech and pe haps OE ha also ha e no obliga o y ma king o coun abili y bu al-
low classi ica ion by coun abili y h ough acomplex in lec ional sys em; and III.lan-
guages like mode n Romance languages, Ge man5 o PDE ha ha e (adeg ee o )
obliga o y coun abili y ma king. She hen shows aclea pa h o de elopmen om
La in ( ypeII) o I alian ( ype III) ia he g amma icaliza ion o La in unus. No only
is his an analogous pa h o de elopmen , bu some deg ee o in luence om his
e olu ion in Romance languages on English (as al eady no ed in Toyo a abo e), based
on he language con ac si ua ion in ME, canno be dismissed a his poin .
The ex ension o o iginally wo ypes o languages (wi h and wi hou classi ie s)
o h ee ypes sugges s ha , con as i ely, he dis inc ion is a om clea -cu . Bale
and Gillon (2020: 33), in ac , conclude hei compa ison o numbe sys ems, classi-
ie s and coun abili y in languages like Wes e n A menian, Ch’ol and Mi’gmaq by no -
ing ha wi h espec o classi ie s and coun abili y, “languages do no cleanly di ide”,
bu a he ha “ he e is acon inuum”. And pe haps e en mo e impo an ly he e,
hey also conclude ha con a y o he gene al belie going back a leas o Lyons,
coun abili y is, “in p inciple, no connec ed o classi ie sys ems” (Bale and Gillon
2020: 31). This does no mean ha languages wi hou obliga o y classi ica ion a e no
mo e likely o ea u e s onge o mal ma king o coun abili y,6 bu ha he e a e
5 Bu no e ha while bo h PDE and Ge man a e simila in hei use o inde ini e a icles o
ma k coun abili y, Ge man e ains an in lec ional sys em simila o OE. Acompa ison be-
ween he unc ions o he OE syn he ic ypological s uc u e in ma king coun abili y and
he Ge man sys em may, he e o e, also shed mo e ligh on he de elopmen o he ca e-
go y in English.
6 To s udy he p e alence in combina ions o he wo ea u es and o ind u he examples,
i is possible o combine ea u es 38A and 55A using The Wo ld A las o Language S uc u es
Online (D ye , 2013; Gil, 2013).
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44 LINGUISTICA PRAGENSIA 1/2022
no able excep ions o his ‘ ule’. Simila ly, i seems i is impossible o simply class
languages wi hou he g amma icalized inde ini e a icles as hose no exp essing
coun abili y— in addi ion o he ype II languages men ioned abo e like Czech, we
may no e ha in Finnish, he dis inc ion be ween un/coun ables (o non/di isibles)
appea s o be akey aspec in nominal mo phology (Ka lsson 2018), ye none o hose
languages ea u e an inde ini e a icle.
Ye , i inde ini e a icles a e obliga o ily exp essed unde ce ain ela i ely e-
quen g amma ical condi ions in PDE, i anspi es ha hei absence— signaling
uncoun abili y— will also be equen and uncoun ables will, he e o e, be ela i ely
conspicuous in PDE. This is in ma ked con as o OE, La in and some o he mode n
languages which, like Czech, exp ess coun abili y in much a e ci cums ances and
en i onmen s. Wha i means om ap ac ical poin o iew is ha , unlike in hose
languages, in PDE coun abili y is akey ca ego y in language p oduc ion (speaking o
w i ing).
In he end, he s a us o coun abili y (and maybe o he ca ego ies like gende , ani-
macy e c.) as ag amma ical ca ego y in agi en language should no be seen as neces-
sa ily bina y, bu a he again as acon inuum. The ac o s o ecognizing a ea u e as
aca ego y may s em om he s uc u al conside a ions aised abo e, he equency
o i s o mal exp ession, bu also om he de ail and na u e o he me a-linguis-
ic desc ip ion. While coun abili y is no ap oblema ic issue o na i e speake s o
English,7 i ce ainly is one o lea ne s o English as a o eign/second language8 and
his makes i na u ally mo e conspicuous o non-na i e speake s o English. Conse-
quen ly, he s a us o PDE as aglobal language only highligh s he impo ance o he
ca ego y, and i is pe haps also why i was he non-na i e g amma ians in he 19 h and
20 h cen u ies who we e i s o desc ibe he ca ego y in any de ail.
5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CATEGORY
OF COUNTABILITY IN LANGUAGE DESCRIPTION
5.1 METHODOLOGY
In gene al, he e a e wo basic kinds o linguis ic desc ip ion ha explici ly o im-
plici ly make no e o coun abili y: g amma ical ea ises and dic iona ies. My me h-
odology o he ollowing his o ical su ey was o selec and analyze 50 dic iona ies
and g amma s spanning se en cen u ies— om he ou een h o he wen ie h.9
7 Go don (1985) has shown e.g. ha young child en do no end o misclassi y e en seman-
ically a omic wo ds like u ni u e as coun able. Na i e speake s o PDE he e o e do no
equi e o mal aining in dis inguishing coun abili y apa om using o ms like less ha
a e cu en ly in a ia ion and lux as coun abili y ma ke s (see Sec ion 6 below).
8 E.g. An es (2019: 1) no es ha bo h esea ch and pedagogical ma e ials “ equen ly high-
ligh coun abili y as alocus o di icul y o English language lea ne s, pa icula ly lea n-
e s whose languages do no o e ly ma k acoun -mass dis inc ion”.
9 No e ha bo h g amma s and dic iona ies ha e unde gone majo de elopmen s since he
ME pe iod and ha e exis ed in a ious o ms, a imes coexis ing in asingle ex — g am-
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The selec ion was pa ly based on ch onological ep esen a i eness so ha mos pe-
iods a e ela i ely e enly co e ed and asense o p og ession and de elopmen o
opic can be gained, e en hough an exhaus i e su ey is no possible. The selec ion
was also pa ly based on ep esen a i e co e age o he ypes and backg ounds o
bo h he wo ks and hei au ho s, so ha he e a e wo ks au ho ed by and aimed a
na i e as well as non-na i e speake s, and wo ks bo h mo e applied and mo e heo-
e ical. Finally, I ook in o accoun he impac he selec ed wo ks p obably had— in-
cluding he mo e amous and igno ing he pe iphe al ones unless men ioned in he
seconda y li e a u e as somehow no able o he de elopmen o hei ields. Among
he mos help ul comp ehensi e lis s, desc ip ions and mode n edi ions o his o i-
cal dic iona ies om which Iha e d awn we e he ollowing: Cowie 2009, 2011; Hül-
len 2006; S a nes and Noyes 1991; S ein 1989, 2014; W igh 1857; W igh and Wülcke
1884, and o g amma s: Als on 1965; Gö lach and Michael 1998; Gwosdek 1993; How-
a 1984; Linn 2020; Michael 1987 2010; Thomson 2019.
The analysis consis ed o iden i ying and eading hose passages o he selec ed
ex s ha migh ha e some hing o do wi h he desc ip ion o coun abili y. These
we e especially passages dealing wi h a icle usage (and in he case o dic iona ies
wi h headwo d labeling), he o ma ion o plu als, he use o p onouns/de e mine s
such as much, many o each, and gene ally sec ions co e ing nominal classi ica ions.
Iha e also sea ched he wo ks o keywo ds his o ically connec ed wi h he opic and
o wo ds ha ha e been commonly used in i s exempli ica ion. Thanks o he ecen
digi iza ion e o s by p ojec s like he Ea ly English Books Online, Google Books o he
In e ne A chi e, i was possible o examine all he ex s selec ed— some hing Gö lach
and Michael (1998) no ed as amajo obs acle in he 1990s. Bu due o echnical ea-
sons, no all o he ex s a e ( eliably) sea chable and since especially he ea ly wo ks
a e somewha unsys ema ic and inconsis en in hei s uc u e, i is qui e possible
ha no all ele an commen s a e co e ed he e.
5.2 DICTIONARIES BEFORE 1700
Conside ing wha has been said abo e abou he s a us o he ca ego y in OE, and
gi en ha he me a-linguis ic desc ip ion s ems mos ly om con as i e desc ip-
ions o La in, i is no su p ising ha we ha e o wai un il ME o any inkling o
coun abili y in language desc ip ion— p ima y OE sou ces a e hus no consid-
e ed he e.
Medie al English dic iona ies, i we use his as agene al e m, usually ook he
o m o glosses and glossa ies, ocabula ies (o ganized by opic) o simple wo d/
ph ase lis s and we e always bi- o mul i-lingual. In he OE pe iod, he o he language
in he pai was La in, since ha was he language o ins uc ion, and eaching La in
o ansla ing om La in was he pu pose o such ex s. As Thomson poin s ou :
“A e he No man Conques , English ell ou o use as he language o elemen-
a y ins uc ion in La in g amma , and no g amma ical ex s in Middle English
ma s o en accompanied by wo dlis s and ph asebooks, dic iona ies some imes p e aced
by sho g amma ical in oduc ions.
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46 LINGUISTICA PRAGENSIA 1/2022
su i e om be o e he closing yea s o he ou een h cen u y.” (2019, Chap e
In oduc ion)
Unlike g amma s, anumbe o lexicog aphic ex s appea ed be o e he end o he
ou een h cen u y. Fo ou pu poses, he ea lies ex wo h no ing is he hi een h
cen u y Anglo-No man10 The T ea ise o Wal e de Bibleswo h11 (W igh 1857: 142–174),
because i s ME glosses12 o en ea u e a icles in on o nouns, e.g. une en e e is
glossed as amidewi . This had no been he p ac ice be o e and i begs he ques ion
as o whe he he p esence o Old F ench a icles may ha e p omp ed hei inclu-
sion in he English gloss as well, especially since hey we e no p esen e en in some
la e glosses o La in ex s. I is also wo h no ing ha he T ea ise is adidac ic ex .
Al hough i s pu pose is o each F ench a he han English, Romance languages, as
no ed abo e, ha e de eloped asimila sys em o ma king coun abili y wi h de e -
mine s.
The pa allelism o he a icles is e en mo e conspicuous in he i s F ench-Eng-
lish wo d-lis Nominale Si e Ve bale (Skea 1906), p obably om he ea ly ou een h
cen u y, which mi o s comple e noun ph ases such as Vn he de de ce s by Ahe de o
he es ‘ahe d o ha s’. The ea lies ocabula ies ansla ing La in ha did include a -
icles ( hus no mi o ing a icles o sou ce language, hough in some la e dic iona -
ies, La in headwo ds we e in oduced wi h hic) come om he ou een h cen u y—
such as he Me ical Vocabula y and Names o he Pa s o he Human Body, glossing
e.g. Anus as ana ce (W igh 1857: 174–205). The use o a icles is, howe e , ex emely
inconsis en , and he e seems o be no sys em by which he ME nouns ecei e de i-
ni e, inde ini e o ze o a icles.
Pe haps he i s sys ema ic, e en i la gely inciden al ea men o coun abili y
in linguis ic ex s comes wi h an inno a ion ha S ein no es in he i een h cen u y
dic iona ies:
“English nouns a e gi en wi h he inde ini e a icle, bu we also encoun e in-
s ances wi h he de ini e a icle o no de e mine a all. The di e ence seems o
be ela ed o he dis inc ion be ween coun able nouns, uncoun able nouns, and
nouns o unique e e ence.” (2014: 54)
An example o aclea -cu un/coun able dis inc ion may come om he i een h cen-
u y’s ALa in and English Vocabula y: “Baco, ance bacon. Bacalla ius, ance abachyle .
Ba a, ance a lycche o bacon.” (W igh and Wülcke 1884: 567), bu he e is s ill plen y
o i egula i y in he choice o a icles, such as “C anium, ance he b aynpanne” whe e
i is unclea why b aynpanne should ha e unique e e ence.
10 Adialec o Old F ench in luenced by ME and spoken by he No man conque o s o Eng-
land, hei descendan s and ollowe s o acouple o cen u ies a e he No man Con-
ques .
11 Mo e commonly oday spelled as Bibbeswo h.
12 I is, howe e , no qui e clea om W igh ’s commen s whe he hese glosses a e as old as
he T ea ise i sel , since hey come om adi e en manusc ip .
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ONDřEJ TICHý 47
In La in–English dic iona ies, he a icle (as well as ano he inno a ion, he in-
ini i al o) may ha e also been p omp ed by ypog aphical needs— o clea ly de-
linea e he wo pa s o an en y,13 bu wi h he i s English–La in dic iona ies, he
only plausible unc ion emains in dis inguishing he wo d-class and classi ying he
nouns. Wi h he i s such dic iona y, he Ca holicon Anglicum (He age 1475/1881),
S ein no es asimila sys em men ioned abo e and adds: “The e a e o cou se incon-
sis encies, bu he lexicog aphical p inciple as such canno be o e looked.” (2014:
112) Clea in en ion can be seen e.g. in wo homonymous o ms, wi h he i s coun -
able and he second uncoun able, ollowing each o he : aweddy ‘acas a ed am’
and weddy ‘wea he , ai ’, bu some en ies a e di icul o explain, e.g. awa e , and
i is possible ha , i ca e ully s udied and colla ed, such inconsis encies common in
he i een h cen u y dic iona ies could shed mo e ligh on he class membe ship o
some La e ME un/coun ables. Bu i seems equally p obable ha hese migh be jus
ypog aphical e o s.
All six een h cen u y dic iona ies su eyed he e con inued he adi ion o using
a icles desc ibed o he i een h cen u y abo e, e en hough hey a e qui e di e -
en in o m, co e age and a ge audience. Sep em lingua um ( an Middelbo ch 1535)
is amul ilingual dic iona y and, in e es ingly, al hough six o i s se en languages
ha e g amma ical a icles, he dic iona y p o ides hem sys ema ically only o Eng-
lish and e y selec i ely o I alian. O he wo dic iona ies aimed a young audiences,
The Dic iona y o sy Thomas Elio knygh (Elyo 1538) and Asho dic iona ie o yonge
beginne s (Wi hals 1553), he la e is mo e no ewo hy in co e ing also ala ge numbe
o mul i-wo d headwo ds ha a e in e es ing om ou poin o iew, such as Wa e
o Rayne wa e s. Ad op o wa e , clea ly ma king he indi idua ed uncoun able wa-
e . Finally, he Aluea ie o iple dic iona ie, in Englishe, La in, and F ench (Ba e 1574)
ex ends he in o ma ion p eceding he headwo d e en mo e by adding pa ag aph
ma ks and numbe ing o he headwo ds, and as e isks o pa s o en ies. Pa s o
speech a e mo e ho oughly dis inguished by also in oducing elemen s like in e -
jec ions o exho a ion (e.g. oh Dein ie gen ilman ‘oh dain y gen leman!’) besides he
a icles and pa icles ma king nouns and e bs.
The se en een h cen u y sees he ad en o English monolingual dic iona ies and
wi h hem he s uc u e o he headwo ds changes. All he su eyed dic iona ies,
A able Alphabe icall (Cawd ey 1604), An English exposi o (John Bulloka 1616), Glos-
sog aphia (Bloun 1656), and The new wo ld o English wo ds (Phillips 1658) ha e no in-
dica ion o coun abili y; in ac , apa om Phillips’ inclusion o he e bal pa icle
o, hey con ain no indica ion o he wo d-class ei he . This can be explained in Caw-
d ey’s dic iona y as pe haps economizing, since his is essen ially jus asho wo dlis
compa ed o he bilingual dic iona ies men ioned abo e, bu he o he h ee dic ion-
a ies a e p og essi ely ambi ious, and he omission o a icles may he e o e be be -
e unde s ood as esul ing om his choice o aims and a ge audience. These ea ly
monolingual dic iona ies a e e y much a ge ed a na i e speake s o help hem in
hei na i e language, wi h e.g. he so-called ‘ha d wo ds’ o spelling, bu ce ainly
13 Though his has been la gely achie ed by ye ano he inno a ion no ed by S ein, he ab-
b e ia ion ance o Anglice.
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54 LINGUISTICA PRAGENSIA 1/2022
English. I ied o iden i y he p oblems and pe iods o special in e es on which such
esea ch should ocus (see below). Finally, he aim was o ace in ime he ela ion-
ship be ween he me a-linguis ic desc ip ion o he ca ego y and i s ise o i s p omi-
nen s a us in cu en linguis ic li e a u e.
I has been al eady success ully shown ha he p ominence o he ca ego y in lin-
guis ic ex s depends hea ily on he pu pose and audience o he desc ip i e ma e-
ial. Speci ically in he case o English, he ca ego y eme ges qui e ea ly as a esul o
bilingual wo dlis s and glossa ies a ising pa ly, pe haps, om he demands o he
con empo a y audiences, as well as om he con as be ween languages wi h mo e
and less o e signaling o coun abili y, such as English, F ench o La in. The la e
heo e ical expansion o he desc ip ion was o en spu ed again by he speci ic needs
o he a ge audience o he linguis ic ma e ial, such as du ing he expansion o he
English elemen a y educa ion (esp. in he g amma s o he 18 h and 19 h cen u ies),
wi h he expansion o w i en composi ion a English uni e si ies (c . he discussion
o Bain 1863 abo e) and p ima ily om he ime o he expansion o English as aglobal
language in he wen ie h cen u y (al eady in he wo ks o la e 19 h and ea ly 20 h cen-
u y non-na i e g amma ians like Mä zne 1874 and Jespe sen 1924, 1914/1948, 1949,
bu especially in he mode n dic iona ies like he OALD, c . Ho nby e al. 2020).
I is clea bo h om he in oduc o y sec ions and om he his o ical summa y
ha u he esea ch will be necessa y o ace he eme gence o he ca ego y in any
meaning ul way. Pa icula ly, i will be essen ial o:
a) es ablish he s a us o coun abili y in OE. This will en ail he analysis o he OE
numbe and classi ie sys em and he analysis o s uc u es wi h he po en ial o
o mal exp essions o coun abili y like he geni i e o quan i y, numbe and pa -
i ion. The con as i e app oach using he s uc u es known o exp ess coun abil-
i y in ype II languages (abo e) may also yield in e es ing insigh s.
b) e iew he o ma ion o he sys em o de ini eness and he o ma ion o he a -
icle sys em in Ea ly and La e ME. Aco pus s udy ocusing on he use o subse-
quen p o o ypical un/coun ables and he dis ibu ion o a icles and quan i ie s
such as much and many may de e mine a imeline o es ablishing he basis o he
p esen -day sys em.
c) compa e he da a om he g amma s and dic iona ies wi h he co pus da a o
ME and EModE o disco e ends in he membe ship o he un/coun ables, as
well as any sys emic changes o he ca ego y.
d) conduc aco pus su ey o cu en English ocusing on i s a ie ies in iew o he
ecen a ia ion o wo ds like ewe and less.19
The p ecise me hodology will need o be de e mined in each o hese ollow-up s ud-
ies based on he ini ial p obes, bu since alo o he ea ly ma e ial does no yield
19 No e he conspicuous usage no e in he Ox o d Ad anced Lea ne ’s Dic iona y (OALD): “Peo-
ple o en use less wi h coun able nouns The e we e less ca s on he oad hen. This is no con-
side ed co ec in s anda d English, and ewe should be used ins ead.” (Ho nby e al.,
2020, sec. less).
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ONDřEJ TICHý 55
easily o quan i a i e esea ch due o he o e whelming a ia ion, especially in ME
spelling and he non-lemma ized co po a o OE, ME and la gely EModE, ully co pus-
d i en me hodologies such as in G imm and Wahlang (2021) may no be a ailable o
p e-LModE pe iods. The analysis o he ea lie pe iods will hus ha e o be selec i e
and o ala ge deg ee quali a i e.
This pape has p o ided he necessa y s a ing poin in delinea ing he main pa hs
o de elopmen and in amassing aweal h o ma e ial (such as he essen ial ma ke s
o a ia ion no iced by linguis s o e he cen u ies o a ia ion in he ca ego y a
di e en imes) ha will hope ully p o e aluable o u u e co pus-based esea ch
in o his opic.
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Ondřej Tichý
Depa men o English Language and ELT Me hodology
Facul y o A s, Cha les Uni e si y
Nám. Jana Palacha 2, 116 38 P aha 1
ORCID ID: 0000-0001-5088-3129
ond ej. ichy@ .cuni.cz
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