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Fanni Mu ányi: The Con o e sy Su ounding he In e coun y Adop ion 79
The Con o e sy Su ounding
he In e coun y Adop ion
FANNI MURÁNYI
Eö ös Lo ánd Uni e si y (ELTE) Facul y o Law
The pu pose o his a icle is o iden i y cha ac e is ics o he legal amewo k o in e coun y
adop ion. This s udy is speci ically conce ned wi h he in e na ional and Hunga ian legisla ion.
In he i s pa , he in e na ional con en ions and he Hunga ian ules a e p esen ed. These
show ha a conside able p og ess has been made in he las cen u y in law-making.
A sho s a is ical analysis illus a es he ole o Hunga y in in e coun y adop ion.
The inal sec ion conside s possible isks and abuses in he p ocess: exploi a ion, amily
acing, loss o cul u al he i age, o e - ep esen a ion Roma child en, deba e o e closed o
open adop ion and adop ion agencies.
On he basis o he esul s o his s udy, i can be concluded ha he in e coun y adop ion
gi es ise o a g ea deba e and se ious cause o complaining abou abuses which weaken he
child en’s igh s.
This disse a ion hopes o o e a comp ehensi e iew on he ad an ages and challenges o
in e coun y adop ion.
I. In oduc ion
I chose he p esen a ion o he legal amewo k o in e coun y adop ion as a disse a ion opic.
Un o una ely, he issue o child en’s igh s did no achie e an app op ia e p ominence in he
educa ion du ing my uni e si y yea s. Howe e , I belie e – as he CRC says – ha he child en
a e a ulne able g oup, hey ha e pa icula igh s. The socie y has o ecognize hei special
need o p o ec ion and help hem expand hei oppo uni ies o each hei ull po en ial.
My disse a ion opic was inspi ed by a wo kshop held on Ma ch 31 2011 o he “Gye mek-
jogi Kö “ o med by he law s uden s o he Uni e si y Eö ös Lo ánd. Conside ing he inc eas-
ing end o amilies consis ing di e en na ionali ies, i is essen ial o know he in e na ional
s anda ds o an ea ly ca ee esea che .
This pape ies o analyze whe he he legal amewo k helps he egula ion o in e coun y
adop ion, he ension be ween he heo y and he p ac ice and he mos ele an issues h ea -
ening he bes in e es o he child.
Fi s o all, I p esen he o ms o appea ance o in e coun y adop ion. The mos ele an
p ima y sou ces o in e na ion allaw a e he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Righ s o he
Child (he eina e e e ed o as CRC) and The Hague Con en ion on he P o ec ion o Child en
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Fanni Mu ányi: The Con o e sy Su ounding he In e coun y Adop ion 80
and Co-ope a ion in Respec o In e coun y Adop ion (he eina e e e ed o as Hague Con-
en ion). In Hunga y, he Ac V o 2013 on he new Ci il Code (he eina e e e ed o as he new
Ci il Code) and he Go e nmen Dec ee No. 149/1997. on Gua dianship Au ho i yand Child
P o ec ion and Gua dianship P oceedings (he eina e e e ed o as Go e nmen Dec ee on
Child P o ec ion) con ain he mos ele an p o isions in his opic.
A e looking a how in e coun y adop ion is egula ed unde he in e na ional and Hun-
ga ian law oday, a ew s a is icalda a migh be o in e es .
The in e coun y adop ion o child en in a b oad sense in ol es a a ie y o bad p ac ices.
The exploi a ion, amily acing, loss o cul u al he i age, o e - ep esen a ion Roma child en,
deba e o e closed o open adop ion and adop ion agencies a e he mos popula p oblems
which ha e o be add essed wi hin his con ex .
II. Te minology o in e coun y adop ion
Acco ding o he A icle 20 o he CRC, e e y child who is empo a ily o pe manen ly dep i ed
o his o he amily en i onmen , o in whose own bes in e es s canno be allowed o emain
in ha en i onmen , shall be en i led o special p o ec ion and assis ance p o ided by he S a e.
This ca e could include os e placemen , ka alah o Islamic law, adop ion o i necessa y, place-
men in sui able ins i u ions o he ca e o child en. The CRC de ines he in e coun y adop ion
as an al e na i e means o child’s ca e, i he child canno be placed in a os e o an adop i e
amily o canno in any sui able manne beca ed o in he child‘s coun y o o igin. The CRC
highligh s ha he child conce ned by in e coun y adop ion enjoys sa egua ds and s anda ds
equi alen o hose exis ing in he case o na ional adop ion.
The p eambule o he Hague Con en ion ecognises ha in e coun y adop ion may o e
he ad an age o a pe manen amily o a child o whom a sui able amily canno be ound in
his o he S a e o o igin. The Hague Con en ion shall apply – so his is he de ini ion o he
in e coun y adop ion – whe e a child habi ually esiden in one Con ac ing S a e (“ he S a e o
o igin“) has been, is being, o is o be mo ed o ano he Con ac ing S a e (“ he ecei ing S a e“)
ei he a e his o he adop ion in he S a e o o igin by spouses o a pe son habi ually esiden
in he ecei ing S a e, o o he pu poses o such an adop ion in he ecei ing S a e o in he
S a e o o igin.
The old Hunga ian Family Law Ac did no exp essly gi e he de ini ion o he in e coun y
adop ion. Howe e , he Sec ion 4:129 o he new Ci il Code emedied his omission by exp ess-
ing ha in e coun y adop ion occu s when he child mo es pe manen ly o ano he coun y in
consequence o he adop ion, i espec i ely o he adop i e pa en ’s na ionali y and apa om
he ac ha he child’s ci izenship is changed.
Conside ing he de ini ions o he in e na ional con en ions, he in e coun y adop ion is a
subsidia y solu ion, because i only occu s i he na ional adop ion is no success ull. The ela-
ion be ween he na ional and in e coun y adop ion is cha ac e ized by he Sec ion 4:129 o
he new Ci il Code. The in e coun y adop ion o a child is only allowed i he measu es aken
o he na ional adop ion ha e ailed.
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Fanni Mu ányi: The Con o e sy Su ounding he In e coun y Adop ion 81
The his o y o he adop ions sugges s ha he wide sp ead o in e coun y adop ion began
in he 1950s, a e he Ko ean Wa and was ini ially o ganised by eligious g oups. The numbe
o in e coun y adop ions has inc eased om he 1960s and mo e and mo e in e na ional e -
o s ha e been aken on he anspa ency o he p ocedu es. Since he mid-1990s, he numbe
o in e coun y adop ions has almos doubled each yea , om 22000 cases in 1995 o unde
40 000 in 20061.
III. Possibili y o he in e coun y adop ion
The possibili y o he in e coun y adop ion gi es ise o a g ea deba e. Howe e , mos o he
expe s ag ee ha he in e coun y adop ion may o e he ad an age o a pe manen amily o
a child o who a amily in his/he coun y o o igin canno be ound.
The UNICEF cul i a ed a policy posi ion on he in e coun y adop ion in 20072. Guiding
he UNICEF’s wo k, he CRC s a es ha e e y child has he igh o know and be ca ed o by
his o he amily and o g ow up in a amily en i onmen . Recognising his, and he alue and
impo ance o amilies, hey need assis ance o ca e abou hei child en’s igh s. Despi e his
assis ance, when a child’s amily is una ailable, unable o unwilling o ca e o his/he , he a-
mily-based solu ions should be sough o enable he child o g ow up in a suppo i e en i on-
men . In e coun y adop ion is one among o hese op ions. Acco ding o he UNICEF, o hose
child en, who canno be placed in a amily se ing in hei coun y o o igin, he in e coun y
adop ion may be he bes solu ion.
Rela ing o he p ac ice o in e coun y adop ion, he e a e he dono coun ies ( o example
Gua emala, China, he Cen al and Eas e n Eu opean coun ies and many A ican coun ies),
who canno o ganise he in e nal adop ion o adop able child en due o hei economic si ua-
ion, hei na ional p ac ice o du ing wa , amine o na u al disas e s (Ré iné 2011).
Mos o he hos coun ies (such as he Scandina ian coun ies and he Ne he lands) a e
mo e likely o adop disabled child en. Thei heal h and educa ion sys ems a e su icien ly de-
eloped o in eg a e hese child en in o socie y and hese adop ing amilies ha e di e en mo i-
a ions. Gene ally he pa en s decide o adop , because hey canno ha e a biological child ( o
example in Hunga y), bu he pa en s o he hos coun ies ha e an in en ion o adop o help.
The hos amilies o en adop a e ha ing al eady biological child/child en, so i is less consi-
de ed as a aboo (Hegedüs 2005).
1 A Sa e he child en i ánymu a ása a nemze közi ö ökbe ogadásokkal kapcsola ban (The policy b ie on in e -
coun y adop ion o he Sa e he child en), 2010. www.sa e hechild en.o g.uk/si es/de aul / iles/docs/In e na i-
onal_Adop ion_FEBB_edi _18_01_10_1.pd (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
2 Az UNICEF állás oglalása a nemze közi ö ökbe ogadás ól (The UNICEF’s posi ion on in e coun y adop ion),
2007. www.unice .o g/media/media_41118.h ml. (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
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Fanni Mu ányi: The Con o e sy Su ounding he In e coun y Adop ion 82
IV. “The Bible o he child en’s igh s“, he Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child
In 1900, a Swedish schoolmis ess, Ellen Key w o e he bes selle “The cen u y o he child“
whe e she p oposed ha he wen ie h cen u y would be he child en’s wo ld3.
Un o una ely, he child en’s igh s a e s ill being iola ed, bu conside able p og ess has
been made in he las cen u y. As he i s se ies o child en’s igh s p o isions, he Gene a Dec-
la a ion o he igh s o he Child is d a ed by he Sa e he child en ounde , Eglan yne Jebb in
1923. On 20 No embe 1959 ( his da e has been adop ed as he Uni e sal Child en’s Day), he
Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly adop ed he Decla a ion o he Righ s o he Child, which con-
sis ed o speci ic igh s ( o example he igh o a name). Du ing he 1970s, he Uni ed Na ions
se p io i ies o sa is ying he child en’s needs. On 20 No embe 1989, he Con en ion on he
Righ s o he Child was adop ed by he Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly and i came in o o ce
on 2 Sep embe 1990, a e i was a i ied by wen y na ions.
I is wo h men ioning ha his documen has been a i ied by e e y membe o he Uni ed
Na ions excep Somalia, Sou h Sudan and he Uni ed S a es. Hunga y p omulga ed he CRC by
Ac LXVI o 1991.
By signing he CRC, S a e Pa ies shall ake all app o ia e measu es o ensu e he gua an ees
and p omo ion o he igh s se o h in he CRC. Con a y o adul s, he child en do no ha e he
ools o en o cing hei igh s4.
Acco ding o A icle 44, he S a e Pa ies make epo s e e y i e yea s on he measu es
hey ha e adop ed which gi e e ec o he child en’s igh s and on he p og ess made on he
enjoymen o hese igh s. Hunga y submi ed a epo in 1998, 2006 and in 2013 o he Com-
mi ee on he Righ s o he Child. These epo s may include an al e na i e iew in he o m o
a sha dow epo . In Sep embe 2011, I pa icipa ed in he edi ion o he Hunga ian Al e na i e
Repo .
A icle 3 con ains he guiding p inciple o he CRC: he bes in e es os he child shall be a
p ima y conside a ion.
The CRC emphasized he ole o he amily, as he mos impo an uni o socie y. This is
e lec ed by A icle 9, which s a es ha a child shall no be sepa a ed om his o he pa en s
agains hei will, excep when such sepa a ion is necessa y o he bes in e es s o he child.
The CRC se s ou minimum equi emen s ela ed o he sys em o adop ion.
The poin (a) o A icle 21 highigh s ha he adop ion o a child is au ho ized only by com-
pe en au ho i ies who de e mine ha he adop ion is pe missible.Regula ing he p ocess o
in e coun y adop ion, he Go e nmen Dec ee on Child P o ec ion se es he pu pose o com-
pliance wi h he CRC.
The poin (b) ecognizes he in e coun y adop ion as an al e na i e means o child’s ca e,
i he child canno be placed in a os e o an adop i e amily o canno in any sui able manne
3 A 20. é es Gye mekek Jogai ól szóló Egyezmény (The 20-yea -old Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child),
2009. www.ncsszi.hu/download.php? ile_id=1112. (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
4 A 20. é es Gye mekek Jogai ól szóló Egyezmény (The 20-yea -old Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child),
2009. www.ncsszi.hu/download.php? ile_id=1112. (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
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Fanni Mu ányi: The Con o e sy Su ounding he In e coun y Adop ion 83
be ca ed o in he child’s coun y o o igin. Acco ding o he p inciple o subsidia i y, he in e -
coun y adop ion shall be he las solu ion. The p io i y should be gi en o measu es enabling
he child o emain in he ca e o his/he biological amily (He czog 2007).
The poin (d) calls a en ion o he measu es o ensu e ha he placemen does no esul
in imp ope inancial gain o hose in ol ed in i . In addi ion, A icle 35 equi es ha S a es
Pa ies shall ake all app op ia e na ional, bila e al and mul ila e al measu es o p e en he
abduc ion o , he sale o o a ic in child en o any pu pose o in any o m. This p inciple is
a i med by he Hague Con en ion as well. I s A icle 32 s a es ha no one shall de i e imp ope
inancial o o he gain om an ac i i y ela ed o an in e coun y adop ion. P o i ing om in-
e coun y adop ion is no allowed in Hunga y nei he . The Sec ion 4:130 o he new Ci il Code
speci ies ha adop ion shall no be au ho ized i i is likely o esul in any inancial ad an age
o he pa ies, o he pe sons o o ganiza ions in ol ed in he p ocess.
In he poin (e) he Commi ee u ges ac ions on p omo ing he objec i es o he CRC by con-
cluding bila e al o mul ila e al ag eemen s.
V. The basic equi emen s o he in e coun y adop ion, he Hague Con en ion
The main aim o he Hague Con en ion on he P o ec ion o Child en and Co-ope a ion in Res-
pec o In e coun y Adop ion is o es abish sa egua ds o ensu e ha in e coun y adop ions
ake place in he bes in e es s o he child and wi h he espec o his/he undamen al igh s
as ecognised in in e na ional law (A icle 1). The Commi ee welcomes he a i ica ion o he
Hague Con en ion in i s conclusions on na ional epo s.
Hunga y signed he Hague Con en ion in 2004 and p omulga ed i by Ac LXXX o 2005.
As i is abo e-men ioned, he Hague Con en ion shall apply whe e a child habi ually esiden
in one Con ac ing S a e (“ he S a e o o igin“) has been, is being, o is o be mo ed o ano he
Con ac ing S a e (“ he ecei ing S a e“) ei he a e his o he adop ion in he S a e o o igin
by spouses o a pe son habi ually esiden in he ecei ing S a e, o o he pu poses o such an
adop ion in he ecei ing S a e o in he S a e o o igin.
An adop ion wi hin he scope o he Hague Con en ionshall ake place only – among o he s
– i he compe en au ho i ies o he S a e o o igin (A icle 4)
– ha e es ablished ha he child is adop able;
– ha e de e mined, a e possibili ies o placemen o he child wi hin he S a e o o igin
ha e been gi en due conside a ion, ha an in e coun y adop ion is in he child’s bes
in e es s;
– ha e ensu ed ha he pe sons, ins i u ions and au ho i ies whose consen is necessa y
o adop ion, ha e been counselled as may be necessa y and duly in o med o he e ec s
o hei consen .
An adop ion wi hin he scope o he Hague Con en ion shall ake place only i he compe en
au ho i ies o he ecei ing S a e
– ha e de e mined ha he p ospec i e adop i e pa en s a e eligible and sui ed o adop ;

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Fanni Mu ányi: The Con o e sy Su ounding he In e coun y Adop ion 84
– ha e ensu ed ha he p ospec i e adop i e pa en s ha e been counselled as may be ne-
cessa y;
– ha e de e mined ha he child is o will be au ho ised o en e and eside pe manen ly in
ha S a e.
The Con ac ing S a es shall designa e a cen al au ho i y o discha ge he du ies which a e
imposed by he CRC (A icle 6). In Hunga y, he Minis y o Human Capaci ies is esponsible.
VI. The ele an p o isions o he new Hunga ian Ci il Code
The new Hunga ian Ci il Code en e ed in o o ce on 15 Ma ch 2014. The new Ci il Code in o-
duced some impo an changes in he ield o amily law as well. I is a change in p inciple ha
he amily law was inco po a ed in o he new Ci il Code as pa o i s Book Fou on Family law.
Be o e he new Ci il Code, he amily law ules we e egula ed in a sepa a e ac , in he Ac IV o
1952 on Ma iage, Family and Gua dianship (Family Law Ac ).
The Book Fou on Family law o he new Ci il Code egula es he condi ions and he legal
consequences o he adop ion. I de ines he adop ion as a basis o amily ela ionships in di ec
line be ween pa en and child (Sec ion 4:97). The law adds ha in he adop ion p ocess e o s
should be made o ensu e a deg ee o con inui y in he child’s upb inging, wi h pa icula e-
ga d o his/he amily ies, na ionali y, eligion, mo he ongue and cul u al backg ound (Sec-
ion 4:120).
The adop i e pa en mus be a majo , be olde han he child wi h minimum 16 yea s, bu
no mo e han 45 yea s and be in possession o legal capaci y. The age di e ence is no neces-
sa y i a ela i e o he spouse o he adop i e pa en adop s he child (Sec ion 4:121).
The deba es on he new Ci il Code ocused on he possibili y o adop ion by he couples
li ing in a ci il o egis e ed pa ne ship (by non-ma ied couples including same sexcouples).
The Code ejec s i , he gua dianship au ho i y shall gi e p e e ence o ma ied adop i e pa-
en s (Sec ion 4: 120).
Any pe son whose pa en al cus ody has been e mina ed by judical decision, o who has
been p ohibi ed om public a ai s, and whose child is unde os e ca e canno adop a child
(Sec ion 4:121). The p ohibi ion o inancial gain is exp essed by Sec ion 4:130 which s a es
ha adop ion shall no be au ho ized i i is likely o esul in any inancial ad an age o he
pa ies, o he pe sons o o ganiza ions in ol ed in he adop ion p ocess, in excess o hei jus-
i ied expenses.
Unless he adop ion o he mino child o he spouse occu s, a child can be adop ed i his/he
pa en s a e no ali e, o i his/he pa en s a e unable o aise him/he . An adop ed child can be
adop ed by he spouse o he adop i e pa en du ing he e m o adop ion, o by o he s a e he
adop i e pa en ’s dea h (Sec ion 4:123).
I mus be highligh ed ha he new Hunga ian law ex ends he igh s o young mo he s.
Acco dingly, no consen is equi ed o adop ion om a pa en who is legally incompe en o
easons o he han being a mino (Sec ion 4:127).
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I seems e y clea ly ha being a Hunga ian ci izen is no a condi ion o an adop i e pa en ,
nei he o an adop ed child. A Hunga ian child can be adop ed by a o eign-bo n pa en and a
o eign-bo nchild can be adop ed by a Hunga ian pa en . This ac was con i med by he a i ica-
ion o he Hague Con en ion. The Sec ion 4:129 gi es he de in ion o he in e coun y adop-
ion saying ha in e coun y adop ion occu s when he child mo es pe manen ly o ano he
coun y in consequence o he adop ion, i espec i ely o he adop i e pa en ’s na ionali y and
apa om he ac ha he child’s ci izenship is changed. The in e coun y adop ion o a child
is only allowed i he measu es aken o he na ional adop ion ha e ailed.
VII. The ole o Hunga y in in e coun y adop ions
As Hunga y a i ied he Hague Con en ion in 2005, he Hunga ian cen al au ho i y ( he Mi-
nis y o Human Capaci ies) has managed he applica ion o in e coun y adop ion since hen.
The analysis o he en i e da abase ( om 2005 o 2012) is no he aim o my disse a ion, as
an accu a e conclusion canno be d awn o m he lack o knowledge abou he legal and ins i u-
ional changes o he coun ies o o igin and hos coun ies.
Acco ding o he da as om 2007 published in he a chi es o Minis y o Human Capaci ies,
135 child en mo ed ab oad by in e coun y adop ions5. Nex o he Uni ed S a es, No way and
Spain, he numbe o child en loca ed in I aly was eally high (82 child en).
Du ing a na ional con e ence (Adop ion as a second chance) he da as om 2008 and 2009
we e p o ided. In 2008, 86 adop ed child en om 126, in 2009 84 child en om 122 a elled
o I aly in he hope o a lo ing amily (Ágos on 2010).
The da as om 2011 was gi en by Zsuzsanna Ágos on, he senio conunsello o he Minis-
y. The inc easing end did no b eak, 97 child en om 165 mo ed o I aly.
In 2007, mos ly he child en om 3 o 6 (53 child en), and om 6 o 8 yea s old ound o -
eign-bo n adop i e pa en s6.
In 2008 and in 2009 six o en yea s old child en we e mos ly p esen ed in he p ocedu es
(55 and 66 child en) (Ágos on 2010).
Acco ding o he Minis y’s s a is ics, in 2011 he numbe o he child en om 3 o 6 yea s
old was he highes in case o in e coun y adop ion p ocedu es.
The Minis y has de e mined he quali y o he applica ions since 2009 because o he in-
c easing numbe o eques s sen by o eign-bo n adop i e pa en s7. In 2009, he expe ience o
he p e ious yea s showed ha he heal hy child en unde 6 yea s old o su e ing om mild
disease we e adop ed in Hunga y.
5 Az o szágos és nemze közi ö ökbe ogadási nyil án a ás ada ai 2007. é ben (The da abase o he na ional
and in e coun y adop ions, 2007). www.szmm.go .hu/main.php? olde ID=16503. (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
6 Az o szágos és nemze közi ö ökbe ogadási nyil án a ás ada ai 2007. é ben (The da abase o he na ional
and in e coun y adop ions, 2007). www.szmm.go .hu/main.php? olde ID=16503. (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
7 Tájékoz a ó a kül öldi ö ökbe ogadók számá a (In o ma ion o he o eign adop i e pa en s), 2009. www.
szmm.go .hu/main.php? olde ID=16497&a icleID=40766&c ag=a iclelis &iid=1. (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
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The cen al au ho i y also s a ed8 ha om 2009 i had no accep ed any applica ions wish-
ing o adop a heal hy child unde 8 yea s old. The maximum limi o eques s sen by an agency
is 10 in case o wishing a child olde han 8 yea s old and 5 in case o wishing a child unde
8 yea s old su e ing om a disease. As he new Ci il Code p esc ibes ha he gua dianship
au ho i y shall gi e p e e ence o ma ied adop i e pa en s (Sec ion 4: 120), he cen al au ho -
i y does no accep any applica ion by a single pa en .
In 2010 he cen al au ho i y con i med ha Hunga y could o e only diseased child en o
adop o o eign-bo n adop i e pa en s9. F om 2010 he au ho i y accep s an applica ion o a
child olde han 10 yea s old eques ed by a single pa en .
I aly is indispu ably one o he mos popula hos coun y in case o in e coun y adop ions.
Nex o i , he pa en s om Spain, No way, he Uni ed S a es and he Ne he lands a e likely o
adop Hunga ian child en.
Du ing he con e ence abo e-men ioned Ma ia Vi gilli o, he p esiden o A.S.A. ONLUS (one
o he mos popula I alian adop ion agency) welcomed he Hunga ian-I alian ela ions. In I aly
he ju enile cou decides on eligibili y o he adop i e pa en s. I he couple mee s he gene al
equi emen s, he cou will ask he social se ices’ epo . Ob aining he dec ee o sui abili y,
wi hin one yea , he couple ha e o app oach an acc edi agency which coope a es wi h o eign
au ho i ies (as he o A.S.A. ONLUS). These agencies handle he en i e p ocess and assis he
couple wi h he p ocedu e equi ed by he o eign coun y. The p esiden explained why he
I alian amilies a e so disposed o adop child en. In Sicily, he women usually do no wo k and
ha e ime o aising child en. In addi ion, he amilies ha e close ela ionships, he ela i es
suppo he amily which acili a es he in eg a ion o he mino s. Acco ding o he , he Hunga-
ian child en a e ha ing un in I aly, hey can i in he school en i onmen , because he schools
ha e been p epa ed o welcoming adop ed child en (Vi gillio 2010).
VIII. P oblems wi h he in e coun y adop ion
Un o una ely, i is a common poin o iew ha in e coun y adop ion gi es se ious cause o
complaining abou abuses which weakens he bes in e es o he child. I he legal p o isions
a e insu icien , he child a icking, he child abduc ion, he blackmailing and he b ibe y oc-
cu . My disse a ion highligh s se e al o hese p oblems whe e a child can be a po en ial ic im
o a p ocedu e.
a. Exploi a ion
The Commi ee on he Righ s o he Child exp essed i s wo ies se e al imes abou he lack o
p o ec ion o he child om he sale o child en, child p os i u ion and child po nog aphy du-
ing he adop ion p ocedu e (He czog 2007).
8 Tájékoz a ó a kül öldi ö ökbe ogadók számá a (In o ma ion o he o eign adop i e pa en s), 2009. www.
szmm.go .hu/main.php? olde ID=16497&a icleID=40766&c ag=a iclelis &iid=1. (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
9 Tájékoz a ó a kül öldi ö ökbe ogadók számá a (In o ma ion o he o eign adop i e pa en s), 2010. www.
szmm.go .hu/main.php? olde ID=16497&a icleID=42013&c ag=a iclelis &iid=1. (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
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Remedying his omission, he Op ional P o ocol o he Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child
on he sale o child en, child p os i u ion and child po nog aphy was published and Hunga y
a i ied i in 2009. Each S a e Pa y shall ensu e ha imp ope ly inducing consen o he adop-
ion o a child in iola ion o applicable in e na ional legal ins umen s on adop ion shall be
ully co e ed unde i s c iminal o penal law.
The adop i e pa en s o he hos coun ies a e mo e and mo e de e mined o adop a young,
heal hy child o he same e hnici y. The end has no changed: he e a e a mo e pa en s wish-
ing o adop han child en like hese. As a consequence, he child a icking is s ill h ea ening
he li es o child en adop ed ab oad (Saclie 1996).
Albania, Bulga ia and Russia epo ed ha he hospi als in ol ed in illegal adop ions ge
inancial and o he suppo (medical ins umen s, pills) o coope a ing (Neményi 2001).
The e a e some cases in which a p egnan woman becomes exploi ed: he mo he s a e ab-
duc ed in o de o ge hei newbo n child o hey a e coe ced and o ced o su ende hei
babies o adop ion pu poses. The ic ims a e usually single, ulne able mo he s who a e unde
he p essu e o gi e hei child up o adop ion. She is con inced by elling he abou he disad-
an ages o being a single mo he , he possibili y o g owing up in a weal hy amily, gi ing alse
in o ma ion abou hei child’s dea h (Neményi 2001).
The ACT (Agains Child T a icking) as an in e na ional o ganisa ion agains a icking in
child en o adop ion con inced o he impo ance and necessi y o he Eu opean Union’s wo k
agains a icking10. They welcomed he s a egy on a icking in human beings (2012), bu
hey ha e ound many missing poin s in he legisla ion. The Di ec i e 2011/36/EU on p e en -
ing and comba ing a icking in human beings and p o ec ing i s ic ims con ains a de ini ion
o a icking in human beings (THB). I co e s many o ms o exploi a ion such as sexual ex-
ploi a ion, o ced labou , emo al o o gans, o ced ma iage and illegal adop ion. I is he i s
ime ha he illegal adop ion has been explici ly men ioned as a o m o THB. The p eamble
p esc ibes ha i has o ul ill he cons i u i e elemen s o THB. The ACT hinks ha he EU
is u ged o explo e he links be ween he wo phenomenons. The lack o elabo a ion o he
de ini ions “illegal adop ion” and “exploi a ion” is one o he missing poin s o he Di ec i e.
Fi s ly, he egula ion o adop ion alls wi hin he compe i ion o he na ional ci il law. As a con-
sequence, he de ini ion o illegal adop ion di e s among Membe S a es. I c ea es an obs acle
o a common app oach o p e en and comba a icking, which is con a y o he aim o he
Di ec i e. Secondly – as he e is no de ini ion o illegal adop ion –, any adop ion is legal, i i
has been app o ed by a judge. Becoming he pa o he acquis communau ai e, he ACT ecom-
mends ha all adop ions which iola e he p o isions o he CRC should be conside ed illegal.
b. Family acing
The child adop ed ab oad could access in o ma ion abou hei biological ela ions unde he
Hunga ian law.
10 ACT’s commen a y on he EU s a egy owa ds he E adica ion o T a icking in Human Beings. www.agains -
child a icking.o g/wp-con en /uploads/ACT-pos i ion-s a egy-on- a icking.pd . (Viewed 22 Ap il 2013.)
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The consensus be ween and p oponen s o in e coun y adop ion has no ye been eached.
I do no classi y he in e coun y adop ion as a good o bad solu ion. I is seen as an al e na i e
o a child o g ow up in a amily en i onmen .
In ecen decades, signi ican p og ess has been made on he de elopmen o he igh s o
he child and o he legisla ion o he in e coun y adop ion. While he in e coun y adop ion
emained con o e sial o he au ho s o he CRC, he in e na ional human igh s communi y
opened up a new ield o con ol and coope a ion wi h he adop ion o he Hague Con en ion.
In my opinion, he p inciples p esen ed o he Uni ed Na ions and o he Eu opean Union is
app op ia e, bu mo e a en ion should be paid on he na ional implemen a ion. I is no only
a med con lic s o na u al disas e s ha con ibu e o he inc easing numbe o abuses, bu he
legisla ion, adminis a i e s uc u es also play a majo ole in con olling bad p ac ices.
The gene a ion Z is gi en he possibili y o changing hei li e by open Eu opean bo de s, o
example hey can be membe s o in e na ional o ganisa ions, hey can ma y a o eign ci izen,
hey can s udy in an in e na ional en i onmen . As I see, he in e coun y adop ion is also pa
o his possibiliy, which – like he examples – aises he unanswe able ques ion: a e he e any
limi s and a e hey e en necessa y?
Re e ences
Ágos on Zsuzsanna (2010): Gye mek- és I júság édelmi Fősz ály Közpon i Ha óságának e-
ékenysége és apasz ala ai a nemze közi ö ökbe ogadással kapcsola osan (The ac i i ies
and expe iences o he cen al au ho i y ela ed o he in e coun y adop ion). In: Képzési
és Módsze ani Csopo (sze k.): Ö ökbe ogadás min második esély (o szágos kon e en-
cia), Bo sod-Abaúj-Zemplén Megyei Gye mek édelmi Közpon , Miskolc. www.bazmgykmis-
kolc. -online.hu/alapanyag/kon e enciakiad any2010.pd . (Viewed 22. 04. 2013)
Bényey Noémi (2010): Az ö ökbe ogadás. In: Ju a, 16. 2: 128–140.
Hegedüs Gab iella (2005): Az ö ökbe ogadás ajándéka (The gi o adop ion). Magya Köny -
klub, Budapes
He czog Má ia (1993): Ész e é elek a “Gye mekjólé és gye mek édelem és ö ényi szabá-
lyozásának koncepciójá ól“ szóló ko mány elő e jesz és e eze é ől (Obse a ions on he
go e nmen ’s p oposal “Child well-being, child p o ec ion and he concep o legisla ion“).
In: Család, gye mek, i júság, 5: 33–37.
He czog Má ia (sze k.) (2007): Kéziköny a gye mekjogi egyezmény alkalmazásához (Hand-
book o he CRC). Család, Gye mek, I júsági Egyesüle , Budapes
He czog Má ia (sze k.) (2013): Figyelje ek ánk! (Pay a en ion o us!). Család, Gye mek, I júság
Egyesüle , Budapes
Ho mann Ge úd (1994): Az ö ökbe ogadás ól (Abou he adop ion). In: Család, gye mek, i jú-
ság, 2: 19–24. Minis y o Human Capaci ies (2012), Budapes

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Na a yil Zol án (2012): Ész e é elek az új Polgá i Tö ényköny e eze é el kapcsola ban
(Obse a ions on he d a o he new Ci il Code). In: Magya jog, 59. 11: 691–694.
Neményi Esz e (1996): Ö ökbe ogado gye mekek ne elése (The educa ion o adop ed child-
en). In: Család, gye mek, i júság, 3: 58–62.
Neményi Esz e (2001): Nemze közi ö ökbe ogadás (In e coun y adop ion). In: Család, gye -
mek, i júság, 2: 39–44.
Pa ao, Joyce Magui e (2012): Az ö ökbe ogadás há omszöge (Adop ion T iangle). Mózeskosá
Egyesüle , Budapes
Ré iné d . Böhm É a (2011): Az ö ökbe ogadási és az ö ökbe ogadás- elbon ási ügyek (Adop-
ion and dis up ion cases). In: d . Ka onáné d . Peh E ika – d . He czog Má ia (sze k.):
A gye mek édelem nagy kéziköny e. Complex Kiadó Jogi és Üzle i Ta alomszolgál a ó K .,
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Saclie , Chan al (1996): Egyezmény, melyben a gye mek é deke az első (Con en ion de o ed
o he bes in e es o he child). Fo d. Oláh Judi . In: Család, gye mek, i júság, V. (5): 29–34.
Vi gilli o, Ma ia (2010): Ö ökbe ogadással oglalkozó nemze közi sze eze ek munkájának
e edményei (The esul s o he wo k o he non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions conce ned
wi h he adop ion). In.: Képzési és Módsze ani Csopo (sze k.): Ö ökbe ogadás min má-
sodik esély (o szágos kon e encia), Bo sod-Abaúj-Zemplén Megyei Gye mek édelmi Köz-
pon , Miskolc. www.bazmgykmiskolc. -online.hu/alapanyag/kon e enciakiad any2010.pd .
(Viewed 22. 04. 2013)
TABLE OF LEGISLATION
Op ional P o ocol o he Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child on he sale o child en, child
p os i u ion and child po nog aphy. Published: Ac CLXI o 2009 on he a i ica ion and pub-
lica ion o he Op ional P o ocol o he Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child on he sale o
child en, child p os i u ion and child po nog aphy.
The Hague Con en ion o 29 May 1993 on he P o ec ion o Child en and Co-ope a ion in Res-
pec o In e coun y Adop ion. Published: Ac LXXX o 2005 on he publica ion o he Hague
Con en ion o 29 May 1993 on he P o ec ion o Child en and Co-ope a ion in Respec o
In e coun y Adop ion
Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child. Published: Ac LXIV o 1991 on he publica ion o he
Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child
Ac V o 2013 on he new Ci il Code
Ac CXII o 2011 on he Righ o In o ma ional Sel -De e mina ion and F eedom o In o ma ion
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Fanni Mu ányi: The Con o e sy Su ounding he In e coun y Adop ion 96
Ac IV o 1952 on Ma iage, Family and Gua dianship
Go e nmen Dec ee No. 149/1997. on Gua dianship Au ho i yand Child P o ec ion and Gua -
dianship P oceedings
Az Eu ópai Pa lamen 2011. januá 19-i állás oglalása a öld engés u án egy é el Hai in apasz-
alha ó helyze ől: humani á ius segí ségnyúj ás és újjáépí és(Eu opean Pa liamen esolu-
ion o 19 Janua y 2011 on he si ua ion in Hai i one yea a e he ea hquake: humani a-
ian aid and econs uc ion). www.eu opa l.eu opa.eu/sides/ge Doc.do?pubRe =-//EP//
NONSGML+TA+P7-TA-2011-0018 +0+DOC+PDF+V0//HU
Az Eu ópai Pa lamen i ái, 2010. eb uá 11. (The dispu es o he Eu opean Pa liamen , 11
Feb ua y 2010). www.eu opa l.eu opa.eu/sides/ge Doc.do?pubRe =-//EP//NONSGML+C-
RE+20100211+SIT+DOC+PDF+V0//HU&language=HU
Gene al Commen No. 6. (A . 91, In e coun y Adop ion), 1 Sep embe 2005, CRC/GC/2005/6.
www.unhch .ch/ bs/doc.ns /898586b1dc7b4043c1256a450044 331/532769d21 cd-
8302c1257020002b65d9/$FILE/G0543805.pd