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Al e na i es o how o p epa e o
he u u e labo ma ke
ANDOR SZŐCS * – LÁSZLÓ HAMVAS **
* Deb eceni Egye em, Humán Tudományok Dok o i Iskola
Ne elés- és mű elődés udományi dok o i p og am
** Deb eceni Egye em, Humán Tudományok Dok o i Iskola
Szociológia és á sadalompoli ika dok o i p og am
In oduc ion
F om ime immemo ial, one o he c ucial ques ions o mankind has been wha he
u u e has in s o e o us. The u u e, howe e , has emained un a homable up o
his day, and e en u u e s udies p omises only as much as p ognos ica ing wha
is likely o con inue and wha will plausibly change in he wo ld. Thus, no wonde ,
ha al eady he i s “ eal” economis s o he 18 h cen u y (Adam Smi h e al.)
conside ed he c ea ion o he u u e model o labo economy as a challenge. A he
p esen e a o mode n labo ma ke , his ask is closely connec ed wi h he u u e
s a us o labo ma ke since in a consume socie y income acqui ed by wo k o ms
he basis o sa is ying needs (Eh enbe g – Smi h 2003, Galasi 1994).
We a e no saying any hing new by s a ing he ac ha he demand o labo
o ce is de e mined by new places o wo k and ha an ideal supply o labo o ce
mus be adap able o he equi emen s o demand. To mee equi emen s and o
be adap able is possible only i we a e a med wi h he necessa y compe encies
and capi al (Hodges – Bu chell 2003, Bou dieu 1998). The ques ion, o wha ex en
s uden s in highe educa ion a e p epa ed o changes in he demand o labo o ce,
a ises a his poin . Wha can young people expec on he labo ma ke in his e e
changing wo ld? Wha kind o job oppo uni ies and wo k condi ions a e he e o
hem, and how much a e hey p epa ed o ace hese changes?
In his s udy, we do no wish o engage in he di e se ield o u u ology (c . No áki
1994, No áki 1997, No áki 2005); ou p ima y aim is a he o call he a en ion o
he young gene a ion o he u u e de elopmen o labo o ce demand, while elying
on he mos signi ican esul s o wo s udies in u u ology. Ou u he aim is o
call a en ion o he impo ance o con inuous s udying because i makes i possible
o he job seeke on he labo ma ke o ob ain ex a capi al as well as o become
adap able o he u u e equi emen s o labo o ce demand. Finally, we a e going o
p esen he esul s o an in e na ional esea ch which ende s in o ma ion abou
he expec a ions o s uden s in highe educa ion o hei i s u u e wo k place.
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T ends o labo ma ke changes
In ecen decades, he s uc u e o employmen has gone h ough signi ican changes:
while a he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, indus ial wo kplaces p edomina ed,
since he 1950s, se ice indus y has aken o e . One o i s main easons is he
au oma ion o wo k including echnical de elopmen , Taylo ism, as well as he
in oduc ion o in o ma ion echnologies, as a esul o which, machines eplace men
especially in manual labo (Giddens 2008). Wi h companies whose main aim is o
achie e g ow h and e ec i eness, his is a sensible decision, because he axes and
bene i s adding o he expense o human labo we e con inuously inc easing as a
esul o he sp ead o wel a e sys ems. In mo e de eloped pa s o he wo ld, his
endency is ein o ced by possibili ies c ea ed by globaliza ion, since ans e ing
p oduc ion o less de eloped coun ies whe e labo o ce expenses a e much lowe ,
is becoming easie and easie . As a esul o he abo e-men ioned in o ma ion-
communica ion e olu ion, au oma ion has also eached he e ian sec o by now:
we can mo e and mo e o en come ac oss sel -se ice cash-machines, ood and
d ink dispense s, online icke selling sys ems and web shops. Taking all his in o
conside a ion, we can expec a mo e apid inc ease o unemploymen as a esul o
he g owing numbe o economic c ises.
In acco dance wi h ma ke laws, he g owing supply en ails s onge compe i ion
e en on he labo ma ke . This leads o he e osion o wo kplace secu i y. Employe s
o e ixed-(and sho e and sho e )- e m wo k con ac s in place o he un ixed-
e m ones (Cas el 1998). Mo eo e , as a esul o he as changing en i onmen ,
a signi ican po ion o de elopmen s and in es men s is ealized in he o m o
p ojec s (Czibe e – Ko ách 2013). Consequen ly, he widesp ead use o p ojec s—
based on ixed ime limi s—sp eads o e o he labo ma ke .
These endencies lead o he u he segmen a ion o he labo ma ke , o he
sp ead o a ypical o ms o employmen , as well as o he eappea ance o sel -
employmen ins ead o wage labo , all o which o eshadow he o ma ion o an
en i ely new labo ma ke en i onmen (Giddens 2008).
Wo kplaces o he u u e
In ecen yea s, se e al signi ican esea ches and s udies ha e been ca ied ou
in connec ion wi h u u e wo kplaces and wo k oppo uni ies (c . ISS 2020 Vision
2013, Mo gan 2014), o which we a e p esen ing ele an in o ma ion om he
esul s o wo, which can help us o unde s and his new en i onmen .
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In he i s s udy, which was made by he Fas Fu u e Resea ch u u ology
company1 in 2010, p edic ions a e made abou occupa ions which do no e en
exis oday, o he nex wen y yea s, wi h he aim o gi ing assis ance o he
u u e gene a ion in hei ca ee choice, as well as o de ining he cou se o he
ans o ma ion o educa ion sys ems. Acco ding o he au ho s, hese occupa ions
will be in luenced by he de elopmen o he digi al wo ld, by he p o ec ion o he
en i onmen , by a ending o he needs o an aging socie y, and by sa is ying he
equi emen s o comme cial space a els. On he basis o hese—wi h no in en ion
o be exhaus i e— he ollowing occupa ions seem o be he mos likely o occu :
space a el guide, long-dis ance su geon, da a ash ope a o , ime b oke , pe sonal
adema k cons uc o , ne wo king social wo ke , e- o es e , ga bage e-designe ,
nos algis , and qua an ine o ice .
Apa om hese, some al eady exis ing occupa ions a e p edic ed o come o he
o e on , such as e.g. wellness ad iso s o al e na i e ehicle cons uc o s. Tha is
o say, a so-called 10/7 ule will come in o e ec : ou o en kinde ga en pupils, 7
will ha e an occupa ion which does no exis ye . Fu he mo e, he nex gene a ion
will change hei wo kplace 12 imes on a e age. Educa ion sys ems, he e o e, will
ha e o de elop sui able lea ning abili ies and possibili ies including in o mal and
li elong lea ning (The shape o jobs o come 2010).
The second s udy was made by he E icsson Ne wo ked Socie y Lab,2 and was
published wi h he i le “The nex gene a ion wo king—su i al guide 2013. On
he basis o in e iews made wi h human esou ces pe sonnel, chie enginee s,
o ganiza ional expe s, and economis s, hey ad ise he ollowing o u u e
employees:
– Keep ebuilding you sel . Skills and knowledge appealing o he labo ma ke
change con inually. Occupa ions which a e he mos popula nowadays had
no exis ed 10 yea s ago. The le el o gene al quali ica ion is becoming highe
globally, which means ha i is no enough o ha e jus one deg ee. To be
success ul, you ha e o ac acco ding o he philosophy o con inuous lea ning.
Tha ’s wha li e is abou !
– Lea n sel -ma ke ing!
– Keep sea ching o some hing be e —go om one p ojec o job o ano he !
The wo kplace o he u u e is no abou se ling in one job because i is sa e
o easy. Those who achie e success in hei new en i onmen should keep
looking o new possibili ies which may p o ide a be e chance o ewa d,
de elopmen , and challenge (The Nex Gene a ion Wo king Li e—A su i al
Guide 2013).
1 See in mo e de ail: h p:// as u u e.com/
2 See in mo e de ail: h p://www.e icsson.com/ hinkingahead/ne wo ked_socie y
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DOKTORI MŰHELYEKBŐL
These s udies— ela ing o he endencies p esen ed in he p e ious chap e —
p edic a labo o ce en i onmen which is much mo e lexible han he p esen one
and, in which, opinions and expec a ions abou wo k also change e en i , o he ime
being, no as adically as an Ame ican u u ologis o esees i : “You migh be d i ing
Ube pa o he day, en ing ou you spa e bed oom on Ai bnb a li le bi , en ing ou
space in you close as s o age o Amazon, doing deli e y o Amazon o housing he
d one ha does deli e y o Amazon” (Rohi 2015).
Consequen ly, he h ee p io i ies o he “Eu ope 2020 S a egy” a e in elligen
g ow h (based on knowledge and inno a ion), sus ainabili y, and social cohesion.
One o he mos impo an means o achie e hese goals is aising he quali ica ion
le el o he Eu opean popula ion. As a esul , i will be possible o achie e a leading
ole in he compe i ion wi hin knowledge-based indus ies (Adle 2011). This will
equi e lea ning new skills and compe encies, om u u e employees.
The impo ance o capi al in es men
The demand side o labo ma ke equi es conside able capi al in es men om he
pa icipan . Such an in es men is, in he i s place, pa icipa ion in educa ion and
oca ional aining, mobili y, and he sea ch o a new wo kplace. Capi al in es men
en ails expenses in mos cases: (1) expense co e ed di ec ly o paid om pocke ;
(2) unpaid sala y; (3) in he o m o psychic losses (Eh enbe g – Smi h 2003). The
ques ion wha capi al he social ac o , he s uden in highe educa ion p ope , can
in es , may a ise, as hey do no , in gene al, ha e any capi al. I is no economic
capi al ha seems o be necessa y o p epa e o he labo ma ke o he u u e.
Wha one should possess is he con e ible capi al o knowledge and connec ions
which can be ans o med, wi h conscious e o , in o economic capi al. A his poin ,
we should look a ypes o capi al since unde s anding hem can be conduci e o he
ecogni ion o he impo ance o con inuous lea ning.
Types o capi al—wi h special emphasis on social capi al
Acco ding o a classic ep esen a i e o his subjec , Bou dieu (1998), i is posi ion
ul illed in a gi en social space ha gi es ise o expec a ions and e o s owa ds
which he ac i i ies o he social ac o a e di ec ed. The basis o indi idual s a egies
is o med by hese ideas and e o s o , a he , by he sel -in e p e a ion o he
indi idual. Sel -in e p e a ion, in his con ex , means he place occupied in social
space. This place is de ined by he amoun and composi ion o he a ious economic,
cul u al and social o ms o capi al.
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Taking Bou dieu’s in e p e a ion in o conside a ion, we can de ine any hing
as economic capi al ha can be con e ed in o money; cul u al capi al ensu ing
u he success h ough he amily; and social capi al bo n om social ela ions o
a ious magni ude and in ensi y (Bou dieu 1998). Acco ding o ano he app oach,
economic capi al is de ined as ma e ial o physical capi al, and cul u al capi al as
human capi al, whe e e idence o he exis ence o capi al is p o ided by he skills
and quali ica ion o he indi idual (Coleman 1994). Simila ly o Bou dieu (1998),
Coleman (1994) men ions such exis ing ne wo ks o ela ions which a e connec ed
o acquain ances and a ious ela ions o mu ual acknowledgmen . Coleman’s
de ini ion o social capi al, howe e , o e s mo e as i also men ions esou ces based
on belonging o one g oup. These esou ces enhance he impo ance and o ce o
he social capi al in acco dance wi h he powe o no ms wi hin he g oup as well as
he s uc u al s abili y o social ela ions and in e ac ions. Social capi al is a sha ed
cha ac e is ic o he ne wo k o ela ions o people coope a ing in he sys em o
social ading (Coleman 1990). I is impo an o emphasize ha social capi al is also
p oduc i e, ha is, i makes he achie emen o o he wise seemingly una ainable
goals possible. In con as wi h o he o ms o capi al, social capi al appea s in he
s uc u e o ela ions be ween ac o s, ha is, i canno be ound ei he in he ac o s
o in he ma e ial means o p oduc ion (Coleman 1994, 1998).
Bou dieu de ines he ne wo k o ela ions as an in es men s a egy whe e, in
addi ion o he c ea ion and sus enance o unconscious social ela ions, an indi ec
p o i can also be expec ed. Lin (1999) o e s a simila de ini ion when he alks abou
in es men hoped o om p o i s inhe en in he no ion o social capi al.
In connec ion wi h social capi al, Pu nam (2004) holds he iew ha social
ela ions a e he mos impo an de e minan s o a ul illed li e. He connec s ma iage
and joining a gi en communi y o ex a income and he conside s hei absence o
incomple eness as he loss o social capi al, which can lead o c ises. Pu nam (2000),
in his amous wo k, shows playing bowling alone, as a social p ocess, and places
special emphasis on he examina ion o social capi al. He is o he opinion ha ou
ese e o capi al and ne wo k o ela ions ha e allen apa , which in luences ou
li e and ou mic o- and mac o-communi ies in a nega i e way. In o he wo ds, we
e en play bowling alone. The p ocess o social isola ion is a ec ed by wo k, he
composi ion o he amily, subu ban li e, he widesp ead use o TV and compu e ,
as well as he emancipa ion o women, e c. Ou access o social capi al—which is
communal ac i i y and pa icipa ion—is becoming mo e and mo e limi ed, which
impe ils ou ci ilian and pe sonal heal h as well. Coleman (1990) hinks posi i ely
abou access o social capi al: he inds he po en ial o in o ma ion inhe en in social
ne wo ks o ela ions an impo an componen o social capi al.
Pu nam (2004) also s a es ha in communi ies wi h less social capi al, educa ional
esul s a e lowe . I s ands close o Fukuyama’s (2000) app oach, which also holds
g owing indi idualism esponsible o he decline o mo al no ms and alues,

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especially in ela ion o he lessening o he ole o ci il socie y. Acco ding o Pu nam
(2004), social ne wo ks a e aluable, ha is, hey can se e as impo an esou ces
o indi iduals, g oups, and communi ies. He calls social capi al a ci il i ue when
he alludes o ela ions be ween indi iduals and he ne wo ks de eloping om hem,
as well as he p inciples o mu uali y ope a ing hese ne wo ks.
Acco ding o Csizmadia (2002), wo key elemen s o Pu nam’s concep o social
capi al is con idence and mu uali y, which ensu e social coope a ion o mu ual
ad an ages in almos e e y a ea o social exis ence.
Wellman e al. (2001), elying on Pu nam’s concep , di ide social capi al in o wo
componen s and supplemen hem wi h a hi d dimension:
1. Ne wo k capi al: in e ac ions be ween iends, neighbo s o colleagues which
can gi e emo ional, physical suppo o help.
2. Pa icipa ion capi al: i ep esen s he wish, capabili y and willingness o join
poli ical and olun a y o ganiza ions.
3. Commi men o communi ies: shows in e pe sonal ela ions and hei
mo i a ions, as well as he wish o belong somewhe e (Wellman 2001).
Conside ing hese a ious and o en o e lapping o supplemen a y app oaches
owa ds social capi al, we can see ha in hem, he concep o social capi al is
based on a clea and easonable line o hough s. The de ini ion o social capi al as
capi al implies he hypo hesis ha social ne wo ks can be ega ded as esou ces o
indi iduals and communi ies. Consequen ly, social capi al is a ype o esou ces ha
can be c ea ed and u ilized only h ough ne wo ks.
The u iliza ion o capi al means o Pu nam (2004) ha communi ies and socie ies
can ealize aims which could no be ealized o sus ained in a s able way, o only wi h
di icul y, wi hou social capi al. Las bu no leas , we ind i impo an o ema k
ha Pu nam iews social capi al as a con e ible ype o esou ces. Bou dieu (1998)
also uses a simila no ion.
Thus, social capi al con ibu es o he sus ainable economic and social
de elopmen o communi ies o a ious social o ganiza ional le els as well as o he
u iliza ions o hei esou ces. We a e con inced ha his is he kind o capi al o
which he wide ange o elec onic communica ional space—cybe space—such as
Facebook o Linkedin e c. no only se e e e y young pe son as li ebel s, bu i can
also be a po en ial on he labo ma ke o bo h he p esen and he u u e.
The impo ance o con inuous lea ning
In wha ollows, we would like o suppo he a gumen o con inuous lea ning
by emphasizing he necessi y o li elong lea ning based on he human capi al
in es men model. The concep o li elong lea ning is a widesp ead one. Does his
mean ha he “ci izens” o he wo ld a e no sa is ied wi h many yea s o lea ning
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and, he e o e, con inue hei s udies? This may be ue, bu wha i ac ually indica es
is ha in ou as changing and de eloping wo ld we need o ge educa ion besides
o mal schooling o in an uno ganized way in o de o keep pace wi h ou social
en i onmen . This is wha is called li e-long lea ning—as a concep —bu i s idea
and con en goes back o he 17 h cen u y, when Comenius o mula ed he idea o
li elong lea ning (c . Ha angi 2004). Mo eo e , he impo ance o sel -de elopmen
had been ecognized e en by ancien hinke s (Ha angi 2002).
I was in he 1960s ha li elong lea ning became he subjec o deba es and e en
o s udies wi h he p esen meaning and, many imes, iden i ied wi h adul educa ion
o ea ed as make-up o missed o mal educa ion. Acco dingly, a lo people
ob ained hei p ima y o seconda y school ce i ica es wi hin adul educa ion, and
sa by school desks a e inishing wo k o he day.
Nowadays, his concep is used in a wide sense: Philip H. Coombs, commissioned
by he UNICEF, s a ed o implemen school e o ms in he 1970s, and c ea ed he
h ee concep s o o mal, non- o mal and in o mal educa ion (Simon 2009).
We a e igh o hink ha he ob ious cause o con inuous lea ning lies in he
p esen pe o mance-o ien ed labo ma ke , which can accep o u n us down in an
ins an . This can depend on he exis ence o lack o quali ica ion. Apa om his—as
human capi al in es men plays an impo an ole in he labo o ce’s achie emen
o success on he ma ke (c . Eh enbe g – Smi h 2003)—we o en acqui e new skills
and compe encies o documen ed quali ica ions o ou own will by means o o mal
o in o mal educa ion.
Al e na i es on he labo ma ke - no es on a esea ch
The u u e de elopmen o he labo ma ke is de e mined, o a la ge ex en , by how
we iew i in he p esen , and by wha kind o expec a ions and ideas we ha e abou
i (Mo gan 2014). On he basis o he indings o an in e na ional su ey, we can
lea n abou he ideas o college g adua es o hei i s u u e wo kplace.
The T endence G adua e Ba ome e 20153 esea ch examines, in connec ion
wi h college g adua es, as ollows:
– Fi s wo kplace a e inishing s udies
– S uden s’ ideas o employe s
– Some impo an o ms o he media
– S eng hs and weaknesses o employe s
– Opinions on ins i u es o highe educa ion
3 This esea ch is ca ied ou in 952 ins i u es o highe educa ion o 24 Eu opean coun ies, on a
281.000-s ong model on a e age, as an online su ey; he Hunga ian model in be ween Oc obe 2014
and Feb ua y 2015 was 11.800 s ong.
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This esea ch o e s a wide ange o in o ma ion on, among o he s, he wo k
expe ience o he Hunga ian you h and o hose o o he Eu opean na ionali ies who
also s udy a ins i u es o highe educa ion; on hei command o o eign languages;
and on hei ca ee p io i ies in ela ion o hei i s place o wo k. We can also
lea n abou hei willingness o mobili y, hei expec a ions conce ning hei sala y,
and hei opinion abou he ex en o which highe educa ion is adjus ed o he
equi emen s o he labo ma ke .
1. G aph: S uden ’s wo k expe ience (%)
Sou ce: T endence G adua e Ba ome e 2015 Resea ch
The i s g aph (1) shows how wo k done besides s udying is ela ed o s udying.
On he basis o he g aph, i can be s a ed ha he Hunga ian you h ha e mo e
oppo uni ies o do wo k which is ela ed o hei ield o s udy, du ing hei college
yea s, han wha he Eu opean a e age is.4 Simila ly, olun a y wo k is also done
wi h mo e equency in ou coun y. As a as social and poli ical ac i i ies a e
conce ned, he Hunga ian you h, howe e , all sho .
Wo king besides s udying— ega dless o whe he i is paid o olun a y unpaid
wo k—p o es o be an excellen o m o capi al in es men as i con ibu es o
he s eng hening o he endencies o con inuous lea ning. Conce ning o eign
language knowledge, 50 pe cen o he in e iewed people do no speak any o eign
languages apa om Hunga ian, which can be a se ious d awback on he u u e
labo ma ke (c . Mo gan 2014).
4 When examining wo k done besides s udying a a uni e si y, Szőcs ound ha s uden wo k ela ed
o hei ield o s udy occu ed wi h low equency on he Hunga ian egional model (2013, 2014).
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DOKTORI MŰHELYEKBŐL
2. G aph: ca ee p io i ies (%)
Sou ce: T endence G adua e Ba ome e 2015 Resea ch
G aph 2 shows he g adua es’ expec a ions o wo kplace, mo e p ecisely, ha
mos o hem do no so much expec he de elopmen o gene al skills as o special
ones a e s a ing wo king immedia ely, and no a e aking pa in ainee
p og ams. Acco ding o he T edence esea ch, i is pe manen employmen , majo
co po a ions and specialis posi ion ha s and close o he ideas o he Hunga ian
you h.
3. G aph: Willingness o eloca e (%)
Sou ce: T endence G adua e Ba ome e 2015 Resea ch