Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
43DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2014-1-004 1, XVII, 2014
In oduc ion
When e iewing s a egic hinking, we ealize
how his phenomenon has gone h ough di e en
phases and seman ic con ex s. Wi h a millen-
nium dis ancing he wo d om i s o igins, he
wo d s a egy has had se e al meanings bu
wi hou e e losing i s seman ic oo s. In he
beginning, s a egy ook on a mili a y
signi icance and ep esen ed he ac ion o
commanding o leading a mies in imes o wa ,
i.e. a mili a y campaign [30]. I mean a way o
p e ailing o e he ad e sa y, a ool o ic o y in
wa and only a e wa ds was i applied o o he
con ex s and ields o human ela ionships:
poli ical, economics, business, among o he s,
bu always e aining in all i s uses he seman ic
oo , o de ine pa hs [76].
A e se e al phases and meanings, he
concep o s a egy has e ol ed in o a ield o
knowledge in managemen , s a egic mana-
gemen , wi h con en , concep s and p ac ical
easoning, ending up by ca ing ou i s own
ole in he academic and business ields [25].
Managemen uses his old mili a y concep o
associa e he ac i i ies o a gene al wi h hose
o an o ganiza ion’s manage [76]. Since i
ep esen s an impo an ool o business
managemen in a compe i i e and u bulen
ma ke place, he main objec i e o s a egy
in ol es p epa ing he o ganiza ion o con on
he cu en hos ile en i onmen , o his end
sys ema ically and objec i ely deploying he
skills, quali ica ions and in e nal esou ces o
he en e p ise [25]. On he o he hand, he
concep o s a egy s ill seems o be a e y
ague concep and subjec o a ious
in e p e a ions [14].
An exac de ini ion o s a egy may no
ac ually be undamen al, howe e , wi hin he
con ex o o ganiza ional knowledge managemen ,
speci ically he knowledge ha new
p o essionals b ing in o companies, g asping
which ype o s a egic unde s anding new
manage s b ing in o he o ganiza ion is clea ly
o impo ance [15], [58], [74]. Thus, we may
ques ion whe he concep s o s a egy and
s a egic managemen a e unde s ood by
business manage s, especially he younge , he
newly g adua ed in managemen . The e o e,
his esea ch aims o assess he acqui ed
knowledge o uni e si y managemen s uden s
ela ing o s a egy and s a egic managemen
concep s wi h he pu pose o answe ing he
ollowing ques ion: Wha is s a egy and
s a egic managemen o u u e manage s? A e
hey unde s ood and ecognized?
To answe his ques ion, his s udy seeks o
examine managemen s uden unde s anding
as o he meaning o hese wo concep s. As
speci ic objec i es, we seek : (i) o build
amodel explaining he de ini ion o s a egy
acco ding o he pe cep ions o s uden s
g adua ing in managemen , and (ii) o iden i y
which concep o s a egic managemen in he
exis ing li e a u e comes closes o he
pe cep ions o cu en managemen s uden s.
To unde s and he pe cep ions o indi i-
duals abou a pa icula concep , we adop
phenomenog aphy ype esea ch p ac ices.
The main ea u e o he esea ch me hod is i s
desc ip ion o a phenomenon as i is expe-
ienced, emphasizing he collec i e signi icance
o he s udied phenomena, and should in no
way be con used wi h phenomenological
s udies. Phenomenology is a mo e conce ned
wi h he indi idual expe ience o he people
in ol ed han wi h he phenomena s udied [2].
The s udy is jus i ied due o he shee
impo ance o he hemes o s a egy and
STRATEGY AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
CONCEPTS: ARE THEY RECOGNISED BY
MANAGEMENT STUDENTS?
Eme son Wagne Maina des, JoãoJ. Fe ei a, Má io L. Raposo
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 43
s a egic managemen o con empo a y
o ganiza ions [74]. In his sense, he su ey
sough o con ibu e owa ds managemen
knowledge in he o ganiza ional en i onmen
by cla i ying wha is he eal unde s anding o
managemen g adua es on he hemes o
s a egy and s a egic managemen .
Acco ding o Tseng [83] and Obembe [60],
knowledge managemen in an o ganiza ion
begins by iden i ying he knowledge ha
indi iduals b ing in om ou side he company.
In his case, he de elopmen o o ganiza ional
s a egy depends on unde s anding he
pe cep ions o hei manage s on wha s a egy
and s a egic managemen ac ually is. The
iden i ica ion o pe cep ions o u u e manage s
on he wo concep s, as used in his s udy,
con ibu es signi ican ly o o ganiza ional mana-
gemen p ac ice. This enables he o ganiza ion’s
managemen s a egies as o ganiza ional
knowledge on he ield o s a egy can ha dly be
managed should each manage unde s and he
concep di e en ly.
The s udy indings may also be expec ed o
con ibu e o Highe Educa ion Ins i u ions
(HEI), by iden i ying wha le el o unde s an-
ding hei g adua ing managemen s uden s
a ain ega ding he subjec s unde analysis.
The esea ch con ibu ion also ex ends o he
academic wo ld by p esen ing he concep s o
s a egy and s a egic managemen mos
p esen and ac i e in he minds o u u e
manage s, indings a ely encoun e ed in he
li e a u e. The e a e ew s udies ela ing s a egy
as a heo e ical app oach and i s p ac ical
applica ion in o ganiza ions [42], [68]. Thus, his
s udy con ibu es o esea ch on s a egy demon-
s a ing ha he ield o s a egy, comp ising as
i does o se e al concep s and app oaches,
gene a es con usion among managemen
p ac i ione s. A e all, he same phenomenon
is app oached in se e al dis inc ly di e en
ways and indi iduals wo king in managemen
would also seem o hold a ious pe spec i es,
o en unde s anding nei he he eal meaning o
s a egy no i s managemen [41], [62].
Fu he mo e, his esea ch aims o p o ide
some insigh s o lec u e s bea ing in mind ha
s uden opinions and knowledge on his ma e
e lec he e iciency and he e ec i eness o
he s a egy ela ed lea ning p ocess [31],
po en ially e ealing a need o change he
didac ics o hese classes.
Ano he eason ha led o his s udy was
he me hod adop ed, phenomenog aphy,
whose main cha ac e is ic is i s abili y o
cap u e he pe cep ions o a g oup o people
abou a concep . A e an exhaus i e sea ch o
a ailable scien i ic da abases, only one s udy o
asimila na u e was ound, he Shanahan and
Ge be [75] esea ch on he concep o quali y
in HEIs, which p o ed he inspi a ion o he
esea ch se ou he e. Mos o he o he
phenomenog aphy s udies ound deal wi h
educa ional eaching me hods [5], [13], [19],
[36], [63], [82] o , in ewe cases, he beha iou
o consume s [88]. In he ield o s a egy, hey
bo h ep esen an inno a ion and a new
al e na i e o esea ch.
The pape is s uc u ed as ollows: i s ly,
ali e a u e e iew o he s a egy and s a egic
managemen concep s om a his o ical
pe spec i e is ca ied ou . A e wa ds, he
phenomenog aphy esea ch is desc ibed and
explained. The me hodology adop ed in he
su ey is p esen ed in he nex sec ion.
Subsequen ly, he collec ed da a a e analysed
and ou model is es ed. The a icle ends up
wi h inal conside a ions and u u e ecom-
menda ions.
1. S a egy and S a egic
Managemen : a His o ical
Pe spec i e
S a egy was c ea ed by he G eeks, who
endowed he concep wi h a mili a y conno-
a ion. The e m de i es om he G eek s a egos,
ansla ed as a gene al in command o oops
o he a o he gene al o plan o des oy
enemies h ough e ec i e use o esou ces
[18], [76], [78]. This e m in i sel con ained he
idea o objec i es o be achie ed and plans o
ac ion o be pe o med in a ious scena ios,
depending on he enemy’s beha iou [73].
Acco ding o Min zbe g and Quinn [53],
s a egy was al eady conside ed as an o ga-
niza ional skill a he ime o Pe icles (450 BC),
meaning managemen skills (adminis a i e,
leade ship, public speaking, powe ). Howe e ,
i was only a e Wo ld Wa II ha s a egy ully
en e ed in o he business wo ld, which has
since g own signi ican ly and needed guidance,
lines and pa hs o be ollowed by hei en i e
s uc u es [18]. This g ow h inc eased o gani-
za ional complexi y and, oge he wi h he
accele a ed pace o en i onmen al changes,
Ekonomika a managemen
44 2014, XVII, 1
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 44
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
451, XVII, 2014
began equi ing en e p ises deploy g ea e
capaci y o c ea e and manage s a egies
enabling hem o mee he challenges o he
ma ke , eaching hei objec i es in he sho ,
medium and long e m [25].
Acco ding o Min zbe g [51], i was only in
he 1980s ha s a egies unde wen g ea
de elopmen wi hin he co po a e en i onmen .
Phenomena such as co po a e es uc u ing,
join decisions and ac ions impac ing on
o ganiza ional size, inancing and po olios
[87] we e d i en by he echnological ad ance
in means o communica ion and anspo and,
since hen, an in e ac i e dynamic and in eg a ion
on a global le el ha e become p edominan .
Nowadays, hinking s a egically has acqui ed
he s a us o an indispensable ac o in leading
and managing o ganiza ions, whe he o p o i
o o he wise [55]. A e all, s a egy add esses
he link be ween he inne wo ld o business
and i s ex e nal en i onmen [68].
Conside ing i s impo ance, alking abou
s a egy opens up a discussion o heo e ical
app oaches, anging om he mo e con en ional,
conside ing s a egy as a business logic,
a ional and sequen ial [21], o he mos dynamic,
ha unde s and his p ocess as associa ed wi h
cul u al and lea ning ac o s, poli ics and powe
ela ions [54]. Thus, he e a e wo majo
p oblems a ec ing he unde s anding o wha
he concep o s a egy eally means: con usion
be ween s a egy and e ec i eness ools and
con usion be ween s a egy and s a egic
planning [27], [56], [67]. The oo o he p oblem
seems o be he lack o a ull unde s anding as
o wha s a egy eally is.
1.1 De ini ions o S a egy
As can be seen, s a egy is his o ically linked o
p e-emp ing di e en scena ios and ac ion
plans o be igge ed on encoun e ing hem
[73]. Howe e , he e has ne e been a single
and de ini e de ini ion o s a egy. The e m has
had se e al meanings, di e en in scale and
complexi y [25], [29], [35], which can mean
policies, objec i es, ac ics, goals, p og ams,
among o he s, in an a emp o exp ess he
concep s necessa y o i s de ini ion [51].
Howe e , he concep o s a egy has been
used indisc imina ely in he ield o managemen ,
meaning any hing om a p ecisely o mula ed
cou se o ac ion, a posi ioning in a pa icula
en i onmen , h ough o he en i e pe sonali y,
he soul and exis en ial a ionale behind
acompany’s exis ence. I is a concep o en pu
o wa d in he academic and business wo lds,
illed wi h a g ea di e si y and wid h, which in
some aspec s is complemen a y while
di e gen in o he s [68].
Acco ding o Fahey [28], he e a e ew
wo ds subjec o as many abuses in i s
u ilisa ion in en e p ises, as poo ly de ined in
managemen li e a u e and exposed o such
di e en ac o s as s a egy and hence i is
a e m ha causes widesp ead discussions,
especially among heo is s. Min zbe g e al.
[54] a gue ha s a egy is he enemy o he
de e minis ic and mechanis ic app oaches,
because hey minimize eedom and choice.
S a egy is no only one way o dealing wi h an
ad e sa y in a compe i i e en i onmen o
ma ke , as ea ed by much o he li e a u e and
i s popula use [53], as i canno only
summa ize he ideas, p oposals, guidelines,
indica i e o pa hs and solu ions [68]. S a egy
ins ead has a b ead h and scope ha enci cles
he concep o ope a ional e iciency [67] and
canno be con used wi h i s ac ics. In o he
wo ds, s a egy is no some hing s a ic,
inished, which ende s he concep complex
and di icul o g asp [25].
This ac has an explana ion. S a egy in
o ganiza ions, as a ield o s udy, is much
newe han i s cu en p ac ice [69], and i s
knowledge emains unde cons uc ion. This
can be pe cei ed h ough analysis o he
li e a u e e iew displaying se e al di e en
de ini ions o s a egy o e ime ( able 1).
Conside ing he de ini ions lis ed in Table 1,
along wi h he hund eds mo e a ailable, i
would appea ha he de ini ion o wha
s a egy means is nei he closed no simple o
es ablish a consensus on. We canno say any
pa icula de ini ion is co ec . Each exis ing
de ini ion is co ec bu con ains limi a ions in i s
se o assump ions and ela ed dimensions [14].
1.2 De ini ions o S a egic
Managemen
Acco ding o Bhalla e al. [14], s a egic
managemen was bo n as a hyb id discipline,
in luenced by bo h sociology and economics. I
may be conside ed an e olu ion o heo ies o
o ganiza ions. I only began ecei ing mo e
a en ion, om bo h he academic and he
business wo lds, in he 1950s, wi h i s
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 45
Ekonomika a managemen
46 2014, XVII, 1
Tab. 1: De ini ions o s a egy in o ganiza ional con ex s (pa 1)
Au ho (s) De ini ions o S a egy
[10] Ba na d (1938) S a egy is wha ma e s o he e ec i eness o he o ganiza ion, he ex e nal poin o iew,
which s esses he ele ance o he objec i es agains he en i onmen , in e ms o in e nal
s esses, he balanced communica ion be ween membe s o he o ganiza ion and a willingness
o con ibu e owa ds ac ions and he achie emen o common objec i es.
[85] on Neumann S a egy is a se ies o ac ions unde aken by a company acco ding o a pa icula si ua ion.
& Mo gens e n (1947)
[26] D ucke (1954) S a egy is analyzing he p esen si ua ion and changing i whene e necessa y. Inco po a ed
wi hin his is inding ou wha one’s esou ces a e o wha hey should be.
[21] Chandle (1962) S a egy is he de e minan o he basic long- e m goals o a i m, and he adop ion o cou ses
o ac ion and he alloca ion o esou ces necessa y o ca ying ou hese goals.
[7] Anso (1965) S a egy is a ule o making decisions de e mined by p oduc /ma ke scope, g ow h ec o ,
compe i i e ad an age, and syne gy.
[49] Min zbe g (1967) S a egy is he addi ion o he decisions aken by an o ganiza ion in all aspec s, as much
comme cial as s uc u al, wi h he s a egy de eloping in acco dance wi h he lea ning p ocess
o he i m’s manage .
[20] Cannon (1968) S a egies a e he di ec ional ac ion decisions which a e compe i i ely equi ed o achie e he
company’s pu pose.
[43] Lea ned, Ch is ensen, S a egy is he pa e n o objec i es, pu poses, o goals and majo policies and plans o
And ews & Gu h (1969) achie ing hese goals, s a ed in such a way as o de ine wha business he company is in o is
o be in and he kind o company i is o is o be.
[59] Newman & Logan S a egies a e o wa d-looking plans ha an icipa e change and ini ia e ac ion o ake ad an age
(1971) o oppo uni ies ha a e in eg a ed in o he concep s o mission o he company.
[71] Schendel & Ha en S a egy is he basic goals and objec i es o he o ganiza ion, he majo p og ams o ac ion
(1972) chosen o each hese goals and objec i es, and he majo pa e n o esou ce alloca ion used
o ela e he o ganiza ion o i s en i onmen .
[84] Uy e hoe en, S a egy p o ides bo h di ec ion and cohesion o he en e p ise and is composed o se e al
Acke man & Rosenblum s eps: s a egic p o ile, s a egic o ecas , esou ce audi , s a egic al e na i es explo ed, es s
(1973) o consis ency and, inally, s a egic choice.
[1] Acko (1974) S a egy is conce ned wi h long- ange objec i es and ways o pu suing hem ha a ec he
sys em as a whole.
[61] Paine & Naumes (1975) S a egies a e mac o-ac ions o pa e ns o ac ions o achie ing he objec i es o he company.
[45] McCa hy, Minichiello S a egy is an analysis o he en i onmen whe e he o ganiza ion is loca ed and he selec ion
& Cu an (1975) o al e na i es ha will di ec he esou ces and objec i es o he o ganiza ion, aking in o
conside a ion he isk and po en ial p o i s, and he easibili y ha each al e na i e o e s.
[32] Glueck (1976) S a egy is a uni ied, comp ehensi e, and in eg a ed plan designed o assu e ha he basic
objec i es o he en e p ise a e achie ed.
[47] Michel (1976) S a egy is o decide which esou ces should be acqui ed and used so hey can ake ad an age
o oppo uni ies and minimize ac o s ha h ea en he achie emen o desi ed esul s.
[46] McNichols (1977) S a egy is embedded in o policy-making: i con ains a se ies o decisions ha e lec he basic
objec i es o he o ganiza ion's business, and how o use he capabili ies and in e nal esou ces
o achie e hese objec i es.
[78] S eine &Mine (1977) S a egy is he o mula ion o missions, pu poses and basic o ganiza ional goals, policies and
p og ams o mee hem, and he me hods needed o ensu e ha s a egies a e implemen ed o
achie e o ganiza ional objec i es.
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 46
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
471, XVII, 2014
Tab. 1: De ini ions o s a egy in o ganiza ional con ex s (pa 2)
Au ho (s) De ini ions o S a egy
[8] Anso (1979) S a egy is a se o ules o decision making unde condi ions o pa ial igno ance. S a egic
decisions conce n he i m's ela ionship wi h i s ecosys em.
[50] Min zbe g (1979) S a egy is a media ing o ce be ween he o ganiza ion and i s en i onmen : consis en pa e ns
in s eams o o ganiza ional decisions o deal wi h he en i onmen .
[72] Schendel &Ho e (1979) S a egy p o ides sugges ed di ec ions o he o ganiza ion, which allows he company o
achie e i s objec i es and o espond o oppo uni ies and h ea s in he ex e nal en i onmen .
[18] B acke (1980) S a egy has wo cha ac e is ics: si ua ional o en i onmen al analysis ha de e mines he
company's posi ion in he ma ke and he p ope use o company esou ces o achie e i s
objec i es.
[37] Hamb ick (1980) S a egy is he pa e n o decisions ha guide he o ganiza ion in i s ela ionship wi h he
en i onmen , a ec he p ocesses and in e nal s uc u es, as well as in luencing he
pe o mance o o ganiza ions.
[65] Po e (1980) S a egy is he company choice as o key decision a iables such as p ice, p omo ion, quan i y
and quali y. The company, o ha e good pe o mance, mus be co ec ly posi ioned in i s indus y.
[52] Min zbe g &McHugh S a egy is a pa e n in a chain o ac ions o decisions. I dis espec s he possibili ies o di e en
(1985) s a egies o se e al en i onmen condi ions.
[66] Po e (1985) S a egy is a se o o ensi e o de ensi e ac ions o c ea e a de ensible posi ion in an indus y,
o cope success ully wi h compe i i e o ces and hus ge a highe e u n on in es men .
[28] Fahey (1989) S a egy explains how he company will use i s esou ces and capabili ies o build and sus ain
he compe i i e ad an ages ha a ou ably in luence cus ome pu chasing decisions.
[39] Hende son (1989) S a egy is he ocused use o imagina ion and logic o espond o he en i onmen so ha as
a esul i gene a es compe i i e ad an age o he company.
[9] Anso & McDonnell (1990) S a egy is a se o ules o decision making o guide he beha iou o an o ganiza ion. The e
a e ou dis inc ypes o ules: s anda ds by which he p esen and u u e pe o mance o he
company is measu ed (objec i es, a ge s); ules o he de elopmen o ela ionships wi h he
ex e nal en i onmen (p oduc s a egy and ma ke ing, o business s a egy), ules o
es ablishing ela ions and in e nal p ocesses in he o ganiza ion (o ganiza ional concep ); and
ules by which he company shall conduc i s ac i i ies in he day- o-day (ope a ional policies).
[6] And ews (1991) S a egy is he pa e n o se lemen in a company ha de e mines and e eals i s objec i es,
pu poses o goals, p oduces he p incipal policies and plans o achie e hese a ge s and
asce ains he scale o business ha he company should ge in ol ed in, he ype o economic
and human o ganiza ion and he na u e o he economic and non-economic bene i s gene a ed
o sha eholde s, employees and communi ies.
[38] Hende son (1991) S a egy is he delibe a e sea ch o an ac ion plan o de elop and adjus he compe i i e
ad an age o a company. The di e ences be ween he o ganiza ion and i s compe i o s a e he
basis o i s compe i i e ad an age.
[53] Min zbe g & Quinn S a egy is he delibe a e sea ch o an ac ion plan o de elop and adjus he compe i i e
(1991) ad an age o a company. The di e ences be ween he o ganiza ion and i s compe i o s a e he
basis o i s compe i i e ad an age.
[69] Rumel , Schendel S a egy is o de ine he di ec ion o o ganiza ions. This includes issues o p ima y conce n o
& Teece (1994) he manage , o any pe son who seeks he easons o success and ailu e be ween o ganiza ions.
[81] Thompson & S a egy is a se o compe i i e changes and business app oaches ha manage s pe o m o
S ickland III (1995) achie e he bes pe o mance o he company. I is he manage ial plan o enhance he
o ganiza ion’s posi ion in he ma ke , boos cus ome sa is ac ion and achie e pe o mance
a ge s.
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 47

de elopmen ully unde way in he 1960s and
1970s.
Acco ding o Po h [68], s a egic manage-
men eme ged as pa o s a egic planning,
which is now ega ded as one o i s main
ins umen s. I was inco po a ed in o s a egic
managemen , which uni ed planning and
managemen in he same p ocess. On he
o he hand, S ead and S ead [76] s a ed ha
s a egic managemen is de i ed om he
concep o en e p ise policy. This concep
explains he o ganiza ion as a sys em in which
economic esou ces a e applied e ec i ely wi h
he company’s unc ional ac i i ies coo dina ed
a ound gene a ing p o i .
Once ounded, s a egic managemen
expanded swi ly and p oduced bo h heo e ical
and p ac ical models [22]. A b oad ange o
models eme ged ou o ma ke analysis in he
1960s, including he BCG Ma ix, SWOT
Model, he Expe ience Cu e, and Po olio
Analysis, as well as impo an concep s such as
he economic analysis o s uc u e, beha iou
and pe o mance, dis inc i e compe ences,
skills, and he so-called s a egic planning
sys ems [29], [54], [77].
Cu en ly, s a egic managemen is one o
he mos p ominen and ele an a eas in he
managemen ield. I cons i u es a se o ma-
nagemen ac ions ha enable company manage s
o keep i aligned wi h i s en i onmen and on
he co ec pa h o de elopmen , he eby
b inging abou he achie emen o i s objec i es
and i s mission [25], [40], [56], [79], [17].
Despi e i s impo ance, Boyd e al. demons a e
ha s a egic managemen has many a ibu es
o a s ill imma u e ield o s udy, wi h li le
consensus and low le els o p oduc i i y. This
esul u he mo e explains he eason he e
a e se e al de ini ions o he same concep .
Acco ding o Anso and McDonnell [9],
s a egic managemen cons i u es a sys ema ic
app oach o he managemen o changes,
comp ising: posi ioning he o ganiza ion
h ough s a egy and planning, eal ime
s a egic esponse h ough he managemen o
p oblems, and he sys ema ic managemen o
esis ance du ing s a egy implemen a ion. On
he o he hand, Po h [68] belie es ha
s a egic managemen is de inable as a c oss-
p ocess o o mula ion, implemen a ion and
e alua ion o he decisions ha enable
o ganiza ions o de ine and achie e hei
mission and ul ima ely o c ea e alue.
Bowman e al. [16] s a egic managemen
ocuses on issues conce ning ei he he c ea ion
and sus ainabili y o compe i i e ad an age o
he sea ch o such an ad an age.
Fu he mo e, G an [33] a gued ha s a egic
managemen in ol es a complex ela ionship
be ween he o ganiza ional ocus, he esul s
ob ained, and he b oad spec um o ex e nal
and in e nal en i onmen al a iables o he
o ganiza ion.
Acco ding o Dess e al. [25], s a egic
managemen in an o ganiza ion mus become
ap ocess and a single pa h guiding ac ions
h oughou he o ganiza ion. I consis s o
o ganiza ional analysis, decisions and ac ions
c ea ing and sus aining compe i i e ad an age.
Ekonomika a managemen
48 2014, XVII, 1
Tab. 1: De ini ions o s a egy in o ganiza ional con ex s (pa 3)
Au ho (s) De ini ions o S a egy
[48] Mille & Dess (1996) S a egy is a se o plans o decisions made in an e o o help o ganiza ions achie e hei objec i es.
[67] Po e (1996) S a egy means pe o ming di e en ac i i ies o hose pe o med by i als o pe o ming he
same ac i i ies di e en ly.
[88] W igh , K oll & Pa nell S a egy is he se o plans om op managemen o achie e esul s consis en wi h he
(1997) o ganiza ional mission and objec i es.
[54] Min zbe g, Ahls and S a egy is he media ing o ce be ween he o ganiza ion and i s su oundings, ocusing on
& Lampel (1998) decisions and ac ions ha come na u ally. S a egy o ma ion is no limi ed o in en ional
p ocesses, bu can occu as a pa e n o ac ions o malized o o he wise.
[12] Ba ney (2001) S a egy is he heo y o he i m on how o compe e success ully. I also conside s pe o mance
as a ac o in luenced by s a egy, as i can be conside ed ha o compe e success ully means
ha ing a sa is ac o y pe o mance.
Sou ce: own elabo a ion
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 48
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
491, XVII, 2014
These au ho s de ine ou key a ibu es o
s a egic managemen : di ec ed owa ds he
o e all o ganiza ion objec i es, includes mul iple
s akeholde s in decision-making, equi es
inco po a ing sho and long e m pe spec i es
and, in ol es he ecogni ion o ade-o s
be ween e ec i eness and e iciency.
S ead and S ead [76], in u n, de ined
s a egic managemen as an ongoing p ocess
in ol ing he e o s o s a egic manage s o
adjus he o ganiza ion o he en i onmen in
which i ope a es while de eloping compe i i e
ad an ages. These compe i i e ad an ages
enable he company o seize oppo uni ies and
minimize en i onmen al h ea s.
Mo e gene ally, s a egic managemen is
ab oad e m ha includes de e mining he
mission and objec i e o he o ganiza ion in he
con ex o i s ex e nal and in e nal en i onmen s.
2. Phenomenog aphy
Phenomenog aphy is a ela i ely new
app oach o scien i ic esea ch wi h he i s
published a icles appea ing a he beginning o
he 1980s [44]. This app oach seeks o
quali a i ely desc ibe he di e en o ms by
which people expe ience, concep ualize, pe cei e,
and unde s and se e al aspec s o a pa icula
phenomenon. This implies ha phenomeno-
g aphy is no conce ned only abou he pheno-
mena unde esea ch, no , indeed, exclusi ely
wi h he people expe iencing hem. On he
con a y, i ocuses upon he ela ionship
be ween hem, i.e., he ways in which people
expe ience o hink abou he espec i e
phenomenon [23]. Hence, a phenomenog aphic
s udy aims o desc ibe he a ia ion in how
ade e mined phenomenon ( o example,
aconcep ) is unde s ood, expe ienced o
pe cei ed by a g oup o people [13].
Aphenomenog aphic me hod a gues ha
indi iduals pe cei e he wo ld in di e en o ms
as expe ience is always only e e pa ial. A
any poin , ime, and con ex , people disce n
and expe ience di e en aspec s o any
phenomenon o di e en deg ees and ex en s
[19]. Thus, di e en o ms o li ing a phenomenon
can be unde s ood in e ms o which aspec s o
he phenomenon a e pe cei ed [4]. The e o e,
he ocus o his ype o esea ch is on essen ial
aspec s o he collec i e and a ia ion o
expe ience, mo e han he weal h o indi idual
expe iences, leading o a limi ed numbe o
quali a i ely di e en ca ego ies in he desc ip ion
o he in es iga ed phenomenon [82]. Thus,
acco ding o he ules o phenomenog aphy,
he di e en ways o li ing a phenomenon a e
no cons i u ed o independen o ms, bu a he
mu ually in e ela ed [63]. These di e en ways
a e o de ed in e ms o conscience inclusi i y,
wi hin which mo e inclusi e o ms also
ep esen mo e complex o ms o expe iencing
he phenomenon indica ed o e e g ea e
ampli ude o knowledge on he phenomenon’s
di e en aspec s. In o he wo ds, an inc easing
numbe o aspec s o he phenomenon a e
pe cei ed as po en ially di e en [4] a icula ing
in e nal logical ela ionships be ween di e en
o ms o li ing and expe iencing such
aphenomenon [82].
T adi ionally, he objec o phenomeno-
g aphy esea ch s udy has been desc ibed as
a ia ions in he human sensing and unde s anding
o concep ions [44] o , mo e ecen ly,
conscience o ways o es ing a de e mined
phenomenon [87]. The esul s a e analy ically
ep esen ed as a se ies o meanings (quali a-
i ely di e en ) o e en some ways o es ing
aphenomenon, called “ca ego ies” in o de o
dis inguish be ween empi ically in e p e ed
ca ego ies and he hypo he ical expe ience
hey ep esen , including also he s uc u al
ela ionships ha connec hese di e en o ms
o es ing. These ela ions p o ide a b ie ing on
he ela ions be ween di e en ways o
expe iencing a phenomenon [4].
The ocus o phenomenog aphy esea ch
on he collec i e expe ience (and no he
indi idual) is usually misunde s ood and
dese es cla i ica ion. Ma on [44] ad ises on
de ini ions o he di e se o ms o unde s an-
ding eali y. Acco ding o his au ho , hese
pe spec i es a e no concei ed by phenomeno-
g aphy as indi idual pe cep ions bu a he as
ca ego ies ha depic a collec i e concep ion o
aphenomenon. Tha is, phenomenog aphy
esea ch aims o explo e gamma meanings
wi hin a g oup as a g oup, and no he gamma
meanings o each indi idual wi hin he g oup
[70]. Fu he mo e, S ensson [80] a gues ha
he a ie ies o o ms by which people es hese
phenomena a e e e ed o as ag eemen s and
suscep ible o p esen a ion as desc ip ion
ca ego ies o he phenomenon in ques ion.
These ca ego ies es ablish he base o
de eloping a hie a chy o ag eemen s,
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 49
hemsel es o ming a model ha desc ibes he
phenomenon in i s o ali y. This model con ains
ase o ca ego ies hie a chically s uc u alized
a ound he phenomenon unde s udy [36].
Consequen ly, he esea che aims a cons i-
u ing a logical s uc u e ela i e o di e en
meanings. The ca ego ies cons i u ed by
esea che s o ep esen ing he di e en o ms
o li ing a phenomenon a e seen as ep esen ing
as uc u alized se – he model. This p o ides
ameans o g asping he collec i e human
expe ience o he holis ic phenomena despi e
he ac he same phenomenon can be
pe cei ed in di e en o ms by di e en people
and in di e en ci cums ances. Ideally, he
esul s ep esen all he gamma o possible
o ms o li ing a speci ic phenomenon, in
aspeci ic ime, o he popula ion collec i ely
ep esen ed by he g oup [4].
In p ac ical e ms, phenomenog aphy has
p o en e icien when deployed o wi ness
decisions on educa ion p og ams and applied
in wo dis inc o ms [4]: (i) o iden i y a a ia ion
in he ag eemen on one de e mined concep
(in ol ing he iden i ica ion o he main
cha ac e is ics o concep s ha alumni do o do
no ob ain o disce n hei unde s anding o he
phenomenon); and (ii) o p ojec an educa ion
p og am ha maximizes alumni oppo uni ies o
gain a ull unde s anding o a concep based on
ap io e alua ion o knowledge on he
phenomenon. Co espondingly, we app oach
phenomenog aphy as a esea ch me hod ha
ocuses on concep s explaining phenomena as
li ed by indi iduals and o alue in p ac ically all
educa ional a eas [5].
3. Me hodology
In acco dance wi h he p inciples o phenome-
nog aphy ( he collec i e analysis o indi idual
expe iences), p oposed by Ma on [44],
desc ibed in he in oduc ion o his s udy and
he me hodological decisions made explici in
he wo k o Shanahan and Ge be [75], his
esea ch p ojec adop ed he phenomenog aphic
me hodology. This is cha ac e ized as
quali a i e, explo a o y and c oss-sec ional
[34], wi h da a collec ion ca ied ou by pe sonal
in e iews wi h s uc u ed ques ionnai es. All
me hodological decisions desc ibed in he
sequence (uni e se and sample esea ch,
collec ion and analysis o da a) we e adap ed
om he s udy o Shanahan and Ge be [70].
Howe e s udies on he ield o educa ion [5],
[13], [19], [36], [63], [82] and on consume
beha iou [87] also played hei ole in he
me hodological decisions aken o e he
cou se o his esea ch p ojec .
To a ain ou s udy objec i es, we examined
s uden s aking deg ees in managemen a
public uni e si ies in Po ugal. Thei cu icula
p og ams ea u e s a egy and/o s a egic
managemen subjec s. The choice o
Po uguese public uni e si ies de i es om he
ac ha hey ep esen abou 60% o highe
educa ion s uden s in Po ugal [64]. All hi een
uni e si ies we e in i ed o pa icipa e. O
hese, i e uni e si ies exp essed in e es :
Uni e si y o Bei a In e io (UBI), Uni e si y o
Coimb a (UC), Uni e si y o É o a (UE), Uni e si y
o Minho (UM), and Uni e si y o Po o (UP). The
ques ionnai es we e sen o hese uni e si ies
and hen comple ed in he class oom and
e u ned comple ed o he esea che s.
The choice o his a ge g oup de i ed om
hei being on he e ge o g adua ion and in
a ew mon hs will become he younges manage s
in he Po uguese ma ke . This means hey
migh be expec ed o be he managemen
p o essionals wi h he mos up- o-da e
knowledge on he issues in ol ing o ganiza ional
managemen , including s a egy and s a egic
managemen . The sample ga he ed ocuses on
he s uden s p esen in class ooms on he days
o he applica ion o he esea ch ques ionnai e
and ha had been passed app o ed in hese
subjec s. This ype o sample appea s as non-
p obabilis ic, in en ional, o ial [34]. I should
be no ed ha he esul s p esen ed he e
ep esen only a p opo ion o managemen
s uden s in Po ugal. To achie e a b oade
ep esen a ion o Po uguese managemen
s uden s, i would be necessa y o apply he
same esea ch in o he uni e si ies.
Fo he pu poses o da a collec ion, we
deployed a ques ionnai e wi h six open ques ions,
which aimed o iden i y esponden pe cep ions
as o hei own de ini ions o s a egy and
s a egic managemen . The inal ques ionnai e
was he ollowing:
1. Based on you own expe ience, wha does
s a egy mean o you?
2. Using you own wo ds, wha is you
de ini ion o s a egy?
3. Acco ding o you poin o iew, gi e a leas
h ee examples o s a egies.
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50 2014, XVII, 1
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511, XVII, 2014
4. Quo e means o applying you concep o
business s a egy.
5. Wha he meaning o s a egic
managemen ? Gi e examples.
6. Explain wha i means o s a egic
managemen . How can you apply his
concep in o ganiza ions?
Signi ican ly, each subjec s udied is linked
o wo ques ions (de ini ion o s a egy, examples
o s a egies, and de ini ion and examples o
s a egic managemen ). This is he main
ea u e o he phenomenog aphy me hod and
aims o make he in e iewee hink mo e
p ecisely abou wha his/he eal insigh is on
he phenomenon s udied [2], [3], [4]. Da a
collec ion was ca ied ou du ing he pe iod
be ween Ap il and June 2009. A e he
applica ion o esea ch ools, he same, duly
comple ed, we e e u ned o he esea che s
who hen conduc ed an ini ial ques ionnai e
assessmen : UBI (42 comple ed ques ionnai es
wi h 38 conside ed alid); UC (29 comple ed
ques ionnai es wi h 28 alid); UE (25 ques ion-
nai es e u ned, all alid); UM (o 48 comple ed
ques ionnai es, 33 p o ed alid); and UP
(22 ques ionnai es e u ned, all alid). In sum,
166 ques ionnai es we e comple ed, and 146 we e
alida ed and inco po a ed in o he analy ical
p ocess. The nex s ep was o ans e he da a
collec ed o so wa e analysis.
Wi h all answe s in digi al o ma , con en
analysis was used o da a analysis aiming o
iden i y de ini ions o s a egy and s a egic
managemen h ough coding [24], wi h he aid
o he A las/ i so wa e [57].This ype o analysis
sea ches o egula i ies and a iabili y based
on eplica ions o obse a ions o s a emen s
en ailing he quan i ica ion o quali a i e da a
[24]. In his case, he codes we e ini ially
es ablished by he wo ds mos common in he
de ini ions o s a egy and s a egic managemen ,
as well as he ypes o s a egy and s a egic
managemen ci ed by he s uden s. Wi h he
da a en e ed in o he A las/Ti so wa e, he
codes we e also inse ed in o he sys em. This
g ouped in e iewee s a emen s on egula i ies
and simila i ies acco ding o he es ablished
coding. This mean we we e able o collec i ely
handle and p ocess he in e iews he eby
esul ing in a anking o codes p esen in he
da a collec ed om he esponden s ( om he
mos p esen o he leas p esen ).
4. Resul s Analysis
The beginning o he ques ionnai e asked only
wo pe sonal ques ions o esponden s: age
and gende . The age o esponden s anged
om 20 o 54 yea s, wi h he a e age age o
22.2, wi h abou 74% o esponden s less han
24 yea s old. This means ha he majo i y o
u u e manage s en e ing he ma ke in he
coming mon hs ha e li le o no expe ience and
basically ely on he knowledge acqui ed a
uni e si y. This u he jus i ies he impo ance
o his esea ch as i pu s o wa d an
unde s anding o he ela ionship ha s uden s
make be ween he heo y lea ned and he
p ac ices hey a e o unde ake hus enabling
he highe educa ion ins i u ion (HEI) o ailo
hei deg ees o ma ke necessi ies. Wi h
ega d o gende , he esea ch in ol ed 81 men
and 65 women, which p o ed o bea no
signi ican ele ance o he answe s e u ned.
Conside ing he ques ionnai e esponses,
we need o make one commen be o e
p esen ing he da a analyzed. Thus, in he i s
wo ques ions, which co espond o he concep
o s a egy, mos esponden s ga e de ailed
answe s, illing all he spaces o each
ques ion. This allowed mo e de ailed analysis
on he unde s anding o he s a egy concep
held by managemen s uden s. Conce ning he
ques ions dealing wi h ypes o s a egies
(ques ions 3 and 4) and he concep and ypes
o s a egic managemen (ques ions 5 and 6),
he same esponden s we e oo gene al and
objec i e in hei esponses, which did no allow
as ho ough analysis as ha on he s a egy
concep .
The i s wo ques ions deal wi h he
pe sonal unde s anding o each esponden on
he subjec o s a egy. None o hose
in e iewed ci ed s a egy ou side he ield o
managemen . The e we e no e e ences o
mili a y s a egies, policies, among o he s. This
demons a es ha he opic discussed cu en ly
en e s he ield o managemen , a leas among
hese ep esen a i es o u u e o ganiza ional
manage s. Acco ding o esponden s, s a egy
holds di e en conno a ions (Table 2).
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 51
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Eme son Wagne Maina des, Ph.D.
FUCAPE Business School
Managemen Depa men and
NECE – Resea ch Cen e in Business
Sciences
[email p o ec ed]
JoãoJ. Fe ei a, Ph.D.
Uni e si y o Bei a In e io
Managemen and Economics Depa men and
NECE – Resea ch Cen e in Business
Sciences
[email p o ec ed]
Ma io L. Raposo, Ph.D.
Uni e si y o Bei a In e io
Managemen and Economics Depa men and
NECE – Resea ch Cen e in Business
Sciences
[email p o ec ed]
Ekonomika a managemen
60 2014, XVII, 1
EM_01_14_zlom 20.3.2014 8:44 S ánka 60
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
611, XVII, 2014
Abs ac
STRATEGY AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS: ARE THEY
RECOGNISED BY MANAGEMENT STUDENTS?
Eme son Wagne Maina des, JoãoJ. Fe ei a, Má io L. Raposo
The pu pose o his pape is o assess he acqui ed knowledge o uni e si y managemen s uden s
on s a egy and s a egic managemen concep s. Phenomenog aphy was used in he analysis and
acollec i e desc ip ion was conduc ed. A sample o s uden s aking managemen deg ees a i e
uni e si ies was adop ed. Following da a analysis, a model explaining ou de ini ion o s uden s is
p esen ed. This de ini ion was compa ed wi h he exis ing li e a u e. Ou indings do no indica e
asingle, p edominan concep bu e lec a di e se se o exis ing concep s. We conclude ha
s uden s do p esen di icul ies when i comes o explaining hei heo e ical de ini ion in eal
si ua ions applied o o ganiza ions. The esul s con ibu e owa ds a be e unde s anding o he
uni e si ies su eyed, bu canno be gene alized. Thus, we ecommend u u e s udies eplica e his
esea ch p ojec a o he Highe Educa ion Ins i u ions and con i m he ac o s making up he
cons uc ion o he de ini ion o s a egy om he pe spec i e o u u e manage s. Gi en ha opics
ela ing o s a egy and s a egic managemen a e highly ele an o o ganiza ions oday, i is o
simila g ea impo ance o iden i ying jus wha u u e manage s pe cei e abou hese issues. Ou
model explains he de ini ion o s a egy in he ision o young manage s abou o en e he ma ke .
Abalance be ween he cu en schools o hough on s a egy and an app oach o he eali y o
en e p ises a e p esen ed as challenges o bo h eache s and esea che s in his ield.
Key Wo ds: S a egy, managemen , s a egic managemen , concep s, managemen s uden s,
phenomenog aphy.
JEL Classi ica ion: A23, L10, M00, M10.
DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2014-1-004
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