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2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
To us o no o us ICT? Empi ical model
o ela ion be ween ca ee eadiness,
us , and dis us
Elzbie a Kowalczyk1, Dagma a Lewicka2, Pawel Zajac3
1 Poznan Uni e si y o Economics and Business, Depa men o O ganiza ion and Managemen Theo y, Poland,
ORCID: 0000-0003-4611-2246, [email p o ec ed];
2 AGH Uni e si y o K akow, Facul y o Managemen , Poland, ORCID: 0000-0002-6955-7371, [email p o ec ed];
3 AGH Uni e si y o K akow, Facul y o Managemen , Poland, ORCID: 0000-0003-4343-3458, [email p o ec ed].
Abs ac : In his s udy, he au ho s ocus on wo issues: he in luence o echnology us and
dis us on ca ee eadiness and he iden i ica ion o hese us and dis us ac o s de e mined by
he esponden ’s gende . To achie e his goal, he au ho s collec ed da a using he su ey me hod.
The s udy was conduc ed among 871 Polish uni e si y s uden s aged 18 o 25. S uc u al equa ion
modeling was used o show po en ial causal dependencies be ween a iables. The s udy p o ides
aluable insigh in o esea ch on us and dis us in echnology. Th ee g oups o ac o s in luencing
ca ee eadiness we e iden i ied: ca alys s (ICT us , human-ICT compe i ion), inhibi o s (digi al
illi e acy, ha m ul ICT) and neu als (ICT scep icism, digi al anxie y). Va iables in he ca ee inhibi o
ca ego y a e no signi ican o he male esponden s. The model used in he s udy indica es
highe eadiness among women in he dedica ion dimension, lowe eadiness in he engagemen
dimension, and no gende di e ence in he sac i ice dimension. The di e en ial ole o gende
is con i med in he con ex o ca ee eadiness. Limi a ions o his ype o esea ch a e ela ed
o he di icul y o eaching he app op ia e esea ch sample, and hus i s ep esen a i eness. In his
case, hanks o a la ge esea ch sample, i was possible o cap u e he ela ionships ha allow o
a be e unde s anding o Gene a ion Z.
Keywo ds: In o ma ion and communica ion echnologies, digi aliza ion, Gene a ion Z, SEM.
JEL Classi ica ion: I23, M53.
APA S yle Ci a ion: Kowalczyk, E., Lewicka, D., & Zajac, P. (2024). To us o no o us ICT?
Empi ical model o ela ion be ween ca ee eadiness, us , and dis us . E&M Economics and
Managemen , 27(2), 221–239. h ps://doi.o g/10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
In oduc ion
The dynamic de elopmen o in o ma ion and
communica ion echnology (ICT), going hand
in hand wi h he inc easing dependence o hu-
mans on echnology, is inc easing in e es among
esea che s in bo h us and dis us in his con-
ex (McKnigh e al., 2020; Wong e al., 2023).
The issues o us and dis us a e inc eas-
ingly becoming he ocus o he sub-discipline
o echnology managemen , whe e humans a e
pa o a socio- echnical sys em (Lank on e al.,
2015; McKnigh e al., 2011). In his sys em,
us and dis us ela e o he ela ionship be-
ween humans and echnology (Liu e al., 2017;
Tha che e al., 2013). These ela ionships a e
cha ac e ized by isk and dependency. The use
o echnology in ol es isks aken by echnology
use s. Risks a e compounded by use s’ lack
o knowledge and unce ain y ega ding he con-
sequences o echnology use. On he o he hand,
an inc easing le el o dependence on echnol-
ogy can be obse ed (Ejdys, 2018).
In o ma ion Managemen
222 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
ICT con ibu es o dynamic changes in soci-
e y in all aspec s o li e, including he wo kplace,
lea ning, and e e yday li e. These in luences
a e inc easingly el a all le els o educa ion,
pa icula ly in highe educa ion ins i u ions.
As ICT enables an inc easing deg ee o cus-
omiza ion o lea ning and eaching o indi-
idual s uden s, i is wo h asking whe he and
how us /dis us in ICT echnology in luences
s uden s’ ca ee eadiness. T us , on he one
hand, helps decision-making by educing
unce ain y abou he consequences o in e ac-
ions and, on he o he hand, enhances he de-
si e o es ablish and main ain a ela ionship wi h
a us ed pe son o objec . The e o e, acco d-
ing o he li e a u e, i has been assumed ha
ICT us posi i ely in luences he ca ee eadi-
ness o young adul s, which is a p e equisi e
o a success ul ansi ion om he educa ion
ma ke o he labou ma ke .
As cu en esea ch indica es, e e y e-
la ionship is also accompanied by a ce ain
le el o dis us . De ining dis us in gene al and
wi h ega d o echnology in pa icula is a di -
icul challenge. So a , esea ch on dis us
in ela ion o echnology is a an ini ial s age
(Bewsell, 2012). Howe e , he emo ional pe -
spec i e o dis us is wo h in es iga ing. I has
impo an p ac ical alue. I allows a emp s
o be e unde s and he ea s, anxie ies and
ba ie s o echnology use s and de elop ways
o educe hem.
ICT is a d i ing o ce o change in he la-
bou ma ke , and echnology li e acy is he hi d
as es -g owing co e skill (Wo ld Economic
Fo um, 2023). The e o e, a i udes owa d ICT,
such as us and dis us , a e an essen ial ele-
men o ca ee eadiness and acili a e he an-
si ion om educa ion and aining o he labou
ma ke . The cu iculum o s uden s in he a ea
o ca ee eadiness is based on he imp o e-
men o digi al compe encies (Hua e al., 2022;
Newell & Ul ich, 2022). People e e o digi al
compe encies o achie e goals ha a e impo -
an o hem in an e ec i e manne , including
e ec i e unc ioning in he labou ma ke (Kow-
alczyk, 2022). Empi ical esea ch shows ha
bo h s uden s and employe s see a ela ionship
be ween digi al compe encies and employabil-
i y (Pi zada & Khan, 2013). The EU Commis-
sion de ined hese compe encies in a eas such
as in e ac ing h ough echnologies, sha ing
in o ma ion and con en , engaging in online ci i-
zenship, collabo a ing h ough digi al channels,
ne ique e, and managing digi al iden i y (Fe -
a i, 2013). T us ea ed as a i ude (Nguyen,
2022) is necessa y in all men ioned a eas and
acco ding o he DigComp epo , a ibu es a e
he pa s o he digi al compe ences (Vuo ika i
e al., 2022). We assume ha achie ing compe-
ence in hese dimensions equi es a balance
be ween us and dis us o ICT. In pa icula ,
we pu a lo o sensi i e in o ma ion (e.g., pe -
sonal da a, CV con en , copies o documen s)
in he digi al space and, in o de o keep ou
ac i i ies sa e, we need o ealis ically assess
he ICTs used o e i y he ools used.
The e o e, i has been assumed ha
ICT us posi i ely in luences he ca ee eadi-
ness o young adul s, which is a p e equisi e
o a success ul ansi ion om he educa ion
ma ke o he labou ma ke .
Gi en he lack o esea ch on dis us in his
con ex , he ques ions aised a e whe he and
how ICT dis us can be a eason o ca ee
exclusion and a ba ie o en y in o he la-
bou ma ke and whe he and how gende
de e mines speci ic pa e ns o he impac
o ICT us and dis us on ca ee eadiness.
This esea ch is pa o an inc easingly popula
end ela ed o elici ing alue-added ICT use
beha iou s aimed a inc easing p oduc i i y
and lea ning ou comes.
The es o he pape is s uc u ed as ol-
lows. The pape begins by p esen ing he issue
o ca ee eadiness. Nex , he pape del es
in o a ious s udies ela ed o us in ICT and
dis us in ICT. I hen conside s gende issues
in ela ion o ca ee eadiness, ICT and us .
The pape hen explains he me hodology, p es-
en s he esea ch esul s, discusses esea ch
limi a ions, and p o ides concluding ema ks
on he indings.
1. Theo e ical backg ound
1.1 Ca ee eadiness
E en be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, he wo k-
ing en i onmen was e y di icul o g adua es
en e ing he labou ma ke due o he eno mous
echnological a iabili y, u bulence, ou sou c-
ing p ac ices and emo e wo k (Mahmud e al.,
2022; Sholikah, 2021). In he pos -pandemic
pe iod, as a esul o , among o he hings, a eal
su ge in echnological changes, his p oblem is
e en g ea e . Resea ch has shown ha in o -
de o inc ease employabili y and he chances
o a success ul ca ee , i is impo an du -
ing one’s educa ion o acqui e ans e able
In o ma ion Managemen
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compe encies, which include c i ical hinking,
p oblem-sol ing, nego ia ion and decision
making (Mahmud e al., 2022). Digi al compe-
encies play an ins umen al ole wi h espec
o he ones men ioned abo e, bu , impo an ly,
hey a e also ans e able (Kowalczyk, 2022).
In addi ion, quali a i e esea ch conduc ed
in F ance shows ha a con ex ual ac o in
he o m o digi al ans o ma ion has an impac
on he in a- and in e -o ganiza ional ans e -
abili y o public sec o employees’ ca ee s (Culié
e al., 2021). The pe sonal need o con inuous
de elopmen has al eady become a s anda d
in p o essional unc ioning, and employe s and
aining companies inc easingly p epa e hei
p oposals o aining in digi al o ma ; hus,
i is di icul o lea n, ain, and de elop wi h-
ou digi al compe encies hese days. Al hough
young people o en ha e ex ensi e expe ience
in using echnology, his expe ience o en does
no ans e o he a ea o educa ion (Co in
e al., 2020). In he pandemic pe iod especially
highligh ed ha , digi al li e acy sho ages e-
sul ed in digi al exclusion om he labou ma -
ke , and his was due o en o ced echnological
changes which became i mly es ablished in
he wo ld o wo k: om job sea ching, h ough
pe o ming and imp o ing one’s wo k, o ecei -
ing emune a ion o i . Un o una ely, in Poland,
Romania, Bulga ia, Slo akia, Hunga y and Cy-
p us, he isk o digi al exclusion in 2020 was
10% highe han in o he EU coun ies. Se e al
easons o he digi al exclusion o employees
a e obse ed in en e p ises, he main ones be-
ing mo i a ional ba ie s (42%) and men al ba -
ie s (38%) (bo h ac o s being men ioned
join ly in 18% o cases), wi h o he esponses
including digi al illi e acy (30%), ma e ial ba i-
e s (18%), and no ba ie s (13%) (Laco a e al.,
2022). While i is ue ha young people s udy-
ing a uni e si ies in Poland a e mo e digi ally
compe en compa ed o he es o socie y, hei
le el o abo e-basic o e all digi al skills is com-
pa able o ha possessed by 55–64 yea s-old
esiden s o he Ne he lands, which has a lead-
ing posi ion in Eu ope in e ms o digi al li e acy
(Eu os a , 2023a).
Ca ee eadiness is de ined as use ul e-
sou ces in e ms o labou ma ke adap a ion
and willingness o unde ake asks and change
s a us (Sampson e al., 2013). Resea ch shows
ha ca ee eadiness is connec ed wi h ca ee
ma u i y, socioeconomic s a us, and one’s
psychological locus o con ol (Sholikah, 2021).
Ca ee eadiness is also dependen on he abil-
i y o make he igh decisions, which a ec ca-
ee de elopmen as well as a ange o amily,
economic, ma ke , and social condi ions. Along
wi h ca ee eadiness comes inc eased insigh
and adequa e assessmen o one’s abili ies, in-
e es s, and skills. Ca ee eadiness is os e ed
by a highe le el o co e sel -e alua ion and
ewe pe cei ed ba ie s, and i helps a pe son
ob ain knowledge abou he labou ma ke
and adjus hei educa ional choices acco d-
ingly (Sampson e al., 2013); on he o he hand,
a lowe le el o ca ee eadiness means a lowe
le el o occupa ional knowledge (Hi schi, 2011).
Acco ding o esea ch conduc ed in eigh
OECD coun ies, inancial ad an age, which
is ega ded as a measu e o ca ee success,
is in luenced by he ollowing (OECD, 2021a):
 Thinking abou he u u e, which consis s
o ca ee ce ain y ( he abili y o name
an expec ed occupa ion in adul hood);
ca ee ambi ion ( he expec a ion o wo k-
ing in a p o essional o manage ial ole;
ca ee alignmen ( he educa ional plans
o a s uden can ypically be ega ded as
app op ia e o en y o hei occupa ional
expec a ion); and ins umen al mo i a ion
owa ds school (a s uden is able o d aw
a connec ion be ween he educa ion hey
a e engaged in and a po en ial u u e
in wo k). In all he abo e-men ioned as-
pec s, he e is a s a is ically signi ican co -
ela ion wi h in e ne esea ch;
 Explo ing he u u e ( h ough ca ee con-
e sa ions wi h eache s; suppo om
amily membe s and iends; engaging wi h
people in wo k h ough ca ee alks o job
ai s; wo kplace isi s o job shadowing; ap-
plica ion and in e iew skills de elopmen
ac i i ies; occupa ionally- ocused sho p o-
g ammes);
 Expe iencing he u u e, e.g., h ough pa -
ime wo k (up o 10–15 hou s pe week)
and olun ee ing).
Shaping ca ee eadiness begins in he ea -
ly s ages o educa ion and is designed o a-
milia ize young people wi h he equi emen s
o he wo ld o wo k and suppo hem in explo -
ing and expe iencing hei chosen occupa ions.
Al hough he wo ld o wo k is inc easingly
digi al (including, e.g., emo e wo k, online e-
c ui men and selec ion, online eam communi-
ca ion, online sea ching and con en c ea ion)
and equi es ICT li e acy, i is also inhe en ly
In o ma ion Managemen
224 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
connec ed wi h unc ioning in he eal wo ld
(OECD, 2021b). I mus be emphasized ha
li e acy in using digi al ools enhances people’s
ca ee s, bu i does no ans e hei unc ioning
o an au onomous, i ual en i onmen .
In o de o imp o e ca ee eadiness e-
la ed o s uden s’ digi al li e acy, cu icula a e
being de eloped, such as a Flo ida Uni e -
si y, based on de eloping oppo uni ies wi hin
iden i ied a eas o a i icial in elligence li e acy
ega dless o s uden discipline. P epa ing
g adua es o add ess digi al challenges based
on digi al echnologies, including a i icial in el-
ligence (AI), suppo s he de elopmen o hei
p o essional po en ial and ensu es as e ad-
ap a ion o he challenges o he 21s cen u y
wo kplace (Sou hwo h e al., 2023). The e a e
nume ous examples o using AI in e e yday
li e – om sel -d i ing ca s o sma homes
and oice assis an s (Ng e al., 2021). Fo ex-
ample, abou 66,000 Alexa skills a e a ailable
in he US, bu only 33% o consume s hink
hey a e al eady using a ious AI pla o ms. I is
es ima ed ha 85 million jobs wo ldwide could
po en ially be eplaced by AI and o he au oma-
ion echnologies by 2025, and in elligen obo s
could eplace 30% o he human wo k o ce
globally by 2030 (Nick, 2023). An In e na ional
S anda d Classi ica ion o Occupa ions s udy
conduc ed in he US and Canada on egula ed
occupa ions shows ha hose wi h a u u e
(e.g., medical ca e, e e ina y ca e, IT suppo )
a e signi ican ly less h ea ened by au oma ion
han hose in decline (e.g., business, inance
and insu ance; anspo and ade; sales, o -
ice suppo and adminis a ion; p oduc ion),
whe e his h ea is signi ican (Mann e al.,
2020). I is he e o e impe a i e ha he p epa-
a ion o candida es o a ca ee in he la e
occupa ions should include he abili y o wo k
wi h machines and ICT li e acy. I is necessa y
o use AI in he cu iculum, which should be
suppo ed by enabling AI in di e en a eas;
helping s uden s o know and unde s and AI;
showing how o use and apply AI; c ea ing and
e alua ing AI; and emphasizing AI- ela ed e hi-
cal issues (Sou hwo h e al., 2023).
1.2 T us and dis us in ICT
The concep o us is di icul o de ine, as i is
a iously unde s ood wi hin he scien i ic disci-
plines explo ing i , i.e., psychology, sociology,
economics, managemen , poli ical science and
o he s (Lewicka & Zak zewska-Bielawska,
2020). Mos esea ch conside s us in in-
e pe sonal ela ionships, whe e one pa y is
he us o and he o he he us ee. Howe e ,
i is wo h no ing ha us ela es o a speci ic
con ex , e.g., o ganiza ional o online, and has
a speci ic scope (Ja enpaa e al., 2004). A pa y
o a us ela ionship is mos o en a pe son, bu
i can also be an ins i u ion, an in elligen de ice,
an objec ha pe o ms a unc ion, o a echnol-
ogy (Lewicka e al., 2017). O pa icula in e -
es seem o be conside a ions o us ela ed
o he eme gence o humanoid obo s, which a e
gi en a mechanical iden i y (Rakowska, 2021).
The concep o us is shi ing o an expand-
ing g oup o objec s, wi h he assump ion ha
a leas one pa y o his ela ionship is human.
Ob iously, his si ua ion aises many ques ions
and conce ns. The main one conce ns he ques-
ion o whe he and o wha ex en he ca ego y
o us can be applied o he ela ionship be-
ween a human being and a ma e ial objec . O h-
e ques ions conce n he an eceden s o us ,
i s ypes and i s consequences.
Technology us is a pa icula ype o us
in which an indi idual as a use places us
in echnology (Xu e al., 2014). P e ious de ini-
ions o echnological us emphasize he ol-
lowing aspec s o he ela ionship be ween
humans and echnology (Lee & See, 2004):
i) he expec a ion o help in achie ing goals,
i.e., usabili y o echnology; ii) he an icipa-
ion o eliabili y p edic abili y; he expec a ion
o e ec i eness and e iciency o de ices om
he pe spec i e o he c ea o s o he echnol-
ogy; and iii) a pa icula ype o ela ionship
cha ac e ized by unce ain y and ulne abili y.
Resea ch indica es ha he use ’s le el
o us in echnology in luences he s a egy o
i s use (Baghe i & Jamieson, 2004). A lack
o us in he echnology p ecludes i s ull use,
which can lead o a dec ease in p oduc i i y
and a ailu e o exploi oppo uni ies. The ocus
o echnology us is on he con ex o ICT. This
is because people ely on hem o an unp ec-
eden ed deg ee and he digi al en i onmen is
highly unce ain and isky. In e es ing esea ch
con ex s ela ed o ou esea ch a e: us in on-
line communica ion (Benlian & Hess, 2011),
us in go e nmen websi es (Teo e al., 2008),
us in so wa e (Lank on e al., 2014), cloud
se ices ( an de We e al., 2019), cha box
se ice (Balak ishnan & Dwi edi, 2021).
A us cons uc comp ising h ee dimen-
sions is mos used o examine echnological
In o ma ion Managemen
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us (Lank on e al., 2014): i) unc ionali y,
he deg ee o which an indi idual belie es ha
a sys em o i s componen s ha e he necessa y
unc ions o accomplish speci ic asks o goals;
ii) eliabili y, he deg ee o which he indi idual
belie es ha he echnology will con inuously
pe o m co ec ly, consis en ly and lawlessly;
and iii) help ulness, he deg ee o which he in-
di idual belie es ha he echnology will p o ide
adequa e and esponsi e assis ance.
I should be no ed ha hese dimensions
a ose om he adap a ion by analogy o he gen-
e ally accep ed dimensions o in e pe sonal us ,
i.e., compe ence, bene olence and in eg i y o
he pu pose o us in echnology. We canno
a ibu e compe ence o ICT, bu only o unc-
ionali ies ha help people o achie e hei goals.
Technical sys ems can show hei eliabili y
by p o iding unc ionali y acco ding o designed
capabili ies, consis en ly and con inuously.
Technology canno show bene olence,
bu i can espond o he needs and expec a-
ions o use s and hus p o ide suppo and
assis ance o hem. T us in echnology is
also de e mined by indi idual ac o s such
as p opensi y o us , gende , and cul u al
ac o s. I is also linked o he o ganiza ional
con ex wi h which he use o he echnology
is associa ed. The o ganiza ional con ex se s
he amewo k using he ins i u ional dimen-
sions o s uc u al con idence and si ua ional
no mali y, which in luence he ex en o us
in a gi en echnology (Ejdys, 2018).
T us is a posi i e men al s a e ha implies
a posi i e expec a ion o a pa ne o objec ,
which allows one o cope wi h unce ain y abou
he su ounding wo ld. I helps o ac o o e-
spond o a ious ypes o unce ain si ua ions
o e en s. Mos de ini ions o us indica e ha ,
despi e posi i e expec a ions, he indi idual is
awa e o he possible nega i e consequences
o us ing. T us is, he e o e, accompanied
by dis us . The ques ion o whe he us and
dis us a e opposing phenomena in one dimen-
sion o whe he hei ela ionship is mo e com-
plex has a ac ed he a en ion o esea che s
(Cho, 2006). Ini ially, hese ela ionships we e
desc ibed as opposing s a es loca ed a wo
opposi e ends o a single con inuum. In con-
as o us , whe e posi i e conno a ions a e
assumed, dis us was unde s ood as a nega-
i e expec a ion esul ing om he a ibu ion
o nega i e in en ions o a pe son o objec ,
linked o isk and he possibili y o ha m.
Al hough us and dis us a e de ined
by schola s in di e en ways, i is cu en ly
accep ed ha hey a e ela ed bu dis inc and
sepa a e cons uc s. Tha is, lack o us is no
necessa ily associa ed wi h high dis us and low
dis us wi h high us . Howe e , linking he wo
cons uc s implies ha hey in luence each
o he o some ex en , e.g., a dec ease in dis-
us may ha e posi i e consequences o us ,
while on he o he hand, a high le el o dis us
is likely o be a symp om o low us in he e-
la ionship (Lewicka & Zak zewska-Bielawska,
2022). Resea che s leaning owa ds his iew
no e ha loss o us is no always associ-
a ed wi h he de elopmen o dis us . They
emphasize ha dis us can be educed wi hou
inducing us and ice e sa (Ullman-Ma gali ,
2004). A g owing g oup o esea che s also
indica e ha dis us p o ec s indi iduals om
he nega i e consequences o ela ionships
(Bewsell, 2012). I causes indi iduals o ake
p o ec i e measu es and o check he conse-
quences o he unc ionali ies o e ed. Dis us
e e s o ce ain nega i e expec a ions o hings
ha a e ea ed. I can also be de ined as an un-
willingness o be ulne able because o an ex-
pec ed iola ion (Komiak & Benbasa , 2008).
Dis us de ines a si ua ion as one in which
we need o p o ec ou sel es and inc ease ou
igilance. In his sense, i is a con ol mecha-
nism ha signals isk and educes unce ain y
(McKnigh & Che any, 2001). In his s a e,
one ac o has no eason o us he o he and
has many easons o be cau ious and igilan .
Dis us can be conside ed as a men al s a e,
a belie and eeling, and as a beha iou (Bew-
sell, 2012).
Based on he dimensions conce ning
in e pe sonal dis us ollowing McKnigh and
Che any (2001), he dimensions o dis us
as a belie can be dis inguished: i) dis us ing
belie compe ence/ unc ional belie , based on
he belie ha he echnology will no mee ex-
pec a ions ega ding i s unc ionali y; ii) dis us -
ing belie p edic abili y, based on he belie ha
he echnology will no be equally e icien and
will no gua an ee he expec ed s anda dized
le el o se ice quali y o e ime; and iii) dis-
us ing belie bene olence/help ulness based
on he belie ha he echnology is no able
o sa is y he needs o a gi en use , e.g., he ex-
pec ed le el o secu i y, gua an ee o p i acy.
In u n, dis us as a beha iou may include
beha iou s aimed a educing pe cei ed isks,

In o ma ion Managemen
226 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
e.g., wi hd awal o eliance on echnology and,
in se e e cases, a oidance o echnology use.
The Edelman T us Ba ome e indica es
ha al hough us in he echnology sec o
emains high, he e is g owing conce n abou
he e ec s o apid echnological de elopmen
and dynamic change, pa icula ly among people
in economically weake coun ies. Annual e-
po s indica e ha people a ound he wo ld a e
becoming inc easingly dis us ul o he wo ld
a ound hem, including ins i u ions. Among
he ac o s causing dis us a e many ha a e
ela ed o echnology. Many esponden s ex-
p ess conce n abou he u u e o wo k. These
conce ns a e gene a ed by ac o s ela ed
o echnology, au oma ion, he gig economy
and he need o e ain om and lea n new
skills. Fu he mo e, 73% o global esponden s
wo y abou hei da a p i acy, 60% ag ee ha
he use o echnology o eplace human wo k-
e s will inc ease income inequali y, 65% ea
ha echnology will make i impossible o know
i wha people a e seeing o hea ing is eal.
The abo e da a poin s o he need o inc eased
esea ch on dis us o echnology.
1.3 Gende issues wi h ega d o ca ee
eadiness, ICT and us
Resea che s’ iews on ca ee eadiness be-
ween women and men a e no homogenous.
The esea ch did no ob ain conclusi e esul s.
On he one hand, men mani es highe le els
o ca ee eadiness h ough ca ee decision
sel -e icacy and con idence in abili ies, while
women iden i y mo e wi h hei ca ee iden-
i y. Women pe cei e mo e ba ie s and expe-
ience mo e ole con lic . On he o he hand,
some s udies (including me a-analyses) ha e
no shown ha gende is a ac o in luencing
ca ee sel -e icacy decisions. This sugges s
he indi ec ela ionship be ween gende and
ca ee eadiness is media ed o mode a ed
by o he ac o s (Pa ie i e al., 2016). Fu he -
mo e, ca ee choices, educa ion and ca ee
explo a ion a e s ongly ma ked by di ec and
indi ec social in luences (Ikonen e al., 2020).
Al eady, boys’ ea ly choice o a “ma h ack”
based educa ional pa hway co ela es wi h
hei g ea e p opensi y o compe e and makes
hem mo e p i ileged in hei ca ee pa hway,
compa ed o gi ls choosing a “li e a u e ack”
(Buse e al., 2012).
The esul s o s udies on gende di e ences
wi h ega d o ICT li e acy a e inconclusi e, bu
in hose based on sel -assessmen , highe
compe encies o male s uden s a e o en appa -
en (Siddiq & Sche e , 2019). This is pa ly due
o men’s o e es ima ion o hei compe encies
and he ha she sel -assessmen o women,
who addi ionally eel ha he e is a cul u al ac-
cep ance o hei lack o compe encies in his
a ea (Kowalczyk, 2022). Women a e also cha -
ac e ized by a g ea e ea o ICT, which is no ,
as is he case wi h men, modi ied by expe ience
(B oos, 2005). In con as , ex ensi e esea ch
based on me a-analysis in which ICT li e acy
was measu ed h ough pe o mance-based as-
sessmen s showed ha emale s uden s ha e
highe le els o i . While his e ec is ela i ely
small, i canno be igno ed (Siddiq & Sche e ,
2019). Gende di e ences also ela e o he ex-
en o sel -exp ession. Women exp ess hem-
sel es in digi al media h ough blogs abou hei
li es (e.g., s yle, amily), while men w i e mo e
abou p o essional o echnical issues. This
g ea e endency o women o sel -exp ess
may be explained by he ac ha hey (like
blogge s and logge s in gene al) end o ha e
highe le els o neu o icism and highe (in ela-
ion o people in gene al) le els o ex a e sion
(Okdie & Rempala, 2020). Also, s e eo ypes
play an impo an ole in gende di e ences
as hey can help explain bo h beha iou s and
decla a ions ela ing o ICT and ca ee choices.
Desc ip i e gende s e eo ypes desc ibe wha
women like and wha men like, while p esc ip-
i e gende s e eo ypes desc ibe wha each
gende should like (Heilman & Pa ks-S amm,
2007). I is gende s e eo ypes ha , a leas
o some ex en , in luence women’s less e-
quen choice o IT ca ee s and hei lowe
in e es in echnology (Luxo Poland, 2023),
as well as g ea e social accep ance o gaps
in hei digi al compe encies (Raluca & Phillips,
2022). Mo eo e , women who escape such
s e eo ypes equen ly ha e o ace nega i e
social e alua ion.
The esul s o s udies on gende di e -
ences in us a e also no conclusi e. This is
due o he mul iplici y o s udy con ex s and
ac o s ha may in luence he esul s, such as
social con ex , no ms, socie al s uc u e and
gende oles. Expe imen al esea ch on gen-
de di e ences in us p o ides mixed esul s
(Mukhe jee, 2020). Some indica e ha men a e
mo e us ing han women (Wu e al., 2020),
while o he s udies (Bellema e & K öge , 2007)
ind ha women a e mo e us ing han men.
In o ma ion Managemen
227
2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
Some s udies poin o ac o s ha demons a e
he con ex ualiza ion o gende us , such as
social dis ance, payou le el, gende di e si y,
o lack he eo in he dyads s udied (Mukhe -
jee, 2020). Resea che s in his a ea con i m
ha gende con ex is wo h unde aking
in us esea ch because o he p ac ical im-
plica ions o , among o he hings, social policy
educa ion and managemen .
2. Resea ch me hodology
Despi e he inc easing impo ance o ICT
in e e yday li e and he economy, he s a e
o esea ch on us and dis us in ICT is s ill
unsa is ac o y. The e o e, he ollowing objec-
i es we e se in his s udy: o de e mine he im-
pac o us and dis us in ICT on he ca ee
eadiness o he s uden s su eyed and o iden-
i y gende di e ences in he impac o us and
dis us on ca ee eadiness. Th ee esea ch
ques ions we e he e o e posed:
RQ1: Whe he and how does ICT us in lu-
ence ca ee eadiness?
RQ2: Whe he and how does ICT dis us
in luence ca ee eadiness?
RQ3: Is he p esumed ela ionship be ween
ICT us and ICT dis us de e mined by gende ?
2.1 Tools
Ca ee eadiness was measu ed using he ca-
ee eadiness scale de eloped by Bańka
(2015), which consis ed o 15 i ems g ouped
in o h ee ac o s using ac o analysis. This
scale was de eloped in acco dance wi h
he con ex ual app oach, and i examines
he in ensi y o beha iou s enabling a smoo h
ansi ion om he educa ion ma ke o he la-
bou ma ke . In o he wo ds, i examines a pe -
son’s eadiness o change hei dominan ole
om ha o a s uden o ha o an employee.
I ems o ming his scale, due o he dynam-
ics o changes – gene a ional, echnological,
and caused by he pandemic – ha ha e aken
place in he labou ma ke ha e been subjec ed
o he p incipal componen s ac o me hod which
was used o analyze and unco e he unde ly-
ing s uc u e o he da a. To in e p e he ac o s
ha a e conside ed ele an , an o hogonal
a imax o a ion o he loading ma ix was pe -
o med, and he i ems we e so ed (Abdi, 2003).
All o he i ems o he ca ee eadiness scale
we e loaded on o h ee componen s, like in
he ea lie e sion o he es (Tab. 1). How-
e e , he s uc u e o he ac o s was sligh ly
di e en . The ollowing h ee dimensions we e
dis inguished: de e mina ion (7 i ems), ela ing
o cou age and pe se e ance in pu sui o a ca-
ee ; sac i ice (3 i ems), ela ing o willingness
o make sac i ices and accep ance o being
disc imina ed agains in he labou ma ke ; and
engagemen (5 i ems), ela ing o b a e y and
pe cei ing he ca ee as he main li e alue.
The same me hod was used o analyze is-
sues o us and dis us . The s udy was able
o ex ac a single componen o ICT us , which
includes six i ems ela ed o he dimensions ex-
ac ed om he li e a u e e iew (Lank on e al.,
2014), i.e., unc ionali y, help ulness, eliabili y,
I ems Loadings Communali ies MSA
Ca ee eadiness – de e mina ion
(Eigen alue 5.452; % o a iance 36.35; C onbach’s alpha 0.862; KMO 0.864; Ba le es sig. 0.000)
I know ha he e will always be someone who will know mo e
han me, bu I s ill belie e ha i is no wo h pos poning
he ca ee o you d eams un il you gain mo e expe ience 0.774 0.621 0.846
I belie e ha e e yone should igh o hei posi ion in
he labou ma ke 0.768 0.614 0.891
I belie e ha anyone who wan s hei p o essional ca ee
o con inue o de elop should no hesi a e i i is a good ime
o ake i up
0.756 0.585 0.897
I ealize ha he e is a lo o compe i ion in he job ma ke ,
so I belie e i is impo an o ge in ol ed in a ca ee as ea ly
as possible
0.754 0.582 0.871
Tab. 1: PCA esul s on ca ee eadiness dimension – Pa 1
In o ma ion Managemen
228 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
help ulness and enjoymen o ICT (e.g., Using
ICT makes me ha e mo e ee ime; o ICT is
becoming mo e use iendly (in ui i e)).
Based on li e a u e sou ces, a scale was c e-
a ed o measu e dis us in ICT (Komiak & Ben-
basa , 2008; Lewicka & Zak zewska-Bielawska,
2022; McKnigh & Che any, 2001). In he case
o ICT dis us , i e componen s we e c ea ed
(Tab. 2): ha m ul ICT (e.g., I am a aid ha
ICTs can be used o peep a and ea esd op
on people); digi al anxie y (e.g., I p e e o limi
my use o ICTs o ea o being chea ed/exploi -
ed); digi al Illi e acy (e.g., I y o a oid chang-
ing communica ion de ices (such as mobile
phones, able s) because o he accompanying
s ess); human-ICT compe i ion (e.g., I ea
ICT will make humans no longe necessa y o
ce ain jobs); and ICT scep icism (e.g., The e
a e signi ican isks in using ICT). Th ee i ems
om ICT dis us ha did no load on he app o-
p ia e componen we e emo ed. Responses
we e gi en using a 7-poin Like - ype scale,
whe e 1 mean s ongly disag ee and 7 mean
s ongly ag ee.
C onbach’s alpha coe icien was used
o assess he eliabili y o he indi idual scales.
Thei alues exceeding 0.7 we e conside ed
as accep able (Tabe , 2018). Fo he o e all
I ems Loadings Communali ies MSA
When expanding ca ee oppo uni ies is a s ake, I am
eady o inc ease my e o s in he ield o in e es , e en a
he expense o my ee ime 0.640 0.596 0.908
The oppo uni y o make a ca ee is an impo an li e goal ha
I canno gi e up 0.622 0.606 0.891
My desi e o pu sue a wo hwhile ca ee is so s ong ha
he e a e a ew ac o s ha could de e me om his in en ion 0.604 0.605 0.871
Ca ee eadiness – engagemen
(Eigen alue 2.482; % o a iance 16.55; C onbach’s alpha 0.804; KMO 0.834; Ba le es sig. 0.000)
In o de o mee he condi ions o s a ing and con inuing
he ca ee I am in e es ed in, I am eady o wo k o some
ime, e en o a e y low sala y 0.757 0.610 0.893
In o de o ealize my ca ee plans, I am eady o pos pone
he momen o ge ing ma ied un il my ca ee s abilizes 0.738 0.573 0.889
Fo an a ac i e ca ee , I am eady o pe se e e e en i my
lo ed ones do no accep i 0.710 0.566 0.908
Fo an a ac i e ca ee , I am eady o gi e up s abili y o
a longe pe iod o ime, such as buying my own apa men 0.710 0.600 0.917
Fo an a ac i e ca ee , I am eady o gi e up social and
cul u al en e ainmen o a long ime 0.608 0.384 0.907
Ca ee eadiness – sac i ice
(Eigen alue 1.016; % o a iance 6.77; C onbach’s alpha 0.707; KMO 0.671; Ba le es sig. 0.000)
I would a he li e wi h he cons an psychological isk o wo k
han be s uck in po e y 0.742 0.602 0.924
I am willing o sac i ice my pe sonal and amily li e o a while
o gain p ospec s o a wo hwhile ca ee 0.604 0.641 0.912
Fo a good ca ee , I am willing o endu e a ious isks,
such as he isk o being ea ed badly a wo k 0.530 0.565 0.890
No e: Ex ac ion me hod – p incipal componen analysis; o a ion me hod – a imax; loadings below 0.53 a e no p e-
sen ed; McDonald’s omega 0.873.
Sou ce: own
Tab. 1: PCA esul s on ca ee eadiness dimension – Pa 2
In o ma ion Managemen
229
2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
es , McDonald’s omega coe icien s we e
de e mined, i s alue being accep able (Hayes
& Cou s, 2020). The Kaise -Meye -Olkin
(KMO) es measu es he common a iance
be ween he componen s. The KMO alue
be ween 0.8 and 1.0 indica es ha he sample
is adequa e. KMO alues be ween 0.7 and 0.79
a e a e age, 0.6 and 0.69 a e medium (Sh es-
ha, 2021). The Ba le es o sphe ici y checks
whe he a iables a e in e co ela ed. When
I ems Loadings Communali ies MSA
ICT dis us – ha m ul ICT
(Eigen alue 7.839; % o a iance 34.08; C onbach’s alpha 0.876; KMO 0.887; Ba le es sig. 0.000)
I am conce ned ha ICT is being used o manipula e people 0.829 0.728 0.901
I am conce ned ha ICT can be used o spy and ea esd op
on people 0.814 0.719 0.897
ICT con ibu es o addic ion 0.733 0.604 0.935
I am conce ned ha ICT can be used o damage
someone’s image 0.708 0.571 0.946
I am conce ned ha ICT is signi ican ly changing he way
we li e 0.655 0.655 0.928
ICT dis ac s people om eal p oblems in he wo ld 0.629 0.570 0.958
ICT dis us – digi al anxie y
(Eigen alue 2.994; % o a iance 13.02; C onbach’s alpha 0.851; KMO 0.856; Ba le es sig. 0.000)
I am a aid my supe io s use ICT o con ol wha I do 0.784 0.671 0.928
I am e y conce ned ha someone is using echnology o spy
and ea esd op on e e y hing I do 0.774 0.717 0.913
I am a aid o websi es like Google, Yahoo, and Bing because
hey migh allow o he people o hu me 0.725 0.692 0.926
I am a aid ha obo s may ake o e he wo ld 0.679 0.645 0.929
I p e e o limi he use o ICT o ea o being chea ed/used 0.597 0.655 0.945
ICT dis us – digi al illi e acy
(Eigen alue 1.656; % o a iance 7.20; C onbach’s alpha 0.793; KMO 0.693; Ba le es sig. 0.000)
I y o a oid changing communica ion de ices (such as
mobile phone, able ) because o he s ess in ol ed 0.822 0.742 0.888
I eel anxious when I ha e o lea n a new ope a ing sys em
on my compu e (e.g., changing om Windows 7 o 8
o Windows 10) 0.816 0.725 0.892
I I need o use he new ICT, I eel anxious ha I will no be
able o ul il my asks as planned 0.649 0.632 0.943
ICT dis us – human-ICT compe i ion
(Eigen alue 1.095; % o a iance 4.76; C onbach’s alpha 0.806; KMO 0.659; Ba le es sig. 0.000)
I ea ha , hanks o he de elopmen o ICT, many people
will lose hei jobs 0.836 0.792 0.858
I am a aid ha ICT will make a human no longe necessa y
in some p o essions 0.795 0.769 0.861
ICT secu i y is no enough o make me eel sa e using
his echnology 0.600 0.639 0.936
Tab. 2: Resul s o PCA on ICT us and dis us dimensions – Pa 1
In o ma ion Managemen
236 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013
– e.g., echnophobia and echnophilia, cha -
ac e ized by inadequa e esponse o digi al
s imuli, digi al well-being o he unc ioning
o an o ganiza ion whe e digi al solu ions a e
in oduced in pe sonnel managemen .
The au ho s also see po en ial in he ap-
plica ion o esea ch me hods and p ocedu es
in ol ing he use o expe imen s, including
hose conduc ed in augmen ed eali y and
longi udinal s udies gi ing he possibili y o as-
sess he change in us o e ime depending
on a se o a iables, e.g., expe ience o use.
In he applica ion dimension, esea ch
on ICT us and dis us can be used o design
new echnological solu ions so ha hey induce
he desi ed a i udes owa ds ICT in use s,
p epa a ion o p og ammes o p omo e ICT so-
lu ions among g oups cha ac e ized by dis us
owa ds digi al echnologies o p epa a ion
o me hods and wo kshops o b idge he digi al
gap and p e en digi al exclusion.
Acknowledgmen s: The p ojec inanced wi hin
he Regional Ini ia i e o Excellence P og amme
o he Minis e o Science and Highe Educa ion
o Poland, yea s 2019–2023, g an No. 004/
RID/2018/19, inancing 3,000,000 PLN and
suppo ed by unds g an ed by he Minis e o
Science o he Republic o Poland unde he
“Regional Ini ia i e o Excellence” P og amme
o he implemen a ion o he p ojec “The Poznań
Uni e si y o Economics and Business o Eco-
no my 5.0: Regional Ini ia i e – Global E ec s
(RIGE).” Publica ion inanced by he sub en ion o
main enance and de elopmen o esea ch po en-
ial o AGH Uni e si y o Science and Technology.
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