1
The Mul ilingual Tu n in P agma ics: Is he Use o Hedges and A i ude
Ma ke s Sha ed Ac oss Languages in T ilingual W i ing?
Abs ac
In he Valencian Communi y in Spain, he coexis ence o Spanish and Ca alan as co-
o icial languages and English as a o eign language, which is lea n as a hi d language
(L3), shapes a unique mul ilingual se ing. This s udy examined he ex en o which
mul ilingual lea ne s’ use o wo in e pe sonal p agma ic ma ke s (PMs), i.e., hedges
(e.g., I belie e) and a i ude ma ke s (e.g., o una ely), is ela ed ac oss languages and
whe he he ela ionship changes o e ime. Pa icipan s we e 313 Spanish-Ca alan
bilingual high school lea ne s o L3 English. They w o e h ee opinion essays o e one
academic yea in he h ee languages o ins uc ion: Spanish, Ca alan, and English.
Quan i a i e esul s e ealed a end owa ds s onge co ela ions o e ime in bo h
PMs. A Time 3, co ela ions we e s a is ically signi ican o all language pai s in
hedges and o wo language pai s in a i ude ma ke s (Spanish and Ca alan, Spanish
and English). Quali a i e analyses o he lea ne s’ essays lend suppo o hese esul s
and show ans e a he ph ase and discou se-le el.
Keywo ds: mul ilingual u n; p agma ic ma ke s; me adiscou se; L3
p agma ics; p agma ic ans e ; mul ilingual p agma ics
1. INTRODUCTION
Globaliza ion has made isible he di e si y o lea ning con ex s in language
educa ion nowadays. In pa allel wi h he ecen end o using English as he lingua
anca (ELF) in educa ional se ings, he e has been a desi e o main ain and espec
linguis ic and cul u al di e si y. Fo example, Eu ope p esen s a ich linguis ic con ex
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in which ELF coexis s wi h egional and mino i y languages in educa ion. In his
ega d, lea ne s a e expec ed o achie e success ul communica ion in all he languages
a ailable in hei linguis ic epe oi e. This in ol es de eloping linguis ic compe ence
in mul iple languages, including compe ence in p agma ics. Since esea ch has shown
ha di e en lea ning con ex s p o ide di e en oppo uni ies o p agma ics lea ning
(Ma ín-Laguna, 2019; Taguchi, 2012), i is c i ical o ocus on he po en ial o a
mul ilingual class oom.
The goal o p agma ics lea ning o mul ilinguals needs o be econcep ualized
in he cu en e a. T adi ionally, he end goal o p agma ics lea ning is se o become
na i e-like in compe ence. A common p ac ice in L2 p agma ics esea ch has been o
d aw conclusions abou L2 p agma ic compe ence based on a compa ison o L2
lea ne s’ p agma ics pe o mance wi h ha o L1 speake s (Taguchi & Roe e , 2017).
Howe e , in a mul ilingual con ex , he line be ween L1 and L2 speake s is no always
clea -cu because people g ow up speaking mul iple languages simul aneously and hey
de elop a hyb id compe ence. Hence, he goal o p agma ics lea ning among
mul ilinguals has shi ed om being a na i e speake o being a ‘mul icompe en use ’
who can communica e using all he linguis ic esou ces a ailable o hem (Cook, 1991;
Cook & Wei, 2016).
When p epa ing lea ne s o success ul communica ion in he globalized wo ld,
one a ea o conside is how o p epa e hem o echnology-media ed communica ion
(see González-Llo e & O ega, 2014; and Taguchi & Sykes, 2013). The inc eased use
o new echnologies wi h ools such as e-mail and ins an messaging necessi a es
aining lea ne s o be p agma ically compe en no only in o al, bu also in w i en
communica ion. Hence, p agma ic ma ke s ha occu equen ly in w i ing a e an
impo an a ea o aining. P agma ic ma ke s (PMs) a e de ined as a ype o linguis ic
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esou ce ha w i e s can use o p esen s ance, exp ess eelings and commi men
owa ds p oposi ions, and pe suade o he s in logical cons uc ions (G ay & Bibe , 2014;
Hyland, 2005).
Ma ín-Laguna and Alcón-Sole ’s (2018) s udy on Spanish, Ca alan, and English
w i e s analyzed how he lea ning o in e pe sonal PMs de elops o e ime, while
Ma ín-Laguna (2020) ocused on he ans e o in e pe sonal PMs ac oss languages.
As a ollow-up in es iga ion o hese wo s udies, he p esen s udy examines he
ela ionship in mul ilinguals’ use o in e pe sonal PMs (i.e., hedges and a i ude
ma ke s) and whe he he ela ionship changes o e ime. In doing so, his s udy adop s
a mul ilingual u n pe spec i e (O ega, 2013, 2014, 2019) o he s udy o p agma ics
lea ning, conside ing mul ilingual lea ne s as mul icompe en use s o he languages in
which hey ecei e o mal educa ion in he school con ex .
2. THE MULTILINGUAL TURN IN SLA RESEARCH
As Cenoz and Go e (2011) poin ed ou , un il he la e 1980s, SLA and
bilingualism esea ch sha ed h ee common p ac ices. Fi s , only one o wo languages
we e usually analyzed as he languages o acquisi ion. In ac , in SLA esea ch, i is
adi ionally assumed ha he only language o be examined is he language being lea n
o he L2 (O ega, 2019). As a esul , he ole o any addi ionally acqui ed languages is
gene ally no conside ed. The second common p ac ice is ha he so-called ‘na i e
speake no m’ has se ed as he model agains which L2 linguis ic compe ence is
measu ed. In his p ac ice, knowing a language om bi h g an s a supe io compe ence
han in any o he language ha may be de eloped o e li e (O ega, 2019). The hi d
common p ac ice is he lack o conce n owa d he in e ac ion among languages in he
mul ilingual’s epe oi e, he eby es ablishing ‘ha d bounda ies’ among languages
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(Cenoz & Go e , 2011, 2013). This sepa a ion among languages has also been
encou aged in educa ion, whe e one eache and one syllabus ha e been associa ed wi h
one language in he school cu iculum. These common p ac ices show ha
‘monolingual i s language acquisi ion’ has been aken as he poin o e e ence
wi hou conside ing he in luence o o he languages in he lea ne s’ epe oi e in he
p ocess o addi ional language lea ning.
In ac , SLA schola s ha e long ques ioned he so-called ‘monolingual bias and
na i espeake ism’ (O ega, 2019, p. 24). One o he ea ly c i iques o monolingual bias
comes om Cook’s idea o mul icompe ence (Cook, 1991; Cook & Wei, 2016).
Acco ding o Cook (1991), mul ilinguals possess a unique compe ence called
mul icompe ence which in ol es a dis inc s a e o mind ha is no he sum o
monolinguals; hei compe ence is a he seen as a whole in which di e en a eas
among languages a e closely ela ed o each o he in one pe son. D awing on Cook’s
claim, esea che s ha e ecen ly pu sued al e na i e app oaches o monolingual esea ch
ha ha e been known as he mul ilingual u n (O ega, 2013, 2014, 2019; see also
Cenoz & Go e , 2015a). Resea che s unde he mul ilingual u n emphasize adop ing a
holis ic pe spec i e in language lea ning (Cenoz & Go e , 2011, 2015b; He dina &
Jessne , 2002).
The mul ilingual u n has been adop ed in di e se a eas o second language
acquisi ion econcep ualizing he no ion o ans e (see Cook & Wei, 2016). Fo a long
ime, ans e in SLA was associa ed wi h beha iou ism in L2 lea ning, and
cha ac e ized as nega i e in e e ence (Wein eich, 1953). Nega i e ans e was
conside ed o accoun o L2 e o s, while posi i e ans e acili a ed he acquisi ion o
L2 o ms (Selinke , 1969). Howe e , mo e ecen ly, he e has been a change o
pe spec i e in he iew o he ole o ans e as a acili a o and as a hyb id compe ence
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in mul ilinguals. Back in he 1980s, Kelle man and Sha wood Smi h (1986) a gued ha
he e m ‘ ans e ’ was inadequa e and p oposed he e m c oss-linguis ic in luence as a
supe o dina e heo y-neu al e m o e e o he in e play be ween ea lie and la e
acqui ed languages i espec i e o he di ec ion. Ne e heless, bo h e ms, i.e. language
ans e and c oss-linguis ic in luence, a e no mally used in e changeably o e e o he
same phenomenon.
Since ans e o c oss-linguis ic in luence can include mu ual in luence, i.e., no
only he in luence o he L1 on he L2, bu also he in luence o he L2 on he L1, i is
o en e med bidi ec ional ans e (e.g. Pa lenko and Ja is, 2002). Simila ly, He dina
and Jessne (2002) p oposed he concep c oss-linguis ic in e ac ion o emphasize he
dynamic in e ac ion be ween language sys ems in mul ilinguals. While mos esea ch is
conce ned wi h L1 and L2 in luence, ans e is also p esen in con ex s in ol ing an L3
(De Angelis, 2007). Hence, in his pape , I will use he e m mul ilingual ans e .
Cenoz and Go e (2011) p opose adop ing he Focus on Mul ilingualism app oach
bo h in esea ch and eaching o so en he bounda ies be ween languages. Focus on
Mul ilingualism is cha ac e ized by h ee dimensions: a ocus on he mul ilingual
speake , a ocus on he whole linguis ic epe oi e, and a ocus on he con ex . This
pape ocuses on he linguis ic epe oi e, which emphasizes he need o look a
mul ilinguals’ whole linguis ic epe oi e in con as o adi ional app oaches in which
languages a e conside ed sepa a ely (Cenoz & Go e , 2011). In pa icula , his a icle
conside s he languages in which lea ne s a e li e a e ollowing he seconda y school
cu iculum in he Valencian Communi y in Spain, i.e., Spanish, Ca alan and English.
Mos s udies in w i ing ha e analyzed he L1-L2 ela ionship (e.g., Fo bes, 2020;
Kobayashi & Rinne , 2008, 2012; Rinne , Kobayashi & Ka ayama, 2015), and only a
ew ha e aken in o accoun he L3 (e.g., Cenoz & Go e , 2011; De Angelis & Jessne ,

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2012; Kobayashi & Rinne , 2013a, 2013b). Rega dless o he pe spec i e aken,
esea ch has shown ha L1, L2, and, i so, L3 w i ing knowledge is closely in e ela ed
wi h w i ing in o he languages, pa icula ly he knowledge o common ex ea u es,
such as discou se ma ke s and s a egies o p esen ing a coun e a gumen (see
Kobayashi and Rinne , 2013c o a discussion). Such o e lap ends o g ow s onge as
w i ing knowledge expands and de elops o e ime (e.g. Kobayashi & Rinne , 2008),
al hough lea ne s also gain in con ol o hei use o language-speci ic ea u es o mee
he expec a ions o a pa icula audience o con ex (Kobayashi & Rinne , 2012, 2013b;
Rinne e al., 2015). Fo example, Kobayashi and Rinne (2013b) analyzed a
mul ilingual w i e ’s ex s longi udinally. Ini ially, he pa icipan pe cei ed L1
Japanese and L2 English as being en i ely di e en , which was shown in he use o
di e en discou se s uc u es in Japanese and English. Howe e , L2 w i ing ins uc ion
and sel -di ec ed w i ing p ac ice p omp ed a change o pe spec i e, esul ing in me ged
L1 and L2 w i ing knowledge, which was la e applied o he L3 Chinese. While
mul ilingual ans e o discou se ea u es was obse ed among he L1, L2 and L3, he
pa icipan also main ained some language-speci ic ea u es, such as less equen use o
Japanese discou se ma ke s, conside ing audience needs in Japanese.
Nume ous ac o s a e conside ed o a ec ans e and ans e abili y (see Ja is &
Pa lenko, 2008, pp. 174-210 o a de ailed accoun o ac o s). Fo example, he
seminal wo k by Ringbom (2007) showed ha ypological simila i ies be ween Swedish
and English, being bo h Ge manic languages, in con as o Finnish, which is a non-
Indo-Eu opean language, p omo ed posi i e ans e om Swedish o English. Thus,
ha ing Swedish as L1 was ad an ageous o L2 English lea ne s when lea ning English
ocabula y, p onuncia ion, and g amma as compa ed o ha ing L1 Finnish.
Howe e , Cenoz and Go e (2011) ound ha ans e in w i ing occu s e en in
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ypologically di e en languages such as Basque (non-Indo-Eu opean language o
unknown o igin), Spanish (Romance language) and English (Ge manic language). The
pa icipan s in hei s udy had Basque and/o Spanish as hei L1 and lea n English as
L3. They we e asked o w i e h ee composi ions desc ibing a pic u e in each o hei
languages. The esul s indica ed ha , excep o he sco e on he dimension o
“o ganiza ion,” sco es in o he w i ing dimensions (con en , s uc u e, ocabula y,
g amma , and mechanics) signi ican ly co ela ed ac oss languages.
On he issue o mul ilingual ans e , Ja is (2016) a gues ha lea ne s may ha e
di e en belie s abou how di e en languages wo k. Alonso (2020) also highligh s ha
lea ne s’ indi idual cha ac e is ics may in luence ans e abili y. Speci ically, Rinne e
al. (2015) ha e emphasized ha w i e s’ agency is c ucial in ans e . When applying
p io w i ing knowledge o a new he o ical con ex , w i e s adap hei amilia w i ing
knowledge o mee he pe cei ed expec a ions o he new audience.
E idence o w i e s’ agen ic ole in ans e was ound in L2 Japanese w i e s’
equen use o hedging de ices o so en hei asse ions compa ed wi h in hei L1
English essays (Rinne e al., 2015). Rinne e al. (2015) also ound ha ans e o
amilia ex ea u es ac oss languages was in luenced by w i ing ins uc ion and
p ac ice in he languages in ol ed. Thei case analyses showed ha knowledge abou
L1 English w i ing con en ions, epea ed p ac ice, and explici eaching o euse L1
English ex ea u es when w i ing in L2 Japanese p omo ed he use o nea ly iden ical
ex ea u es in L1 English and L2 Japanese.
Al hough ans e o w i ing s a egies has ecei ed inc easing a en ion in ecen
esea ch, exis ing s udies ha e no cla i ied he ole o ans e o p agma ic knowledge
in mul ilingual w i ing. Analyzing mul ilingual ans e o p agma ics in w i ing is
c ucial because bo h mul ilingual w i e s, bo h expe ienced and inexpe ienced, ha e an
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audience in mind when pe o ming hei w i ing ac i i y (Hyland, 2005; Kobayashi &
Rinne , 2012, 2013b; Rinne e al., 2015). The p esen s udy add esses his conce n by
e-analyzing da a om mul ilingual w i e s in Ma ín-Laguna and Alcón-Sole ’s (2018)
and Ma ín-Laguna’s (2020) s udies. Speci ically, his s udy in es iga es how di e en
ypes o in e pe sonal p agma ic ma ke s ans e ac oss di e en languages (i.e.,
Spanish, Ca alan, and English) and how he na u e o ans e changes o e ime.
3. PRAGMATICS AND THE MULTILINGUAL TURN
The end o he mul ilingual u n has s a ed o e eal i sel in p agma ics
lea ning only ecen ly (Taguchi, 2019; Taguchi & Roe e , 2017). In ac , p agma ics
s udies on mul ilingual ans e in ull a e s ill sca ce. A ecen e iew on p agma ic
ans e (Félix-B asde e , 2020) shows ha s udies o da e ha e adop ed a monolingual
pe spec i e in he s udy, ocusing on L1-L2 ans e compa ing agains na i e speake
pe o mance, wi h only one s udy conside ing L3 ans e . As discussed in he p e ious
sec ion, knowing how p agma ic is lea n in mul ilinguals, including he ole o ans e ,
can p o ide a aluable insigh in e ms o how o op imize he esou ces ha
mul ilingual lea ne s b ing o he class oom. This sec ion p o ides an o e iew o
p e ious esea ch on p agma ics om a mul ilingual u n pe spec i e wi h a ocus on
p agma ic ans e .
Ea lie s udies on mul ilingual p agma ics p edominan ly ocused on he
supe io i y o bilinguals as compa ed wi h monolinguals in L3 p oduc ion (Alcón-Sole ,
2012; Sa on -Jo dà, 2005). Mo e ecen ly, se e al s udies ha e adop ed a holis ic
pe spec i e, conside ing he sociolinguis ic con ex and he languages in which lea ne s
a e ins uc ed a school o p agma ic de elopmen . These s udies ha e shown ha
lea ne s in mul ilingual con ex s we e able o ans e p agma ic abili y ac oss languages
in w i en pe o mance (Ma ín-Laguna, 2016, 2018, 2020; Ma ín-Laguna & Alcón-
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Sole , 2015), bu such ans e was no ound in hei o al pe o mance (He aiz-
Ma ínez & Sánchez-He nández, 2019). Mo eo e , a posi i e e ec o bilingualism on
awa eness and use o p agma ic s a egies has been epo ed (Po olés, 2015). S udies
ha e also e ealed a dynamic ela ionship among languages in mul ilinguals; Mul iple
languages in luence one ano he a he p agma ic le el, bo h in elici ed da a aken om
o mal con ex s o ins uc ion (Ma ín-Laguna & Alcón-Sole , 2018) and in au hen ic
da a om mul ilingual amilies’ in e ac ions (Sa on -Jo dà, 2011, 2012, 2013).
Al hough a small pool o indings exis s, he ela ionship among languages
e ealed in he p e ious esea ch is complex and equi es mo e esea ch. Mo eo e , i is
s ill unclea how mul iple languages a ec he de elopmen o di e en aspec s o
p agma ic compe ence o e ime. To ill hese gaps, his s udy examines de elopmen in
he use o di e en p agma ic ma ke s in w i en discou se among mul ilingual
speake s.
4. INTERPERSONAL PRAGMATIC MARKERS IN MULTILINGUAL
WRITING
In e pe sonal p agma ic ma ke s (in e pe sonal PMs) ha e been iden i ied wi h a
a ie y o names and app oaches. The app oach o in e pe sonal PMs adop ed in his
pape is a me adiscou se one, based on a iew o w i ing as social engagemen (Hyland,
2005). Acco ding o Ädel and Mau anen (2010), he e a e wo app oaches o he s udy
o PMs as me adiscou se elemen s: a na ow app oach o non-in eg a i e, e lexi e
model (e.g., Ädel, 2010); and a b oad app oach, also known as he in eg a i e o
in e ac i e model (e.g., Hyland, 2010; Vande Kopple, 1985). The na ow app oach is
conce ned wi h he linguis ic elemen s ha e eal he o ganiza ion o he ex making
e e ences o he ex i sel , while he b oad app oach sees ex ual in e ac ion as a
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ask a ec ask pe o mance (Taguchi, 2012), he ask p omp s we e con olled in e ms
o hei con ex ual ac o s (B own & Le inson, 1987). All ask p omp s we e simila in
e ms o powe , social dis ance, and deg ee o imposi ion (i.e., a s uden ying o
pe suade someone in a highe s a us o do some hing a he i ial). Appendix A
p esen s simpli ied ask p omp s. Appendix B p esen s a comple e sample ask.
6.3 Da a collec ion p ocedu e
W i ing samples we e collec ed in h ee wa es o e one academic yea (Time 1,
2, and 3) in h ee languages (Spanish, Ca alan, and English). Pa icipan s we e gi en 20
minu es o comple e an essay. Following he equi emen s o he uni e si y en ance
exams, pa icipan s we e asked o p oduce abou 130-150 wo ds o each essay. They
we e no allowed o use a dic iona y no consul wi h hei eache s o classma es. The
co pus o opinion essays consis ed o a o al o 2, 817 essays, 939 essays in each
language (Spanish, Ca alan, and English), o aling 418, 933 wo ds. All essays we e
handw i en. The esea che yped up he essays e ba im.
6.4 Da a analysis p ocedu es
The co pus o opinion essays was analyzed o in e pe sonal PMs. D awing om
Hyland’s (2005) axonomy, wo sub-ca ego ies o in e pe sonal PMs we e coded in he
essays: hedges and a i ude ma ke s. Hedges (e.g., maybe, I hink ha , in my/ou
opinion) exp ess pa ial commi men o he u h- alue o he asse ion, while a i ude
ma ke s (e.g., o una ely, i is necessa y, i is impo an ) exp ess he w i e ’s a ec i e
alues owa ds he p oposi ion. Hedges and a i ude ma ke s di e in e ms o he
w i e ’s app oach and pe sonal engagemen owa ds he p oposi ion. Hedges so en he
w i e ’s ull commi men o a p oposi ion, while a i ude ma ke s con ey he w i e ’s
judgemen o a p oposi ion (e.g., con eying su p ise o ag eemen ). Following B own
and Le inson’s (1987) Poli eness Theo y, hedges may be conside ed as nega i e

17
poli eness s a egies, educing he imposi ion on he eade (i.e., allowing he eade o
conside al e na i es). Con e sely, a i ude ma ke s en ail he isk o ace- h ea o he
eade since hei use may be ela ed o asse i eness and pe cei ed as imposi ion on he
eade .
The lis o hedges and a i ude ma ke s coded in he essays was adap ed om
Hyland (2005) (see Appendix C). The a ge in e pe sonal PMs we e coded in a semi-
au oma ic manne , combining he use o he Mic oso Access Da abase wi h a manual
check o disca d o ms ha do no se e as in e pe sonal PMs in pa icula con ex s.
Two esea che s coded he da a, eaching 95% ag eemen a e. Disc epancy cases we e
esol ed ia discussion. The equency o hedges and a i ude ma ke s was allied by
language (Spanish, Ca alan, and English) and by ime pe iod (Time 1, 2, and 3). Then,
he aw equencies o hedges and a i ude ma ke s we e no med by he o al numbe o
wo ds in each essay.
Following Cenoz and Go e ’s (2011), his s udy conduc ed co ela ion analyses
o in es iga e he ela ionship in he equency o hedges and a i ude ma ke s among
he h ee languages. Since he da a did no con i m a no mal dis ibu ion, he
Spea man's ank-o de co ela ion was used o assess he ela ionship o each ime
poin (Time 1, 2, and 3). Following he exis ing con en ions, he alpha le el was se a
.05 ( wo- ailed). Howe e , because he s udy conduc ed nine sepa a e co ela ion
analyses, he alpha le el was adjus ed o .0055 using he Bon e oni co ec ion in o de
o a oid a Type One e o (i.e., ejec ing he null hypo hesis when i is ue).
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7. RESULTS
7.1. Quan i a i e analysis: F equency o in e pe sonal PMs ac oss languages
Table 1 p esen s he mean no med equency o hedges and a i ude ma ke s
p oduced in each language. Table 2 and 3 p esen he co ela ions be ween language
pai s.
Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o equency o hedges and a i ude ma ke s a Time 1, 2 and
3 in Spanish, Ca alan, and English
Sub-ca ego y
(n = 313)
Spanish
Ca alan
English
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Hedges
Time 1
14.42
10.39
7.16
7.43
11.22
9.02
Time 2
14.67
11.20
10.99
8.23
14.01
11.02
Time 3
15.76
11.60
11.74
8.99
16.65
12.00
A i ude ma ke s
Time 1
3.06
4.65
4.61
6.44
5.38
7.52
Time 2
3.00
5.06
7.33
7.28
1.70
4.66
Time 3
2.25
4.69
2.74
4.79
2.11
4.87
No e. Mean e e s o he mean no med equency o hedges and a i ude ma ke s pe essay
no malized by one housand wo ds.
Table 2. Co ela ions among Spanish, Ca alan and English in he no med equency o
hedges a Time 1, 2 and 3
(n = 313)
Spanish-Ca alan
Spanish-English
Ca alan-English
Time 1
Spea man's ρ
.267*
.082
.132
p- alue
.000
.150
.019
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Table 3. Co ela ions among Spanish, Ca alan, and English in he no med equency o
a i ude ma ke s a Time 1, 2 and 3
(n = 313)
Spanish-Ca alan
Spanish-English
Ca alan-English
Time 1
Spea man's ρ
.094
.109
.062
p- alue
.096
.054
.272
Time 2
Spea man's ρ
.051
.061
.111
p- alue
.366
.284
.050
Time 3
Spea man's ρ
.286*
.174*
.136
p- alue
.000
.002
.016
* p < .0055. Alpha le el was adjus ed o .0055 using he Bon e oni co ec ion.
Resul s showed ha , in all language pai s, he e was a end owa d a s onge
co ela ion o e ime. In he analysis o he hedges, signi ican co ela ions we e ound
be ween Spanish and Ca alan a ea ly ime poin (Time 1). A la e ime (Time 2 and 3),
co ela ions we e ound in all language pai s. Al hough he deg ee o co ela ion
be ween Spanish and Ca alan was much g ea e han ha o o he language pai s a
Time 2, by he end o he yea , all h ee language pai s eached a simila deg ee o
co ela ion. F equency o hedges was simila be ween Spanish and Ca alan a he
beginning o he academic yea p obably because o linguis ic simila i ies be ween hese
Time 2
Spea man's ρ
.379*
.195*
.189*
p- alue
.000
.001
.001
Time 3
Spea man's ρ
.284*
.330*
.277*
p- alue
.000
.000
.000
* p < .0055. Alpha le el was adjus ed o .0055 using he Bon e oni co ec ion.
20
wo languages. Spanish and Ca alan a e Romance languages wi h La in o igin and ha e
common ocabula y and g amma s uc u es. In addi ion, g owing up speaking Spanish
and Ca alan simul aneously, he lea ne s we e p obably mo e amilia wi h hse
languages han hei L3, English. Ye , a signi ican co ela ion be ween he co-o icial
languages (Spanish and Ca alan) and he o eign language (L3 English) appea ed la e
in he academic yea as pa icipan s spen mo e ime w i ing in English in o mal school
se ings.
Unlike he hedges, he equency o he a i ude ma ke s e ealed a signi ican
co ela ion only in wo language pai s (i.e., Spanish and Ca alan, Spanish and English)
only a Time 3, and he deg ee o co ela ion was smalle han ha o he hedges. A
Time 3, he deg ee o co ela ion was he la ges be ween Spanish and Ca alan. The e
was no co ela ion be ween Ca alan and English a any ime poin . These indings
indica e ha lea ne s may need mo e ime in o de o ans e hei abili y o use a i ude
ma ke s ac oss di e en languages.
In summa y, he co ela ional analyses indica e ha lea ne s sha e abili ies o use
hedges and a i ude ma ke s in Spanish, Ca alan, o English. The c oss-linguis ic
ela ionship ends o consolida e o e ime, especially in he use o hedges. These
indings indica e ha p agma ic ans e o a i ude ma ke s and hedges in mul ilinguals
occu s no only be ween ypologically simila languages (Spanish and Ca alan), bu also
be ween languages wi h di e en o igins (English and Spanish), despi e lea ne s’
limi ed con ac wi h English ou side he school in he Valencian Communi y in Spain.
21
7.2. Quali a i e analysis: Sha ed in e pe sonal PM esou ces be ween
languages
Quali a i e analyses o he lea ne s’ essays lend suppo o he co ela ion esul s
ound in he quan i a i e analyses. Since he quan i a i e analyses e ealed s onge
co ela ions o hedges in ol ing all language pai s, in his sec ion, I will ocus on he
analyses o hedges. Speci ically, I will p esen da a illus a ing he ocal ela ionship
be ween Spanish and Ca alan a Time 1 and co ela ions ound in all language pai s a
Time 3.
A signi ican co ela ion be ween Spanish and Ca alan hedges appea ed ea lie
(Time 1) and was s onge han hose be ween o he language pai s (e.g., Ca alan and
English). The quali a i e analysis e ealed ha lea ne s used he same hedges in
Spanish and Ca alan mainly in he hesis s a emen a he beginning o he essays.
Exce p 1 p esen s an essay w i en by a pa icipan (S uden 736) in Spanish and
Ca alan. She i s w o e a sen ence in oducing he sel as a high school s uden and hen
in oduced he opic. A e ha , she s a ed he opinion using he same hedge in Spanish
(c eo que) and Ca alan (c ec que), equi alen o ‘I hink’ in English.
EXCERPT 1 (S uden 736, Time 1)
Spanish
En es e esc i o quie o p esen a , como alumna del ins i u o <school name>, mi
opinión ace ca de los es udios y del bachille a o. C eo que, la idea de cambia
sep iemb e po julio, puede se bene icia ia pa a algunos y pe judicial pa a
o os.
T ansla ion: ‘As a s uden om <school name> high school, in his documen I
wan o s a e my opinion abou s udies and he High School Diploma. I hink

22
ha he idea o swapping [exam da es in] Sep embe o July can be bene icial
o some and de imen al o o he s.’
Ca alan
Com a alumna d'aques cen e que sóc, pense que os é, com a di ec o , deu ies
sa e que pe a nosal es se ie millo si els des ina es a nosal es. C ec que, el
p emi, ind ia que ana dedica a alguna cosa que ens abellisca, com pe
exemple una es a.
T ansla ion: ‘As a s uden o his high school, I hink ha you, as p incipal,
should be awa e o he ac ha i would be be e i i [i.e., he money won in
he p ize] would be alloca ed o us. I hink ha he p ize should be de o ed o
some hing ha we eally wan , such as a pa y.’
Se e al lea ne s used wo hedges meaning he same in sequence (e.g., ‘In my
iew I hink’). In Exce p 2, S uden 734 s a ed he Spanish essay using he hedge
Desde mi pun o de is a (i.e., ‘in my iew’, which is equi alen o ‘in my opinion’)
ollowed by he hedge C eo que (i.e., ‘I hink’). She used he same pa e n in Ca alan:
En la meua opinió (i.e., ‘in my opinion’) and C ec que (i.e., ‘I hink’). I is possible ha
his lea ne el ha using mul iple hedges can signal g ea e le el o indi ec ness.
EXCERPT 2 (S uden 734, Time 1)
Spanish
Desde mi pun o de is a c eo que la selec i idad debe ía man ene se igen e.
23
T ansla ion: ‘In my iew I hink ha he uni e si y en ance examina ions
should be kep alid.’
Ca alan
En la meua opinió c ec que amb els dine s es deu ia e alguna cosa que
ingue a bene ici an als p o esso s com als alumnes.
T ansla ion: ‘In my opinion I hink ha some hing bene icial o bo h eache s
and s uden s should be done wi h he money [ om he p ize].’
Exce p 3, on he o he hand, shows ha a Time 3, his s uden op ed o using
only one hedge in he hesis s a emen . He e, he same o m (i.e., ‘In my opinion’) was
used in bo h Spanish (En mi opinión) and Ca alan (En la meua opinió) essays. This
lea ne also used he same hedge in he English essay (i.e., ‘F om my poin o iew’).
These esul s indica e ha he use o hedges was sha ed be ween Spanish and Ca alan
and ha he sha ed use emained o e ime. Mo eo e , a Time 3, ans e eme ged
be ween he pa icipan s’ local languages (Spanish and Ca alan) and he o eign
language (L3 English).
EXCERPT 3 (S uden 734, Time 3)
Spanish
En mi opinión da una lengua ex anje a siemp e es algo posi i o, y más si es en
ingles que p obablemen e sea la lengua que habla más gen e en el mundo y la
más impo an e.
T ansla ion: ‘In my opinion, lea ning a o eign language is always posi i e, and
e en mo e i i is English, which is p obably he mos spoken language in he
wo ld and he mos impo an one.’
24
Ca alan
En la meua opinió, es pod ia deixa beu e alcohol als meno s d'eda pe ò
semp e que siga amb mode ació, 1 o 2 copes se ia el co ec e.
T ansla ion: ‘In my opinion, mino s should be allowed o d ink alcohol as long
as i is done in a mode a e manne , one o wo d inks should be igh .’
English
F om my poin o iew, spending money on new echnologies o ou school is
no a good idea because hey a e no a o dable.
In addi ion o he ph ase-le el ans e o hedges, he quali a i e analysis also
e ealed ha ans e occu ed a discou se-le el a Time 3. The discou se-le el ans e
was pa icula ly e iden in how lea ne s s a ed and ended an essay. As shown in
Exce p 4, S uden 649 app oached he ask as a le e -w i ing ask and used he same
discou se s uc u e: (1) opening, (2) announcemen o he eason o w i ing, (3) hesis
s a emen , and (4) pe sonal opinion s a emen (i.e., pienso que in he Spanish essay,
pense que in he Ca alan essay, and I hink in he English essay). No ably, bo h in (3)
and (4), he same hedge appea ed in h ee languages (unde lined in he ex s). These
esul s show ha , a he end o he academic yea , lea ne s no only used sha ed
linguis ic esou ces ac oss h ee languages, bu also ans e ed he esou ces (hedges)
s a egically wi hin speci ic pa s o discou se s uc u e. They we e p obably awa e o
he need o so en he o ce o hei opinion by using hedges when hey s a ed he hesis
i s and hen es a ed he hesis, so hey sound mo e indi ec and less imposing. This
endency was obse ed in all h ee languages.
EXCERPT 4 (S uden 649, Time 3)
25
Spanish
Seño Di ec o : (1)
Le esc ibo es a ca a pa a da le mi opinión sob e da asigna u as de con enido
en una lengua ex ange a. (2)… Es a medida, pienso que debe ía se op a i a,
que solo la adop en los que quie an, (3) y las asigna u as que debe ían se ,
pueden se Cas ellano, Valenciano, Ma ema icas o In o ma ica. ... Finalmen e,
pienso que no es amos p epa ados pa a esa medida, debe iamos ene mas
ho as solo de inglés y mas adelan e pone es a medida. (4)
T ansla ion: ‘Dea school p incipal,
I am w i ing his le e o you in o de o gi e you my opinion abou gi ing
con en subjec s in a o eign language. … This measu e, I hink ha should be
op ional, i should only be adop ed by hose who wan o, and subjec s ha
should be ( augh in English), could be Spanish, Valencian, Ma hs o Compu e
Science... Finally, I hink ha we a e no eady o his measu e, we should ha e
mo e ( eaching) hou s only in English and implemen his measu e la e on.’
Ca alan
Senyo Di ec o : (1)
Li esc ic aques a ca a pe pa la li sob e l'alcohol a la es a de g aduació. (2)
En la meua opinió els alumnes no deu iem beu e aques dia, ja que som meno s
i no podem. (3)
… Si ica en alcohol en la es a de g aduació i li pasa e algo a algun alumne,
pense que el esponsable se a os é, pe aixó es millo e i a -ho. (4)
T ansla ion: ‘Dea school p incipal,
32
p agma ic esou ces. In pa icula , eache s and s uden s need o di ec hei a en ion o
he unc ion o p agma ic ma ke s as esou ces o es ablishing in e pe sonal
ela ionships wi h he eade . Resea ch explo ing he e ec i eness o p agma ic
ins uc ion has shown ha p o iding lea ne s wi h me ap agma ic in o ma ion
posi i ely in luences hei lea ning ( o e iews, see Bas u kmen & Nguyen, 2017;
Ma ínez-Flo & Usó-Juan, 2020; Sánchez-He nández & Alcón-Sole , 2020; Taguchi,
2011, 2015; and Takahashi, 2010). Thus, eache s should p omo e lea ne s’ awa eness
and no icing o in e pe sonal p agma ic ma ke s.
Ano he pedagogical implica ion is eaching p agma ics om a mul ilingual
app oach by p omo ing hei p agma ic mul icompe ence ac oss languages (Ma ín-
Laguna, 2020). In doing so, ins uc ional ac i i ies p omo ing a lexible use o all he
languages in he lea ne s’ epe oi e a e necessa y. T anslanguaging s a egies ha e
been success ully used o help mul ilingual lea ne s o sel - egula e hei linguis ic
epe oi e in w i ing (Velasco & Ga cía, 2014; see also Cenoz & Go e , 2015a). In
o de o make he mos o p agma ic esou ces a ailable in mul ilinguals, language
eache s’ coo dina ion should be encou aged (Ma ín-Laguna, 2020). In addi ion,
eache s should be educa ed unde s and and adop a mul ilingual pe spec i e in he use
o anslanguaging s a egies (Po olés & Ma í, 2018).
Acknowledgmen s
This s udy was conduc ed wi hin he amewo k o esea ch p ojec s unded by Plan de
p omoción de la in es igación (Uni e si a Jaume I) UJI-B2019-23 and P ojec es
d’Inno ació Educa i a de la Uni a de Supo Educa iu (Uni e si a Jaume I) 3821/20. I
would like o hank D . Naoko Taguchi o he ex ensi e and insigh ul eedback on his
a icle. Any e o s emain my own.

33
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APPENDIX A. SIMPLIFIED PROMPTS USED FOR THE OPINION WRITING
TASK
Spanish p omp s
Time 1: ¿Cómo debe ían se las p uebas de acceso a la uni e sidad?
T ansla ion: ‘How should he uni e si y en ance examina ions be?’
Time 2: ¿Se debe ía pe mi i que los alumnos salie an po la noche?
T ansla ion: ‘Should s uden s be allowed o go ou a nigh ?’
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Time 3: ¿C ees que da asigna u as de con enido en una lengua ex anje a es posi i o?
T ansla ion: ‘Do you hink ha eaching con en cou ses in a o eign language is
posi i e?’
Ca alan p omp s
Time 1: Com s’han de gas a els dine s del p emi que ha guanya l’ins i u ?
T ansla ion: ‘How should he high school spend he money won om he p ize?’
Time 2: És impo an e un in e can i?
T ansla ion: ‘Is i impo an o do an exchange p og am?’
Time 3: S’hau ia de deixa beu e alcohol als meno s d’eda ?
T ansla ion: ‘Should mino s be allowed o d ink alcohol?’
English p omp s
Time 1: Wha is you opinion abou he end-o -school ip?
Time 2: Should s uden s be allowed o ake sma phones o school?
Time 3: Do you hink you school should spend money on new echnologies o he
class oom?
APPENDIX B. SAMPLE PROMPT
CONTEXT: The headmas e o you seconda y school is conside ing he
possibili y o banning sma phones a school and is in e es ed in knowing he
s uden s’ opinion.
IDEAS TO THINK ABOUT:
TASK
Should s uden s be allowed o ake sma phones o school?
W i e you opinion aking in o accoun ha he headmas e o you school may
ead i .

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(You don’ need o use hem all. You can add new ones.)
 Wha i s uden s ge dis ac ed du ing he lesson?
 Can we use sma phones o lea ning pu poses?
 Can sma phones be addic i e?
 Wha i you ha e o make an eme gency call?
 Wha i somebody s eals you sma phone?
 Wha i somebody eco ds you oice, he eache ’s oice o akes a
pic u e wi hou pe mission?
 e c.
 You ha e 20 minu es o plan, w i e and e ise you composi ion.
 You a e no allowed o use any books/dic iona ies o ask you eache /classma es
o help.
APPENDIX C. PRAGMATIC MARKERS CODED
Spanish
Ca alan
English
Hedges
(yo) c eo que, (noso os)
c eemos que, (yo) pienso
que, (noso os) pensamos
que, en mi/nues a opinión,
desde mi/nues o pun o de
is a, p obablemen e,
quizá(s), puede que, (yo)
opino que, (noso os)
opinamos que, a eces, en
gene al, gene almen e,
no malmen e, posiblemen e,
conside o/amos/a íamos que
(jo) c ec que, (nosal es)
c eiem que, (jo) pense que,
(nosal es) pensem que, en
la meua/nos a opinió, des
del meu/nos e pun de
is a, p obablemen , po se ,
po se que, (jo) opine que,
(nosal es) opinem que, de
egades, en gene al,
gene almen , no malmen ,
possiblemen ,
conside e/em/a ia/a íem
in my/ou opinion, I/we
belie e ( ha ), I/we hink
( ha ), I/we eel ( ha ), in
my/ou iew, i seems o,
pe sonally, as I see i ,
p obably, pe haps, maybe,
some imes, in gene al,
gene ally, no mally, as a
as I’m/am conce ned, I/we
conside ha
A i ude
ma ke s
(Es oy/es amos) de acue do,
no (es oy/es amos) de
acue do,
des/a o unadamen e, po
sue e, po desg acia, es
impo an e, es necesa io, es
in e esan e, (me/nos)
gus a ía, quie o, que emos,
que ía(mos), espe (-o/-
amos)
(es ic/es em) d’aco d, no
(es ic/es em) d’aco d, pe
so /desg àcia,
des/a o unadamen ,
disso adamen , és
impo an , és necessa i,
cal/cald ia (que), és
in e essan , (m’/ens)
ag ada ia, ull, olem,
old íem, espe (-e/-em)
I ag ee, I disag ee, I don’
ag ee, I do no ag ee,
o una ely, un o una ely, i
is/’s/is no /’s no impo an /
in e es ing/necessa y, I
would/’d/would
no /wouldn’ like o, I/we
wan , I/we hope, I/we
would/’d/wouldn’ /would
no /’d no like
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