A icle
Compa a i e Poli ical S udies
2024, Vol. 57(6) 921–937
© The Au ho (s) 2023
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DOI: 10.1177/00104140231193006
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Recen E en s and he
Coding o C oss-Na ional
Indica o s
Nils B. Weidmann
1

Abs ac
Much esea ch in poli ical science elies on da ase s p oduced by human
code s. Many a iables included in hese da ase s a e no based on ob-
se able ac s bu a he equi e a conside able le el o human judgmen .
This p ojec s udies he ex en o which his judgmen is a ec ed by
a ailabili y bias and how i influences he e ospec i e coding o his o ic
cases. The analysis uses code -le el da a om he V-Dem p ojec , one o
he ew da ase s collec ing and eleasing codings agged wi h imes amps
when hey we e p oduced. The esul s show ha ecen d ama ic e en s
in a coun y jus p io o he coding ha e a small, bu isible impac on
code a ings, bu p ima ily o hose a iables ha a e di ec ly ela ed o
he obse ed e en s. The magni ude o his e ec , howe e , is small. This
alle ia es conce ns ha p ominen e en s in wo ld poli ics a ound he
ime o coding significan ly a ec he eliabili y o c oss-na ional
indica o s.
Keywo ds
quan i a i e me hods, democ a iza ion and egime change, poli ical
egimes
1
Depa men o Poli ics and Public Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o Kons anz, Ge many
Co esponding Au ho :
Nils B. Weidmann, Depa men o Poli ics and Public Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o Kons anz,
Uni e si ¨
a ss , 10, Kons anz 78457, Ge many.
Email: nils.weidmann@uni-kons anz.de
Da a A ailabili y S a emen included a he end o he a icle
Kons anze Online-Publika ions-Sys em (KOPS)
URL: h p://nbn- esol ing.de/u n:nbn:de:bsz:352-2-1g7cxjpn7ioi44
Much empi ical wo k in poli ical science, and in pa icula in he compa a i e
s udy o poli ical egimes, elies on da a p oduced by humans. Using human-
coded c oss-na ional da ase s, compa a i e poli ical scien is s can s udy he
sp ead (o decline) o democ a ic egimes (Lüh mann & Lindbe g, 2019),
moni o he s a e o human igh s wo ldwide (Fa iss, 2014), o gauge he
ex en o media eedom ac oss a global sample o coun ies (Kellam & S ein,
2016). Wi hou human-coded c oss-na ional da ase s, much esea ch in
compa a i e poli ics, democ a iza ion, and de elopmen would be impossible
o conduc . Many o he a iables included in hese da ase s cons i u e
subjec i e assessmen s made by he code s. Fo example, when coding he
co up ac i i ies o he legisla u e ( a iable 2lgc p ) o he “Va ie ies o
Democ acy”da ase (V-Dem, Coppedge e al., 2020), code s need o decide
how one could possibly ecognize co up ion o membe s o he legisla u e in
e e yday poli ics, and how hese obse ed ou comes ansla e in o he di -
e en le els o he coding scale, which anges om “commonly” o “ne e , o
ha dly e e .”These codings cons i u e di ficul decisions o he code s: The e
a e ew i any p ecise guidelines (i) which empi ical ac s o ake in o accoun
o he assessmen and (ii) how o ansla e hem in o quan i a i e sco es,
lea ing bo h decisions up o he code . Addi ional complexi y a ises due o
ac ha he coding o many indica o s is his o ic and o en imes goes back
se e al yea s i no decades. In essence, he coding o hese indica o s is a
decision p ocess wi h a conside able le el o unce ain y.
Gi en ha a coding p ocess o his kind p o ides ew guidelines o code s,
i is likely o be a ec ed by di e en biases in human decision making. Recen
wo k is inc easingly ying o unde s and hese cogni i e p ocesses. Colgan
(2019), o example, a gues ha human-coded da ase s in IR may ha e an
“Ame ican”bias, since hey a e p oduced by code s holding Ame ican alues
and iews o he in e na ional sys em. A non e al. (2023) howe e , examining
quan i a i e human igh s sco es p oduced by humans, find no e idence o
bias. So a he s onges c i ique o human bias in poli ical a ings has been
pu o wa d by Li le and Meng (2023), who a gue ha findings o democ a ic
decline a e he esul o changes in human pe cep ions bu no in poli ical
ins i u ions. Compa ing subjec i e and objec i e democ acy indica o s, hey
show ha democ a ic backsliding can be de ec ed in he o me bu no he
la e .
This pape examines ye ano he ype o bias ha could a ec human
code s. Gi en ha coding decisions o his o ic cases a e pa icula ly di ficul ,
i is easonable o assume ha code s d aw on pa icula cogni i e sho cu s.
The a ailabili y bias is one o he mos esea ched among hem. I means ha
when con on ed wi h a di ficul decision-making ask, humans use eadily
a ailable and closely ela ed in o ma ion o sol e i . In he coding o his o ic,
c oss-na ional a iables, his could mean ha human code s a e influenced by
ecen d ama ic e en s in he coun y in ques ion, e en i he coding applies o
922 Compa a i e Poli ical S udies 57(6)
a ime pe iod many yea s ago. Using ime-s amped code -le el da a om he
V-Dem p ojec , he analysis es s how hese ecen e en s a ec code a ings.
The esul s show ha he e is some e idence o an a ailabili y bias in code
a ings, bu he magni ude emains gene ally small and is unlikely o a ec
esea ch done wi h hese indica o s in a majo way.
Cogni i e Biases in Human Coding
In compa a i e poli ical science esea ch, many human-coded da ase s exis
ha co e a a ie y o poli ical a iables. A (non-exhaus i e) lis shows ha
hese da a co e many “so ” a iables such as he ule o law (Wo ld Jus ice
P ojec , 2020), condi ions o independen media (In e na ional Resea ch &
Exchanges Boa d, 2016), p ess eedom (Repo e s wi hou Bo de s, 2020),
poli ical igh s and ci il libe ies (F eedom House, 2020a), ins i u ional
cha ac e is ics o coun ies (Be ho, 2012), and, o cou se, democ acy
(Ma shall e al., 2018;Economis In elligence Uni , 2020;Coppedge e al.,
2020). P oducing hese coun y a ings is a di ficul ask o human code s.
Some equi e comple ely subjec i e assessmen s, such as, o example,
V-Dem’s a iable cap u ing he deg ee o a “ igo ous and impa ial public
adminis a ion.”
1
O he s a e a leas in p inciple based on ac ual ou comes o
e en s, bu i is e y di ficul o code s o collec all he in o ma ion and/o
agg ega e hem o a single coun y a ing acco ding o clea and well-specified
coding ules. Fo example, V-Dem codes co up ion in he legisla u e on a 0–
4 scale. The ac s suppo ing his coding may exis , bu hey a e unlikely o be
a ailable o he code .
2
Decisions unde unce ain y ha e been he subjec o esea ch o a long
ime, mos ly in psychology and ela ed disciplines. T e sky and Kahneman
(1974) desc ibe h ee heu is ics ha humans ha e been ound o employ when
hey ha e insu ficien knowledge as a basis o a decision. One o hem is he
well-known “a ailabili y heu is ic.”A ailabili y means ha when making a
decision, humans d aw on hose pieces o in o ma ion ha a e mo e easily
a ailable o hem. In his pape , we explo e a ailabili y on a empo al di-
mension. When coding a iables o a pa icula coun y o a ime pe iod ha
has long passed, i is well possible ha code s a e influenced by ecen ,
d ama ic e en s in he coun y in ques ion.
Wha d ama ic e en s a e mos likely o a ec coding decisions? Exis ing
esea ch has p oduced conclusi e e idence o a “nega i i y bias”in news,
whe e eade s a e mos likely o pe cei e and emembe nega i e e en s
(So oka e al., 2019). In he c oss-na ional s udy o democ acy, whe e code s
a e coun ies along a no ma i e dimension be ween “closed au oc acy”and
“libe al democ acy,” hese nega i e shi s co espond o se backs away om
democ acy, which can mani es hemsel es in mili a y coups o he iolen
ep ession o he opposi ion. Consequen ly, i code s a e a ec ed by
Weidmann 923
a ailabili y bias, hei e ospec i e a ings o a coun y should be educed i a
d ama ic nega i e e en immedia ely p ecedes he coding.
A sho example se es o illus a e his. Imagine wo code s a e he le el
o a ep ession in a gi en coun y, en yea s ago. This is he ypical coding ask
when p oducing c oss-na ional da ase s. The fi s code p oduces his a ing in
yea , he second code a yea la e a + 1. In be ween and + 1, he coun y
expe iences a la ge wa e o p o es ha is iolen ly ep essed by he go -
e nmen , wi h se e al casual ies. A ailabili y bias a ises i hese ecen e en s
influence he second code ’s a ing such ha i is lowe han he fi s code ’s
a ing, despi e he ac ha bo h code s a e he same his o ic case—bu hey
do so a di e en poin s in ime.
I code s o compa a i e da ase s a e a ec ed by he a ailabili y heu is ic,
he e a e di e en ways in which his can happen. In pa icula , we dis inguish
which coding decisions he a ailable in o ma ion (= ecen e en s) will be used
o . In a “na ow” e sion o a ailabili y bias, code s use his a ailable in-
o ma ion o decisions ha a ec he same ype o phenomenon hey a e
supposed o code. The abo e example illus a es his: I a coun y ecen ly
expe ienced a d ama ic e en ha clea ly shows a high le el o ep ession
(such as a iolen c ackdown agains he opposi ion), code s will use his
in o ma ion when a ing he same ou come— he le el o iolen go e nmen
ep ession in his coun y. This na ow e sion o a ailabili y bias he e o e
sugges s ha ecen d ama ic e en s o go e nmen al ep ession a ec he
e ospec i e coding o ep ession- ela ed a iables.
Howe e , a ailabili y bias can also play ou in a b oade sense. Ra he han
influencing he coding o only hose a iables ha a e di ec ly ela ed o
obse ed d ama ic e en s, hese e en s could also a ec o he a iables. Fo
example, ha ing obse ed go e nmen iolence agains p o es e s, code s
may implici ly downg ade hei no ma i e assessmen o a egime and
he e o e assess his egime no jus as ep essi e bu also as “co up ,”
“clien elis ic,”“undemoc a ic,”and “illibe al.”I his b oade e sion o
a ailabili y holds, we should see an e ec o ecen d ama ic e en s also on a
b oad ange o no ma i e a iables, whe e code s change hei e ospec i e
assessmen o hese coun ies and a e hem as mo e illibe al a e hese e en s.
In he ollowing analysis, we pu he na ow and he b oad e sion o
a ailabili y bias o an empi ical es .
Resea ch Design
The empi ical analysis uses ime-s amped code a ings o a iables ela ed o
democ acy and democ a ic ins i u ions. In he ollowing, we desc ibe he da a
sou ce and he esea ch design o he analysis.
924 Compa a i e Poli ical S udies 57(6)
V-Dem Code -le el Da a
The empi ical analysis elies on he code -le el da a om Ve sion 10 o he
V-Dem p ojec (Coppedge e al., 2020), a la ge da a collec ion e o ha
cap u es many di e en aspec s o “democ acy”and is one o he leading
da ase s in he c oss-na ional analysis o egimes. V-Dem dis inguishes be-
ween ac ual (Types A and B) and mo e subjec i e (Type C) a iables
(Coppedge e al., 2020, p. 28). The la e cons i u e V-Dem’s key con ibu ion
and a e he main ocus o his p ojec . Type C a iables cap u e subjec i e
a ings o poli ical a iables, p oduced by a numbe o code s wi h pa icula
expe ise abou a coun y o egion. Each o hese code s answe s a se o
ques ions abou he coun y and ime pe iod hey ha e been assigned. Answe s
o he ques ions a e eco ded using di e en scales; ew ques ions ha e a
bina y esponse (yes/no), while mos o he s ha e an o dinal scale.
The V-Dem code -le el da ase con ains he indi idual a ings p oduced by
he code s be o e hey a e p ocessed and agg ega ed u he . In he e sion
made a ailable o his esea ch, each coding has a ime s amp associa ed o i ,
indica ing he yea in which i was p oduced. V-Dem codings a e usually
collec ed in Janua y o co e he p e ious (and o en imes also ea lie ) yea s.
To maximize he amoun o da a o his analysis while e aining compa a-
bili y be ween a iables, only a iables wi h an o dinal scale o 0–4 ( he mos
common scale in V-Dem) we e selec ed.
3
Low alues o hese a iables
indica e illibe al poli ical p ac ices, and high alues co espond o libe al-
democ a ic ea u es o ou comes. The abo emen ioned example o he
2lgc p a iable co e ing co up ion in he legisla u e is an example o his.
Figu e 1 illus a es he s uc u e o he code -le el da a om V-Dem. On he
imeline along he x-axis, he e is he ac ual case o be coded (he e, he
2lgc p a iable o Egyp in 2016). This a iable is hen coded by h ee
code s in ea ly 2018 and wo code s in 2019. We use he e m “coding ime” o
deno e he ime (yea ) in which a a iable is coded. In he example, 2lgc p
has wo coding imes: 2018 and 2019.
Figu e 1. Da a s uc u e o he V-Dem code -le el da a. A a iable ( 2lgc p )is
coded o a pa icula case (Egyp in 2016) a wo di e en coding imes (2018 and
2019).
Weidmann 925

Uni o Obse a ion
In almos all cases, a pa icula a iable o a gi en case is only coded once by
a pa icula code , which is why we canno analyze changes wi hin he same
code ’s a ings o e ime. Fo ha eason, all a ings o a gi en a iable and
case a e a e aged by coding ime; in he abo e example, his would gi e us
wo alues o 2lgc p in Egyp 2016: a coding ime 2018, he a e age o
code s 14, 16, and 20; and a coding ime 2019, he a e age o code s 34 and
41. O en imes, he e is only a single code a ing o a pa icula coding ime.
4
Fo he analysis, we make use o he ac ha in he V-Dem p ojec , codings
o pa icula coun y-yea s a e o en imes gene a ed a di e en poin s in
ime. These epea ed obse a ions allow us o examine changes in he a e age
coding decisions o e ime, be ween he di e en coding imes. Fo he
analysis, we analyze pai s o codings made in consecu i e yea s, in o he
wo ds, whe e coding ime 1 and coding ime 2 a e exac ly one yea apa .
While o he compa isons a e possible (e.g., we analyze changes in code
a ings be ween a gi en yea and h ee yea s la e ), his app oach allows us o
be e a ibu e coding changes o he e en s ha happened in be ween he wo
coding imes. Fo all pai s p o ided in he code -le el da a, we examine how
shi s in he FH sco e in be ween he wo coding imes a ec downg ades in
he coding.
Measu ing D ama ic E en s
The pu pose o he empi ical analysis is o es whe he ecen d ama ic
poli ical de elopmen s in a coun y be ween coding ime1 and coding ime2
a ec code s’subjec i e a ings o pas cases. We s a by using di e en e en
da ase s o cap u e specific e en s ha indica e a wo sening and inc easingly
illibe al poli ical si ua ion. The fi s o hese indica o s is he occu ence o
e en s wi h iolen ep ession o p o es in he coded coun y. This a iable is
coded om he “Mass Mobiliza ion Da ase ”by Cla k and Regan (2021),
selec ing p o es e en s whe e he go e nmen esponded wi h “killings”o
“shoo ings.”The second e en -based p edic o is he numbe o coups o coup
a emp s, coded om he “Cline Cen e Coup D’´
e a P ojec Da ase ”(Pey on
e al., 2020). Bo h ypes o e en s a e usually associa ed wi h high le els o
poli ical iolence o supp ess poli ical opposi ion o o ous a democ a ic
go e nmen .
These e en -based p edic o s, howe e , co e only a small subse o
de elopmen s ha indica e whe he a coun y is becoming inc easingly il-
libe al. In ac , he e is a b oad ange o e en s ha indica e he de e io a ion o
democ acy and could he e o e influence code s’ e ospec i e assessmen .
Fo example, he s uggle su ounding Poland’s cons i u ional cou in
2015–2016 was a clea and isible indica o o democ a ic decline bu is
926 Compa a i e Poli ical S udies 57(6)
ob iously no cap u ed by he wo e en da ase s. Ra he han expanding he
se o e en -based p edic o s (which may no e en be easible due o limi ed
da a a ailabili y), we use an agg ega e indica o ha cap u es a b oad ange o
shi s away om libe al democ acy: he well-known F eedom House
“F eedom in he Wo ld” a ing (FH hence o h). The FH sco es quan i y a
coun y’s le el o poli ical igh s and ci il libe ies wi h an annual sco e
be ween 0 and 100 (F eedom House, 2020a). This sco e is compu ed as he
sum o se e al cons i uen indica o s, cap u ing he elec o al p ocess, poli ical
plu alism and pa icipa ion, he unc ioning o go e nmen , he eedom o
exp ession and belie , associa ional and o ganiza ional igh s, he ule o law,
as well as pe sonal au onomy and indi idual igh s.
In many cases, F eedom House a ings change slowly. These changes a e
unlikely o be isible o code s and he e o e no expec ed o influence hei
coding as hey do no cons i u e “d ama ic”e en s. We he e o e selec majo
changes om F eedom House in wo ways. Fi s , we selec cases whe e a
coun y was downg aded by a leas 5 poin s in he FH scale wi hin a single
yea , o cap u e majo poli ical shi s away om democ acy. These majo
shi s happen a ely. Since we can only exploi a ia ion in he coding imes,
we can only use changes du ing he yea s 2016–2020. Du ing his ime, only
abou 3% o he coun y-yea s expe ienced FH d ops o 5 o mo e. A second
way o iden i y majo downg ades is by using he h ee FH s a us ca ego ies.
FH classifies a coun y as “ ee,”“pa ly ee,”o “no ee,”depending on he
alues o he unde lying poli ical igh s and ci il libe ies sco es (F eedom
House, 2020b). A s a us downg ade happens i a coun y d ops om “ ee” o
“pa ly ee”o om “pa ly ee” o “no ee.”These s a us downg ades a e
majo e en s ha a e discussed in he annual FH news elease, so hey a e
likely o be isible o he code s. In he analysis below, we es whe he om
any coding yea o he nex , a d op in he FH sco e o a leas 5 poin s o a
s a us downg ade leads o an adjus men o he code a ings downwa d.
Resul s
In he empi ical analysis, we assess he ex en o which ecen , d ama ic e en s
in a coun y a ec he code s’ e ospec i e a ings. To do so, we p oceed in a
s epwise ashion. We s a wi h a pooled analysis using se s o V-Dem
a iables, be o e es ing each a iable independen ly. The analysis ocuses
on he change in he code a ings be ween wo consecu i e yea s. Mo e
p ecisely, he dependen a iable is he di e ence o he a e age V-Dem code
a ing be ween coding ime1 and coding ime2. O e all, code assessmen s a e
ela i ely s able. Ou o he 117,817 obse a ions in he main da ase , in
31,482 cases (abou 27%) he coding emains unchanged, while upg ades
(44,288, abou 37%) and downg ades (42,047, abou 36%) occu almos a he
same a e. The dis ibu ion o changes in code a ings om one yea o he
Weidmann 927
nex is isualized in Figu e 2. I shows ha while he as majo i y o a ings
do no change (la ge peak a he cen e ), downg ades and upg ades a e simila
in magni ude and almos pe ec ly balanced. Appendix A2 p esen s summa y
s a is ics a he le el o he a iables, dis inguishing be ween a ia ion be-
ween he indi idual cases ( he s anda d de ia ion o he a e age code a ings
o each coun y/yea ) and he a e age a ia ion wi hin a case ( he mean ac oss
he s anda d de ia ions o he code a ings o each coun y/yea ).
Fo he analysis, we use OLS models wi h he fi s di e ence o he code
a ings ( he a ing a coding ime2 minus he a ing a coding ime1) as he
dependen a iable. The pooled models include fixed e ec s o he di e en
V-Dem a iables, since he scaling o each o hem could en ail pa icula ly
low o high changes om yea o yea . In addi ion, he models clus e he
s anda d e o s a he le el o cases (coun y/yea s), since hese obse a ions
a e subjec o he same poli ical de elopmen s and he e o e no independen .
Changes in Code Ra ings
In line wi h he heo e ical discussion abo e, we fi s es a na ow e sion o
he a ailabili y heu is ic, whe e code s a e influenced by ecen e en s in he
coun y o be coded bu use his in o ma ion only o code a iables ha a e
closely ela ed o hese e en s. The fi s eg ession uses he e en -based
indica o s o d ama ic iolen e en s ( ep essed p o es and coups) o see i
hese e en s a ec he coding o V-Dem a iables ela ed o iolence and
ep ession. In V-Dem, he e a e fi e o hese a iables; hese include 2cl o
( eedom om o u e), 2clkill ( eedom om poli ical killings), 2cs ep ss
(go e nmen al ep ession o ci il socie y o ganiza ions), 2cs lg ep (go -
e nmen al ep ession o eligious o ganiza ions), and 2meha j n (physical
ha assmen o jou nalis s).
The fi s wo models in Table 1 es how he iolen ep ession o p o es
(Model 1) and he occu ence o a coup (Model 2) in be ween he wo coding
imes a ec he changes in he code a ings. In line wi h ou expec a ion, bo h
Figu e 2. Dis ibu ion o di e ences in he code a ings.
928 Compa a i e Poli ical S udies 57(6)
ecei e a nega i e e ec , which indica es ha he occu ence o hese e en s is
associa ed wi h a d op in he code a ings. The magni ude o he e ec is
lowe o ep essed p o es , whe e an e en o his kind is associa ed wi h a
d op in he code assessmen s by only abou .15 on he 0–4 scale. The e ec o
a coup is conside able, indica ing ha e ospec i e a ings o ep ession-
ela ed V-Dem a iables a e on a e age .6 poin s lowe on he 0–4 scale i a
coun y expe ienced a coup.
In Models 3–6inTable 1, we expand he analysis such ha i includes all
V-Dem a iables as well as he al e na i e indica o s o d ama ic e en s based
on F eedom House. Models 3 and 4 es ima e he impac o he e en -based
p edic o s ( ep essed p o es and coups) on changes in he a ings o all
a iables, Models 5 and 6 use he occu ence o an FH downg ade o a leas
5 poin s (Model 5) o a s a us downg ade (Model 6) as p edic o s. The co-
e ficien s in hese models a e much smalle h oughou . Only ep essed p o es
is significan , bu again in he di ec ion we hypo hesized. The es ima e shows
ha he occu ence o physical ep ession agains p o es e s leads o a
Table 1. E ec o Recen E en s in Coded Coun y on Changes in Code Ra ings.
OLS Models Wi h Va iable FEs and S anda d E o s Clus e ed by Case (Coun y/
Yea ).
Dependen a iable
ΔCode a ing
Rep ession- ela ed a iables All a iables
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Rep essed
p o es
.148***
(.030)
.075***
(.016)
Coup o coup
a emp
.616***
(.079)
.072
(.046)
FH downg ade
≥4
.023
(.028)
FH s a us
downg ade
.083
(.059)
V-Dem a iable
FEs
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Clus e ed SEs
(c /yea )
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 13,431 13,431 117,817 117,817 117,817 117,817
Adjus ed R2 .008 .008 .002 .002 .002 .002
No e.*p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001.
Weidmann 929
Da a A ailabili y S a emen
Replica ion ma e ials and code can be ound in he Compa a i e Poli ical S udies
Da a e se a h ps://doi.o g/10.7910/DVN/FKQI6M.
Supplemen al Ma e ial
Supplemen al ma e ial o his a icle is a ailable online.
No es
1. Va iable 2cl spc , ques ion: “A e public o ficials igo ous and impa ial in he
pe o mance o hei du ies?”(Coppedge e al., 2020, 164).
2. Va iable 2lgc p , ques ion: “Do membe s o he legisla u e abuse hei posi ion o
financial gain?”(Coppedge e al., 2020, 138).
3. To ensu e compa ibili y wi h o he annual codings, a iables ha do no ollow an
annual coding pa e n (e.g., hose ela ed o elec ions) we e also excluded. We also
exclude a iables ha do no cons i u e no ma i e assessmen s, such as he ques ion
abou he dominan chambe in bicame al legisla u es. See he appendix o he
comple e lis o a iables included.
4. This esul s in (non-sys ema ic) measu emen e o , which is unlikely o bias he
esul s we ob ain om he agg ega ed codings.
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Au ho Biog aphy
Nils Weidmann is P o esso o Poli ical Science and head o he “Com-
munica ion, Ne wo ks and Con en ion”Resea ch G oup a he Uni e si y o
Kons anz. His esea ch in e es s include poli ical p o es and iolen conflic ,
he poli ical impac s o new communica ion echnology, and poli ical
me hodology.
Weidmann 937