Poli ics and Go e nance (ISSN: 2183–2463)
2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197
h ps://doi.o g/10.17645/pag. 11i2.6374
A icle
Ha e Speech and Pola iza ion A ound he “T ans Law” in Spain
Pa icia Sánchez‐Holgado *, Ca los A cila‐Calde ón, and Ma cos Gomes‐Ba bosa
Depa men o Sociology and Communica ion, Uni e si y o Salamanca, Spain
* Co esponding au ho (pa[email p o ec ed])
Submi ed: 30 Oc obe 2022 | Accep ed: 2 Janua y 2023 | Published: 17 May 2023
Abs ac
The app o al o he law o he eal and e ec i e equali y o ans people and o he gua an ee o he igh s o LGTBI
people ( he T ans Law) has been one o he mos con o e sial legisla i e ac ions in ecen yea s; howe e , he e is e y li le
knowledge abou he public’s pe cep ion o he issue and how hey exp ess hei opinions in he public sphe e. Suppo e s
o he law conside ha he ee de e mina ion o gende is essen ial o end disc imina ion agains ans people, while
c i ics exp ess ha e speech ha can be a p ecu so o iolen ac ions. This wo k aims o ill a gap, s udying he ela ionship
be ween he pe cep ions o a con o e sial and pola izing issue and hei public exp ession h ough social media. The main
objec i e is o analyze he public’s pe cep ion, wi h special a en ion o age, gende , and poli ical ideology, and compa e
i wi h he ha e speech pos ed on Twi e . The me hodology p esen s a su ey o ci izens and he use o compu a ional
me hods o analyze Twi e messages wi h a machine‐lea ning algo i hm ha classi ies hem as ha e o no ha e. The esul s
indica e ha he majo i y (80.1%) suppo he app o al o he law, while hose close o le and cen e poli ical ideologies
a o he law mo e han hose who de ine hemsel es as igh ‐wing. The e a e no signi ican di e ences acco ding o age.
O he messages analyzed, 9.7% we e classi ied as ha e.
Keywo ds
ha e speech; LGTBI; pola iza ion; public pe cep ion; Spain; T ans Law; ansphobia; Twi e
Issue
This a icle is pa o he issue “Ha e Speech, Demoniza ion, Pola iza ion, and Poli ical Social Responsibili y” edi ed by Luis
M. Rome o‐Rod íguez (Rey Juan Ca los Uni e si y), Ped o Cues a‐Valiño (Uni e si y o Alcalá), and Bá ba a Cas illo‐Abdul
(Rey Juan Ca los Uni e si y).
© 2023 by he au ho (s); licensee Cogi a io P ess (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
1. In oduc ion
The p oposal o he law o he eal and e ec i e equali y
o ans people and o he gua an ee o he igh s o les‐
bian, gay, ans, bisexual and in e sex people (he eina e
LGTBI; popula ly known as he T ans Law) is amed
as one o he mos con o e sial legisla i e ac ions in
ecen yea s due o he public deba e i has gene a ed.
In Spanish socie y, p og ess has been made in he igh s
and p o ec ion o LGBTI people, bu achie ing eal equal‐
i y is a challenge. Disc imina ion based on sexual o i‐
en a ion and gende iden i y o exp ession con inues
o be a cause o conce n, especially in he wo kplace,
which can lead o e bal a acks, in he o m o ha e
speech and physical iolence, which can lead o ha e
c ime (Có doba, 2021).
Wi h his in mind, we de eloped he ollowing
esea ch ques ions:
RQ1: Does he public suppo he p ocessing o he
T ans Law, and i so, do he people who show hei
suppo o he law also suppo i s main poin s?
RQ2: Does g ea e suppo shown o he p oposed
T ans Law esul in less ha e speech on social ne wo ks?
In addi ion, a second esea ch ques ion (RQ2) leads us
o conside whe he socie y’s suppo o he p ocessing
o he T ans Law may be ela ed o he p esence o ha e
speech on social ne wo ks.
The e is a wide ange o opinions om he di e ‐
en sec o s o Spanish socie y: Suppo e s o he T ans
Poli ics and Go e nance, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197 187
Law conside ha ee gende sel ‐de e mina ion is
essen ial o end disc imina ion agains ans people
(Rod íguez‐Ruiz & Mes e i Mes e, 2021), while c i ics
exp ess an i‐ ans igh s opinions ha may be p ecu so s
o ha e speech and iolen ac ions (Ca a alá, 2020).
The main objec i e o his wo k is o analyze public
opinion on he p ocessing o he T ans Law p oposal and
i s main s a emen s, wi h special a en ion o age, gen‐
de , and poli ical ideology, and compa e i wi h he p es‐
ence o ha e speech messages ega ding gende iden i y
o exp ession on he social ne wo k Twi e . This wo k
aims o ill a gap, s udying he ela ionship be ween he
pe cep ion o a con o e sial and pola izing issue, he
app o al o he T ans Law, and he public exp ession o
said pola iza ion h ough social ne wo ks.
2. Theo e ical Backg ound
The T ans Law is p omo ed by he Minis y o Equali y
and aims o p o ec he igh s o LGTBI people and hei
amilies. The Council o Minis e s app o ed he law on
June 29, 2022, allowing i o go h ough he legisla i e
p ocess and be app o ed in Decembe 2022. The p o‐
posed law aims o comply wi h he p inciple o o ‐
mal equali y, p oclaimed in A icle 14 o he Spanish
Cons i u ion (Co es Gene ales, 1978), he p inciple o
eal and e ec i e equali y (A . 9.2), and he conside a‐
ion o he digni y o he pe son and he ee de elop‐
men o he pe sonali y as he ounda ion o he poli ical
o de and social peace (A . 10.1).
The T ans Law p oposes an es ablishmen o a mini‐
mum sys em o p o ec ion agains disc imina ion based
on sexual o ien a ion and iden i y, gende exp ession,
o uni o m sexual cha ac e is ics h oughou he s a e
e i o y, which p o ec s equali y laws; p ohibi s con e ‐
sion he apies; allows access o assis ed ep oduc ion
se ices o ans people wi h he abili y o ges a e; legis‐
la es o in e sex human igh s, a oiding medical‐su gical
in e en ions du ing he i s yea o li e when hei
ep oduc i e ana omy has cha ac e is ics o bo h sexes
(excep o heal h easons); p omo es he employmen
o ans women; and includes o he impo an subjec s
o he p o ec ion o LGTBI people and hei en i onmen .
The law also de ines o he elemen s aimed a imp o ing
he quali y o li e o LGTBI people, such as equi ing ha
companies wi h mo e han 50 wo ke s ha e ac ion p o o‐
cols o add essing ha assmen o iolence agains LGTBI
people. I also includes measu es o p e en homeless‐
ness among LGTBI people and measu es on adop ion and
os e ca e. Conce ning u al Spain, i includes he e m
“sexilio” (exile o easons o gende ) and indica es ha
LGTBI people om u al en i onmen s mus be able o
access he same esou ces unde he same condi ions as
in big ci ies.
The public ecei es in o ma ion abou his ype o
legal p ocedu e ha depends o a la ge ex en on he
media, public opinion, and he con e sa ion a ound he
issues ha make up he cu en agenda. Ci izen pa ‐
icipa ion is challenging in ou socie ies (Nase e al.,
2021). Knowing how ci izens pe cei e he p oposed law
and i s con en is ele an o unde s anding he sup‐
po ha should be o e ed and how i can a ec u u e
decisions by go e nmen en i ies (Bayo Fe nández e al.,
2018). Some p e ious s udies ha e made ad ances in
analyzing public suppo o go e nmen ac ions, espe‐
cially in he case o he heal h c isis (Chon & Pa k, 2021;
Jø gensen e al., 2021). Fo his eason, we pu o wa d
a i s hypo hesis:
H1: The highe he le el o in o ma ion decla ed
abou he T ans Law, he g ea e he suppo shown.
Acco ding o da a om he Cen o de In es igaciones
Sociológicas (2021), 93.9% o Spania ds decla e hem‐
sel es o be he e osexual. Howe e , in he younge age
g oup, 18–24 yea s old, only 82.7% iden i y as he e o‐
sexual, while 16.4% iden i y wi h o he sexual o ien a‐
ions. The Ins i u o de la Ju en ud (2020) also poin s in a
simila di ec ion: 16% o young people (15–29 yea s old)
decla e hemsel es o be non‐he e osexual, and a ound
75% iden i y wi h one o he masculine o eminine poles,
while 25% iden i y wi h non‐bina y posi ions. Tha is why
i can be unde s ood ha young people a e mo e likely
o show suppo o he T ans Law, so we s a e he ollow‐
ing hypo hesis:
H2: The younge he pe son, he mo e suppo hey
show o he p oposed T ans Law.
In he i s decade o he 21s cen u y, Spain achie ed
subs an ial p og ess in LGBT igh s. The legisla ion
go e ning amily o ma ion, ilia ion, and ma iage
included LGBT amilies, which mean he isibili y o
non‐he e osexual nuclea amily s uc u es and new
models o pa en hood (Imaz, 2017). Cal o and T ujillo
(2011) epo ed ha changes in he Ci il Code allowed
homosexual couples o ma y, and ull adop ion igh s
we e also g an ed in 2005. Pla e o‐Méndez (2008) indi‐
ca es ha , his o ically, he cen e and he le ‐wing poli ‐
ical ideologies ha e made a g ea e e o o legisla e
owa d he igh s o sexual mino i ies. The le ‐wing poli ‐
ical g oups ha e included gende iden i y issues in hei
poli ics and ha e wo ked o achie e social imp o emen s.
We can he e o e p opose a new hypo hesis:
H3: The s onge he le is ideology ha a pe son
has, he g ea e hei suppo o he p oposal o he
T ans Law.
By conduc ing a e iew o he main poin s o con lic
and con o e sy in Spanish public opinion, we can check
whe he , compa ed o people who do no suppo he
T ans Law, people who do exp ess suppo o i will show
ag eemen wi h he app o al o hese poin s indi idually.
Rega dless o he impo an ad ances wi h Law
03/2007, he LGTBI+ o ganiza ions con inued o poin
Poli ics and Go e nance, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197 188
ou he limi a ions o ans people’s igh s, such as
he p e ious p o essional diagnosis o he legal gen‐
de change and he limi a ion by age (only in 2019
we e mino s conside ed ma u e enough o change
hei legal gende ). The e o e, he inclusion o gende
sel ‐de e mina ion in he law ep esen s a subs an ial
imp o emen in he si ua ion o ansgende people
in Spain, and i is an old demand o LGTBI people
(Es e e‐Alguacil & Nonell i Rod íguez, 2021). Despi e
being one o he mos con o e sial issues in he bill,
14 au onomous communi ies ha e al eady ecognized
ee gende sel ‐de e mina ion be o e he deba e on he
T ans Law. Howe e , he esul s o a p io public consul‐
a ion ca ied ou by he Minis y o Equali y be ween
June 26 and July 15, 2020, in which 1,044 con ibu ions
om ci izens we e ecei ed, e ealed ha 58% o he
con ibu ions submi ed ejec ed he p inciple o gende
sel ‐de e mina ion. Tha is why i is a poin o con lic ,
and he ollowing hypo hesis can be s a ed:
H4: Compa ed o people who do no suppo he
T ans Law, hose who suppo i will be mo e likely
o ag ee wi h ans people legally changing hei
gende wi hou he need o a medical diagnosis
(sel ‐de e mina ion).
Conse a i e sec o s o Spanish poli ics ha e a acked
gende sel ‐de e mina ion. Fo example, he p esiden
o he ex eme‐ igh pa y VOX, San iago Abascal, signed
an opinion a icle published in he newspape El Mundo
decla ing ha i he T ans Law we e app o ed, any
ci izen ( apis o abuse ) would be able o choose
hei legal sex, which would be a h ea o he li es
o women and child en (Abascal, 2021). On he o he
hand, he e is an e iden con lic be ween some ad‐
ical eminis g oups, who conside ha ee gende
sel ‐de e mina ion e ases women, and ans g oups,
who conside ha pa hologiza ion and he bu eauc a ic
p ocess is a s igma (Co al‐Díaz, 2021); hey end o
disag ee wi h he ans‐exclusiona y adical eminism
(TERF) g oups because o hei opposi ion o anssexual
heses (Ál a ez‐Rod íguez, 2022). Wi hin he amewo k
o public discussions abou he T ans Law, he use o he
hash ag #Con aElBo adoDeLasMuje es has been ea ‐
i med as he posi ion con a y o he au onomous iden‐
i y o anssexual people (Fe é‐Pa ia & Zaldí a , 2022).
Since i is ano he con o e sial poin , we s a e he ol‐
lowing hypo hesis:
H5: Compa ed o people who do no suppo he
T ans Law, hose who suppo i will ag ee ha em‐
inism, in gene al, should be inclusi e owa d ans
women.
Some LGBTI+ o ganiza ions ha e also c i icized he T ans
Law, bu in his case, despi e ecognizing ha he law
p esen s signi ican ad ances o LGBTI igh s, such as
gende sel ‐de e mina ion, hey ha e conce ns ha ce ‐
ain limi a ions ha e ye o be conside ed. Acco ding
o p ominen o ganiza ions such as FELGTBI+, Ch ysallis,
and Fundación T iángulo (FELGTBI+ e al., 2021), one o
hese claims would be a hi d box on he na ional iden i y
documen so ha non‐bina y people can ma k i . Simila
policies ha e been adop ed in he Ca alonia Au onomous
Communi y. In 2019, he Ca alan Depa men o Labo ,
Social A ai s, and Families announced ha o icial docu‐
men s in Ca alonia would include “non‐bina y” as a hi d
op ion. In 2022, Ca alonia inco po a ed he e e ence o
non‐bina ism, e e ing o “sense” and amily di e si y in
adminis a i e documen s. Based on his poin , we es ab‐
lish he ollowing hypo hesis:
H6: Compa ed o people who do no suppo T ans
Law, hose who suppo i will ag ee ha non‐bina y
people’s igh s should be included.
The public discussion abou he legisla ion on sexual
o ien a ion and gende iden i y gene a es such pola ‐
ized opinions ha public demons a ions, in suppo and
ejec ion o he law, a e obse ed du ing legisla i e p o‐
cessing, which open new spaces o ex eme discou ses
and, he e o e, o ha m ul con en a ge ing his his‐
o ically ulne able g oup. Sponholz and Ch is o ole i
(2019) poin ou ha he media sys em, wi h s ong
comme cial ies, especially ele ision and he in e ne ,
can empowe public igu es who gi e speeches ha con‐
ain iolence agains mino i y g oups o gua an ee hei
p esence and media p ominence. I is o g ea impo ‐
ance on he in e ne since homogeneous discussion
spaces, echo chambe s, and in en ional misin o ma ion
con ibu e o c ea ing a oxic a mosphe e (Cinelli e al.,
2021). To eg osa e al. (2020) conclude ha ex emis
poli ical g oups use iolen discou se o main ain hei
ele ance in he ne wo ks and ampli y hei opinions ol‐
lowing an echo chambe e ec .
In addi ion, i is impo an o highligh ha he T ans
Law was p oposed in a con ex o conce n abou he
inc ease in ha e c imes agains he LGTBI communi y.
Acco ding o he epo on he e olu ion o ha e c ime
in Spain 2021, published by he Minis y o he In e io
(López Gu ié ez, Sánchez Jiménez, e al., 2021), he ca ‐
ego y o sexual o ien a ion and gende iden i y is he
subjec o he second la ges numbe o egis e ed ha e
c imes (466 cases), 25.86% o he o al cases. I ep e‐
sen s an inc ease o 68.23% compa ed o he p e ious
yea (277 cases in 2020). On he o he hand, he same
epo indica es ha 87.10% o he ic ims o ha e c imes
based on sexual o ien a ion/gende iden i y did no ile a
complain , meaning ha he eal numbe o ha e c imes
agains he LGBTI popula ion may e en be highe han
hose egis e ed and ha he olume o unde ‐ epo ing
is high. On he o he hand, da a om he Eu opean
Union Agency o Fundamen al Righ s (2020) show ha
anssexual and in e sex people su e he mos iolence,
in ole ance, and disc imina ion in Spain. Fo y‐one pe ‐
cen o LGTBI people su e ed some ype o ha assmen
Poli ics and Go e nance, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197 189
due o hei condi ion, and 8% o hose had su e ed
some physical o sexual assaul in he las i e yea s.
Howe e , ha assmen a ec s 51% o ansgende people
and 52% o in e sex people in Spain, while physical o sex‐
ual assaul s a ec 15% and 19%, espec i ely.
Ha e speech is any o m o exp ession ha sp eads,
inci es, p omo es, o jus i ies any o m o ha e based on
in ole ance (A cila‐Calde ón e al., 2021). I can be ans‐
mi ed h ough many o ms o exp ession, language, and
media. Fu he mo e, in he con ex o public discussion,
ha e speech can p o oke, a ac , and empowe people
who oppose socially ejec ed indi iduals. Beyond he dis‐
semina ion o disc imina o y pe spec i es, ha e speech
can also e ol e in o beha io s ha gi e ise o o he
ypes o iolen ac s (Allpo , 1954) and poli ical adical‐
iza ion (Abuín‐Vences e al., 2022; Bilewicz & So al, 2020;
So al e al., 2018).
We a e cu en ly imme sed in a con ex whe e he
c ea ion and dissemina ion o con en in digi al media
and social ne wo ks a e g owing e e as e . Unde
his ci cums ance, ha e speech can igge ha e c imes
(A cila‐Calde ón e al., 2020). Mülle and Schwa z (2020)
sugges ha he e is a signi ican ela ionship be ween
online ha e speech and o line iolen a acks. Consis en
wi h his hesis, Regeh (2022) concludes ha he in e ‐
ne ’s echo chambe can con ibu e o c ea ing a loop ha
ans o ms digi al ha ed in o physical iolence. In addi‐
ion, he e is e idence ha i a g oup ecei es g ea
suppo om socie y, he le el o ha e speech online is
in e sely p opo ional (A cila‐Calde ón e al., 2022). Fo
all hese easons, we pose RQ2.
3. Me hods
The me hodology p esen s a public opinion su ey
among ci izens, which will se e o answe RQ1.
The me hodology uses compu a ional me hods and con‐
en analysis o analyze Twi e messages wi h an au o‐
ma ic lea ning algo i hm ha classi ies hem as ha e o
non‐ha e, and ha will answe RQ2.
3.1. Public Opinion Su ey
A elephone su ey was ca ied ou on No embe 12,
2021. An anonymous ques ionnai e su ey was ca ied
ou by a ained eam and applied o Spanish ci izens
be ween 16 and 89 yea s old, acco ding o he se en h
a icle o he o ganic law on pe sonal da a p o ec ion
and gua an ee o digi al igh s (Je a u a del Es ado, 2018).
People unde 16 o who did no li e in Spanish e i o y
we e no conside ed o he in e iew. The da a was col‐
lec ed om a sample o pa icipan s using Die Random
Dia y (a p e ix 6xx and adding i e andom numbe s).
The o al sample was n=181. Rega ding he gende o
he pa icipan s, 52.5% we e women, and 45.9% we e
men. The mos ep esen ed au onomous communi ies
in he s udy case a e Andalusia, wi h 21% o he espon‐
den s; Mad id, wi h 18.8%; and Ca alonia, wi h 17.7%.
The esea ch is no ep esen a i e. The o al sample
was n=181. A powe analysis indica ed ha he sample
size was adequa e. Speci ically, he a p io i analysis using
G*Powe 3.1.9.7 (Faul e al., 2009) de e mined ha a
medium e ec size o 0.3 (Cohen, 1988) can be de ec ed
wi h a leas 67 indi iduals (assuming 1 – B=0.80 and
alpha le el 𝛼=0.05), which means ha ou sample was
sa is ac o y. Rega ding he gende o he pa icipan s,
52.5% we e women and 45.9% we e men.
The su ey was di ided in o wo sec ions. The i s
included he ollowing sociodemog aphic ca ego ies:
• Gende (male, emale,non‐bina y);
• Age (in yea s);
• Region o esidence in Spain;
• Poli ical ideology (measu ed on a scale om
1=ex eme le o 10 =ex eme igh );
• Le el o in o ma ion decla ed abou he T ans Law
and i s con en (measu ed on a scale om 1 =li le
in o ma ion o 5 =much in o ma ion).
In he second sec ion, he ollowing a iables and mea‐
su es we e used:
• Suppo o he T ans Law: Do you ag ee wi h he
app o al o he law o he eal and e ec i e equal‐
i y o ans people and o he gua an ee o he
igh s o LGTBI people, known as he T ans Law?
Yes,No,I p e e no o answe .
• Suppo o ansgende people o legally change
hei gende wi hou he need o a medical diag‐
nosis: Do you ag ee ha ansgende people can
legally change hei gende wi hou he need o
a medical diagnosis (sel ‐de e mina ion)? Yes,No,
I p e e no o answe .
• Feminism should include ans women: Do you
ag ee ha eminism, in gene al, includes ans
women? Yes,No,I p e e no o answe .
• Suppo o he inco po a ion o non‐bina y peo‐
ple in o he T ans Law: Do you ag ee ha
non‐bina y people a e included in he T ans Law?
Yes,No,I p e e no o answe .
The esponses ob ained we e anonymized. Da a we e
analyzed using he IBM SPSS p og am, pe o ming
an explo a o y and desc ip i e analysis, including
c oss ables and co ela ion o independen a iables.
A hypo hesis con as o ela ionships be ween wo a i‐
ables was pe o med, using chi‐squa e es s.
3.2. Compu a ional Me hods and Con en Analysis
In he second s age, ha e speech de ec ion was ca ‐
ied ou on Twi e . The wo k was di ided in o wo
main phases, one o c ea e a aining co pus and
ano he o gene a e p edic i e models. The c ea ion o
a speci ic co pus o he s udy allows us o o e come
he limi a ions o p e iously de eloped p o o ypes ha
Poli ics and Go e nance, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197 190
used dic iona ies o gene al da abases (A cila‐Calde ón
e al., 2020).
To c ea e he aining co pus, da a collec ion was
ca ied ou be ween July 1 and No embe 30, 2021,
da es selec ed as hey we e closes o he publica ion
o he T ans Law. The download o he messages om
he social ne wo k Twi e was ca ied ou in he in e‐
g a ed en i onmen Pycha m, connec ed o he appli‐
ca ion p og amming in e ace. The downloaded mes‐
sages we e il e ed by he Spanish language and he
keywo ds: #NoLeyT ans, #NoALaNiñezT ans, #T ans obia,
#Homo obia, #LaLeyT ansEsMisoginia, #NOalaLeyT ans,
#TERF, #T ansodio, #20No , #LeyT ansAlCong eso,
#LeyT ans, #LGTBI, #Feminismo. The da abase was
cleaned, and all wee s ha used he keywo ds in
ano he con ex o language, hose ha con ained
incomple e messages, o did no di ec ly e e o he
opic we e manually dele ed. Al hough a la ge numbe
o messages we e downloaded, he inal sample con‐
sis ed o 5,000 wee s, which we e hen manually so ed
by a eam o ained code s.
The de ini ion o ha e speech used o coding was
based on he h ee le els o cybe ha e included in he ax‐
onomy p oposed by Mi ó‐Llina es (2016) and included
all ypes o ha e based on gende and sexual o ien a‐
ion ha could cons i u e a c ime. The desc ip ion and
classi ica ion p ocedu es o ha e speech de eloped by
A cila‐Calde ón e al. (2021) we e ollowed.
All wee s we e manually classi ied in o subsamples
o 500 wee s by wo human code s, indica ing whe he
hey con ained ha e (1) o no ha e (0) in a bina y way
and disca ding all hose ha did no mee he es ab‐
lished equi emen s. To check he eliabili y o he in e ‐
code s, only he classi ica ions wi h o al ag eemen
we e accep ed; he es we e disca ded.
F om he ini ial sample o 5,000 wee s, 3,756
(75.12%) we e alida ed, while 1,244 messages (24.88%)
did no mee he alida ion pa ame e and we e dis‐
ca ded. O he alida ed messages used o c ea e
he aining co pus, 3,394 wee s we e classi ied as
non‐ha e (90.36%), and 362 we e classi ied as ha e
(9.64%; Table 1).
The gene a ed co pus was hen used o ain he p e‐
dic i e model wi h machine lea ning algo i hms based
on he p o o ype o he au oma ic de ec ion o ha e
speech on Twi e in Spanish speci ically mo i a ed by
gende and sexual o ien a ion om A cila‐Calde ón e al.
(2021). The machine lea ning algo i hm was used o
de ec ha e speech on Twi e based on a s ance o
o agains ans laws. Examples we e p o ided o he
model (70% aining, 30% es ), and eigh p edic i e
models we e alida ed; six o hem we e gene a ed by
using su ace lea ning algo i hms (o iginal Naï e Bayes,
Naï e Bayes o mul inomial models, Naï e Bayes o
Be noulli’s mul i a ia e models, logis ic eg ession, lin‐
ea classi ie s wi h s ochas ic g adien descen ain‐
ing, and suppo ec o machines), ano he model was
gene a ed om eedback om p e ious models, and a
inal model was gene a ed using deep lea ning. Fo he
e alua ion o he p edic i e model, e alua ion me ics
o supe ised machine lea ning we e applied. This al‐
ida ion e u ned accep able quali y e alua ion me ics
o he ha e class, wi h he ollowing esul s: accu‐
acy =0.8510, p ecision =0.7124, ecall =0.6979, and
F1 sco e =0.7051. To p o ide a me ic calcula ed om
p ecision and ecall, we use he ROC‐AUC sco e =0.8688,
which de ines he h eshold classi ica ion model unc ion
(0.70) and a loss o 0.4066.
4. Resul s
4.1. Public Opinion Su ey
In his sec ion, we will add ess he i s esea ch ques‐
ion (RQ1), which asked whe he he public suppo he
p ocessing o he T ans Law and, i so, whe he i s sup‐
po e s also suppo he Law’s main poin s. In addi ion,
in a second esea ch ques ion (RQ2), we will e iew he
le el o social suppo o he T ans Law and add ess all
he es ablished hypo heses.
Taking he o al sample, he esul s indica e ha
80.1% o hose su eyed ag eed wi h he app o al o
he T ans Law (o which 42.1% we e women, 55.9% we e
men, and 2.1% did no decla e hei gende ), 14.4% dis‐
ag eed, and 5.5% p e e ed no o decla e. As o he
le el o suppo o he issues ela ed o he law ha ha e
been he subjec o discussion, we can see ha i is lowe
han he gene al suppo o he law, bu hey a e mos ly
suppo ed by mo e han hal o hose su eyed: 61.9%
ag eed wi h gende sel ‐de e mina ion, 58% ag eed wi h
he inclusion o non‐bina y people in he law, and 67.4%
ag eed wi h ans‐inclusi e eminism (Table 2).
Rega ding he le el o in o ma ion, on a scale om
1 (li le in o ma ion) o5(much in o ma ion), 48.6%
o he pa icipan s s a ed ha hey had “li le in o ma‐
ion” on he subjec ; 19.3%, “nei he much no e y
li le in o ma ion”; 14.4%, “some in o ma ion”; 11.6%,
“enough in o ma ion”; and 6.1%, “a lo o in o ma ion.”
Table 1. Sample o wee s.
To al sample o wee s Disca ded Valida ed sample
5,000 1,244 3,756
No ha e Ha e
3,394 362
Poli ics and Go e nance, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197 191

Table 2. Public opinion su ey gene al esul s.
Ques ion Yes No Did no answe
Do you ag ee wi h he app o al o he law o he eal and e ec i e equali y 80.1% 14.4% 5.5%
o ans people and o he gua an ee o he igh s o LGTBI people, known
as he “T ans Law’’?
Do you ag ee ha ansgende people should be able o make a legal gende 61.9% 30.9% 7.2%
change wi hou he need o a medical diagnosis (sel ‐de e mina ion)?
Do you ag ee ha eminism, in gene al, should include ans women? 67.4% 13.3% 19.3%
Do you ag ee ha non‐bina y people should be included in T ans Law? 58% 19.9% 22.1%
The mean is 2.12, which shows a low le el o in o ma‐
ion abou he law. We can e i y he le el o suppo
o he law in each g oup o esponden s wi h di e ‐
en le els o in o ma ion. Rega ding he pa icipan s who
s a ed ha hey had “li le in o ma ion” on he subjec ,
72.7% ag eed wi h he app o al o he law and 17% dis‐
ag eed. As o hose su eyed who claimed o ha e “nei‐
he much no li le in o ma ion,” 85.7% ag eed wi h
he law’s app o al, while 11.4% disag eed. Conside ing
he esponden s who said hey had “some in o ma ion,”
92.3% ag eed wi h he app o al o he law and 7.7% dis‐
ag eed. Rega ding he esponden s who s a ed ha hey
had “enough in o ma ion,” 90.5% o hem ag eed and
9.5% disag eed. O he esponden s who s a ed ha hey
had “a lo o in o ma ion,” 72.7% ag eed and 27.3% dis‐
ag eed. Responding o H1, he highe he le el o in o ‐
ma ion decla ed abou he T ans Law, he g ea e he sup‐
po shown o he law; he e is no s a is ically signi ican
ela ionship be ween he suppo o he T ans Law and
he le el o in o ma ion decla ed abou he law and i s
con en (𝜒2[1, N=171] =4.095; p>0.05).
Conside ing age, he mean o hose su eyed was
54 yea s (M=54.01, SD =17.44). The age a iable was
ecoded as an o dinal a iable in o de o make g oup
compa isons, g ouping he obse a ions in o h ee age
g oups made up o a g oup o young people and young
adul s om 16 o 46 yea s old (30.4% o he pa ici‐
pan s); ano he g oup o adul s, om 47 o 60 yea s old
(30.4% o he pa icipan s); and a hi d g oup made up
o olde adul s, om 60 o 89 yea s old (39.2% o he
pa icipan s). The g oup made up o young people and
young adul s (16 o 46 yea s old) had he leas a o ‐
able opinion: The esul s show ha 74.5% o his g oup
ag eed wi h he app o al o he T ans Law, 18.2% dis‐
ag eed, and 7.3% p e e ed no o answe . In he nex
g oup (47 o 60 yea s old), 81.8% o adul s ag eed, 12.7%
disag eed, and 5.5% p e e ed no o answe . The g oup
o olde people had he mos a o able opinion: 83.1%
ag eed, 12.7% disag eed, and 4.2% p e e ed no o
answe . This da a shows ha he younges age g oup
is he one ha disag eed he mos wi h he app o al
o he law. The e is no s a is ically signi ican ela ion‐
ship be ween suppo o he app o al o he T ans Law
and age (𝜒2[1, N=171] =56.374; p>0.05). The e o e,
H2, s a ing ha he younge he pe son, he g ea e he
suppo hey show o he T ans Law p oposal, can be
ejec ed. In addi ion, ega ding o he issues (legal ecog‐
ni ion o gende by sel ‐de e mina ion, he inclusion o
non‐bina y people in he T ans Law, and he inclusion
o ans women in eminism), we obse ed ha hese
g oups o di e en ages also beha ed simila ly. The di e ‐
ences obse ed when compa ing he opinions exp essed
by he h ee age g oups ega ding he app o al o he law
do no p esen s a is ically signi ican esul s.
Paying a en ion now o he decla ed poli ical ideol‐
ogy, he a e age o hose su eyed is 4.54 (SD =2.10),
which implies a sligh endency o he le . The poli ‐
ical ideology a iable was ecoded as an o dinal a i‐
able, in o de o make g oup compa isons, ex ac ing
h ee g oups by ideology wi h he ollowing dis ibu ions:
38.1% le ( om 1 o 4), 35.4% om he cen e (5 and 6),
and 12.2% om he igh ( om 7 o 10). Howe e , a con‐
side able g oup o people (14.4%) did no answe he
ques ion. The le is g oup had he mos a o able opin‐
ion owa ds he T ans Law. O he le ‐wing pa icipan s,
88.4% ag eed wi h he app o al o he law, 8.7% dis‐
ag eed, and 2.9% p e e ed no o answe . O he cen is
pa icipan s, 79.7% ag eed, 14.1% disag eed, and 6.3%
p e e ed no o answe . The g oup leas a o able o he
T ans Law was he igh : 63.6% ag eed, 31.8% disag eed,
and 4.5% p e e ed no o answe . This end ex ends o
he es o he hemes (see Table 3). To espond o H3,
which s a ed ha he mo e o a le is ideology an indi id‐
ual has, he g ea e hei suppo o he T ans Law p o‐
posal, we obse ed a s a is ically signi ican ela ionship
(p<0.05) be ween suppo o he T ans Law and poli ical
ideology. The ela ionship is weakly posi i e ( =0.171);
ha is, he g ea e hei suppo o he T ans Law, he
g ea e he p obabili y ha an indi idual will iden i y as
le ‐wing (𝜒2[1, N=148] =20,100; p<0.05). The e o e,
we can accep ou second hypo hesis.
We nex e iew H4, which s a ed ha compa ed o
people who do no suppo he T ans Law, people who
exp ess hei suppo o he T ans Law will be mo e
likely o ag ee wi h ans people legally changing hei
gende wi hou he need o a doc o ’s diagnosis (sel ‐
de e mina ion). Al hough sel ‐de e mina ion has gene ‐
a ed much con o e sy and has been c i icized by ci il
socie y g oups, 61.9% o all esponden s ag eed wi h
ansgende people legally changing hei gende wi h‐
ou he need o a medical diagnosis. Conside ing only
he g oup ha suppo s he T ans Law, 71% suppo ed
Poli ics and Go e nance, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197 192
Table 3. Suppo o he T ans Law opics (di ided by ideology g oups).
Le ‐wing Cen is Righ ‐wing
Subjec (suppo in %) (suppo in %) (suppo in %)
App o al o he T ans Law 88.4% 79.7% 63.6%
Gende sel ‐de e mina ion (no medical equi emen s) 73.9% 62.5% 45.5%
Inclusion o non‐bina y people in he T ans Law 63.8% 65.6% 36.4%
Inclusion o ans women in eminism 81.3% 68.8% 45.5%
sel ‐de e mina ion, 23.4% did no suppo i , and 5.5%
did no answe . The e is a s a is ically signi ican ela ion‐
ship (p<0.01) be ween suppo o he T ans Law and
suppo o gende change wi hou a medical diagnosis.
The ela ionship is posi i e on a e age ( =0.433); ha is,
he g ea e he suppo o he T ans Law, he g ea e he
p obabili y o suppo o gende change wi hou a med‐
ical diagnosis (𝜒2[1, N=163] =30,600; p<0.01) which
allows us o accep his hypo hesis.
Mos o he people who suppo ed he law also
ag eed wi h he inclusion o ans women by eminism
a le els e en highe han he gene al popula ion: 67.4%
o all he pa icipan s said hey ag eed. Conside ing only
he g oup ha suppo ed he T ans Law, 76.6% sup‐
po ed he inclusion o ans women wi hin eminism,
compa ed o 7.6% who disag eed, and 15.9% who p e‐
e ed no o answe . Responding o wha was s a ed
in H5, ha , compa ed o people who do no suppo
he T ans Law, hose who suppo i will ag ee ha em‐
inism, in gene al, should inco po a e and be inclusi e o
ans women, he e is a s a is ically signi ican ela ion‐
ship (p<0.01) be ween suppo o he T ans Law and
suppo o eminism o be inclusi e o ans women.
The ela ionship is posi i e on a e age ( =0.500); ha is,
he g ea e he suppo o he T ans Law, he g ea e he
p obabili y o suppo o he inclusion o ans women
by eminism (𝜒2[1, N=141] =35,301; p<0.01).
To e ise ou las hypo hesis (H6, compa ed o people
who do no suppo T ans Law, people who exp ess sup‐
po o T ans Law will show ag eemen wi h he inco ‐
po a ion o non‐bina y people’s igh s in he law), con‐
side ing only he g oup ha suppo s he law, 65.5% also
ag eed wi h he inclusion o non‐bina y people in his leg‐
isla ion, compa ed o 15.9% who disag eed and 18.6%
who did no answe . The e is a s a is ically signi ican
ela ionship (p<0.01) be ween suppo o he T ans Law
and suppo o he inclusion o non‐bina y people in he
law. The ela ionship is weakly posi i e ( =0.366); ha
is, he highe he suppo o he T ans Law, he g ea e
he p obabili y o suppo o non‐bina y people o be
included in he law (𝜒2(1, N=136) =18.186; p<0.01).
4.2. Compu a ional Me hods and Con en Analysis
Finally, o answe RQ2, on whe he g ea e suppo
shown o he p oposed T ans Law esul s in less ha e
speech on social ne wo ks, we analyzed he messages
collec ed on Twi e . O he messages ob ained in he i s
p ocess, 75.12% me he alida ion c i e ia. Conside ing
he esul s ob ained, added o he e iew o he quali‐
a i e analysis, we obse e ha mos o he wee s col‐
lec ed in he sample ha e a a o able one ega ding he
ecen ly app o ed law o eal and e ec i e equali y o
ans people and o he gua an ee o igh s o LGBTI peo‐
ple. O he alida ed messages, 90.36% we e iden i ied
as no ha e ul and 9.64% as ha e ul. The pe cen age o
ha e messages ound in he sample is s ill high. I we com‐
pa e i wi h he gene al suppo o he T ans Law ha
decla es ci izenship, we can see ha he e is s ill wo k o
be done. Al hough he le el o suppo ound is high, he
p esence o ha e speech on he social ne wo k Twi e
con inues o be impo an . I is con enien o con inue
p epa ing new analyses and o analyze a di ec ela ion‐
ship be ween he a iables o suppo and he p esence
o ha e speech.
Howe e , we ha e iden i ied ha o he ha e ul mes‐
sages, he majo i y we e di ec ed a ans women, whe e
hey we e classi ied as “disguised men” o accused o
being dange ous o cisgende women o e en o wish‐
ing o mu ila e and gi e ho mones o unde age child en.
Below a e some examples ansla ed in o English as accu‐
a ely as possible:
Men a e NOT women, no e en disguised as caba e
dance s no wea ing women unde wea ….I is imposi‐
ble ha men eel like women.
Abou he mino s whose ho mones and mu ila ion
you a e going o legalize wi h you abjec law.
Only women can ges a e. Woman is he human
emale. Sex is immu able.
Boys and gi ls: Ea ing chocola e and chopped
po k sandwich—NO, BAD, INSANE. Boys and gi ls:
Ho mones and mu ila ions om he age o 10 o calm
you pa en s’ #homophobia and #lesbophobia—
VERY GOOD, HEALTHY. Albe o Ga zón and I ene
Mon e o a e a plague o #Childhood.
5. Conclusions, Limi a ions, and Fu u e S udies
Compa ing he da a ob ained by he public opinion su ‐
ey and he classi ica ion o Twi e messages, bo h
Poli ics and Go e nance, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197 193
me hodologies poin ed o a high le el o suppo o he
T ans Law; 80% o he esponden s ag eed wi h he law’s
app o al and 90% o he messages collec ed we e clas‐
si ied as non‐ha e. These numbe s a e consis en wi h
o he da a ega ding he Spanish popula ion’s pe cep‐
ion o he LGBTI communi y in gene al. Acco ding o
he special epo Disc imina ion in he Eu opean Union
(Eu oba ome e , 2019), Spain is conside ed he hi d
mos ole an Eu opean coun y owa ds LGBT igh s:
91% o i s popula ion ag ees ha homosexual o bisex‐
ual people should ha e he same igh s as he e osexual
people. The high accep ance a e places he coun y in
hi d place a he Eu opean le el, behind Sweden (98%)
and he Ne he lands (97%).
In gene al, da a om Spain a e mo e LGBTI‐
iendly han he es o Eu ope. Also, acco ding o
Eu oba ome e (2019), we can see ha he Spanish pop‐
ula ion suppo s o he opics ha dialogue wi h he
T ans Law. Such as ha , school lessons and ma e ial
should include in o ma ion abou di e si y in e ms o
sexual o ien a ion (84%), being ansgende (81%), and
being in e sex (80%). In addi ion, mos o he Spanish
popula ion is a o able o non‐bina y people’s igh s:
63% o Spanish people belie e ha o icial documen s
should ha e a hi d op ion besides male and emale.
This da a is close o ha ob ained by ou public opin‐
ion su ey, in which 58% o he pa icipan s s a ed ha
non‐bina y people should be included in he T ans Law.
The igh s o he non‐bina y popula ion a e suppo ed
by a ound 60% o he sample.
Al hough he Spanish popula ion seems ole an , ou
s udy and o icial da a e idence ha LGBT phobia is
s ill a p oblem. Rega ding c imes commi ed agains he
LGBTI popula ion h ough he in e ne and social ne ‐
wo ks, al hough ou da a analysis indica es ha 9.7% o
he messages analyzed we e classi ied as ha e, o icial
da a sugges s ha his subjec has inc eased signi ican ly.
In 2019, he e we e 17 cases o cybe c ime mo i a ed by
a ic im’s sexual o ien a ion o gende iden i y; by 2020,
ha numbe ose o 32 cases; by 2021, i had isen o
60 cases (López Gu ié ez, Sánchez Jiménez, e al., 2021),
an 87.50% inc ease. Ha e speech on social ne wo ks has
a ec ed a la ge pa o he Spanish popula ion, o e hal
o whom ha e ecei ed o ensi e, disc imina o y mes‐
sages o h ea s on social ne wo ks o he in e ne in
he las i e yea s, and almos 60% pe cei e ha his
ype o c ime has inc eased (López Gu ié ez, Fe nández
Villazala, e al., 2021).
Ou wo k also poin s o he need o discuss subjec s
ela ed o he law in addi ion o i s app o al. Fo exam‐
ple, gende sel ‐de e mina ion, poin ed ou as a highly
ele an issue by LGTBI+ o ganiza ions, appea s in many
o he ha e commen s we s udied. No ably, he le el o
suppo o he issues aised (gende sel ‐de e mina ion,
ans‐inclusi e eminism, and he igh s o non‐bina ies)
is lowe han he decla ed suppo o he law i sel .
Lowe le els o suppo o speci ic issues may e lec
a lack o in o ma ion ega ding he law. Mo e han hal
o he esponses (67.9%) s a ed ha ing “li le in o ma‐
ion” o “nei he oo much no oo li le in o ma ion”
abou he bill, which may mean ha al hough he sub‐
jec is on he media agenda, i may be being discussed in
a e y supe icial manne , wi hou del ing in o he sub‐
s an i e poin s.
This s udy had some limi a ions ha a e impo an o
highligh . The use o social media in scien i ic esea ch
has ce ain obs acles, including he ype o sampling
used. In his s udy, conside ing he composi ion o he
social ne wo k Twi e , ce ain sociodemog aphic g oups
a e no ep esen ed. So, using his me hodology, we can
iden i y ha e ul speech, bu we canno s udy he cha ‐
ac e is ics o i s p oduce s no compa e hem o he
esponden s o iden i y how he ecoded social g oups
beha e on social ne wo ks. Meanwhile, he ac ha
Spain’s equali y minis e I ene Mon e o (membe o
he le ‐wing poli ical pa y Podemos) was men ioned
in some ha e ul messages s eps up he his o ical end
also e i ied by ou su ey esul s ha sexual mino i ies’
igh s a e adi ionallyassocia ed wi h he le and cen e
poli ical ideologies. Conside ing he di icul y o ge ing
he answe s and he high a e age age, we ques ion he
elephone in e iew as a ool o his speci ic opic. I is
pe inen o use o he me hodologies o con inue explo ‐
ing public opinion pe cep ion, such as a i ual ques‐
ionnai e, which would allow access o a g ea e num‐
be o people om all au onomous communi ies and all
age anges.
Finally, he p opo ion o ha e ul wee s de ec ed is
less han hose belonging o he egula class—in ou
s udy case, less han 10% o he messages analyzed we e
ha e ul con en —bu i s po en ial ha m should no be
unde es ima ed. Ha ing compa ed his da a wi h he o i‐
cial da a, we ound some new possible hypo heses ha
dese e u he in es iga ion in u u e esea ch. The i s
is ha his pe cen age can g ow i his me hodology
is eplica ed in a yea since online ha e c imes agains
he LGBTI popula ion a e known o be a g owing end.
The second is ha he public pe cei es ha ha e ul con‐
en on social ne wo ks is e en highe . Tha is why i is
in e es ing o de elop new quali a i e and quan i a i e
me hods o e ec i ely compa e he pe cep ions o he
popula ion wi h he o icial da a and he deba e ca ied
ou on social ne wo ks.
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s exp ess hei g a i ude o he s a o
he mas e ’s p og am in Audio isual Communica ion:
Resea ch and Inno a ion o he Uni e si y o Salamanca
o hei suppo in he esou ces and ools o his
esea ch. The au ho s would like o exp ess hei
hanks o all he help in he de elopmen o he
ieldwo k o Alejand a Ga boza, Alejand o Ga cía Ulloa,
Diana Media illa, F escia Hidalgo, Ge mán En íquez,
Isabel Somoza, Jeni e Abad, Jingzi He, Julie a Collado,
Linshu Sheng, Lo ena A é alo, Lu Lin, Ma ía Rod íguez,
Poli ics and Go e nance, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 2, Pages 187–197 194
Se gio Se illano, Mingshu Fang, Suzanne Ma ion, William
González, Williams An onio González, Weixing Zhu,
Xingchen Liu, Xinnan Zhang, Xinxin Kong, and Zhou
Heng ui. They also hank C is ina Cal o o he help in
he coo dina ion o he su ey ieldwo k.
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es s.
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