The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume II
The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume II
Co e pho o: Yung-Sen Wu
Uni ed Na ions Wo ld Oceans Day Pho o Compe i ion
Uni ed Na ions publica ion
Sales no.: E.21.V.5
ISBN: 978-92-1-1-130422-0
eISBN: 978-92-1-1-604006-2
Copy igh © Uni ed Na ions, 2021
All igh s ese ed
P in ed a he Uni ed Na ions, New Yo k
Ŵŵŵŵiii
Con en s
Volume I
Page
Fo ewo d by he Sec e a y-Gene al ............................................. iii
Summa y .................................................................
P e ace ................................................................. ii
Pa one: Summa y ........................................................... 1
Chap e 1: O e all summa y.................................................... 3
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 5
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 5
2. D i e s ......................................................... 6
3. Cleaning up he ocean............................................ 7
4. P o ec ing ma ine ecosys ems..................................... 10
5. Unde s anding o he ocean o sus ainable managemen ............. 13
6. P omo ing sa e y om he ocean .................................. 15
7. Sus ainable ood om he ocean................................... 16
8. Sus ainable economic use o he ocean............................. 19
9. E ec i e implemen a ion o in e na ional law as eƽec ed in
he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea ................. 21
Pa wo: In oduc ion......................................................... 37
Chap e 2: App oach o he assessmen ......................................... 39
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 41
1. Pu pose o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ..................... 41
2. P ima y audience and amewo k o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen 42
3. P epa a ion o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen .................. 43
4. Te minology .................................................... 44
5. Acknowledgemen s.............................................. 45
Re e ences......................................................... 45
Chap e : Scien iƼc unde s andinK o ɸ he ocean.................................. 47
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 49
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 49
2. Desc ip ion o changes in da a, echnology and models since he
Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen and hei consequences o o e all
unde s anding, including socioeconomic consequences............... 50
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Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume II
Page
3. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 51
4. Ou look o scien iƼc unde s anding o he ocean..................... 56
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 56
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 57
Re e ences......................................................... 58
Pa h ee: ( i e s o chanKes in heɸma ine en i onmen .......................... 63
Chap e 4: D i e s ............................................................ 65
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 67
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 67
2. D i e s o change in he ma ine en i onmen ......................... 69
3. Key egion-speciƼc issues o aspec s associa ed wi h d i e s .......... 73
4. Ou look ........................................................ 74
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 76
Re e ences......................................................... 77
Pa ou : Cu en s a e o he ma ine en i onmen andɸi s ends ................... 81
Chap e : 8 ends in he physical and chemical s a e o ɸ he ocean................... 83
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 85
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 85
2. Physical and chemical s a e o he ocean............................ 87
3. Knowledge gaps................................................. 100
4. Summa y....................................................... 101
Re e ences......................................................... 103
Chap e : 8 ends in he biodi e si y o ɸ heɸmain a a o ma ine bio a ................ 111
In oduc ion........................................................ 113
Chap e 6A: Plank on phy oplank on, ^ooplank on, mic obes andɸ i uses......... 115
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 117
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 117
2. Summa y o chap e 6 o he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........... 118
3. Regions a ge ed in he p esen Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............. 119
4. Es ima ing plank on di e si y ..................................... 120
5. Mic obial plank on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6. Me azoan zooplank on ........................................... 124
7. Documen ed ends.............................................. 125
8. Ou look ........................................................ 128
Re e ences......................................................... 130

Ŵŵŵŵ
Con en s
Chap e 6B: Ma ine in e eb a es ............................................ 141
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 143
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 143
2. Summa y o he si ua ion eco ded in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen . 143
3. Desc ip ion o en i onmen al changes 2010Ɓ2020................... 144
4. In e na ional and go e nmen al esponses .......................... 151
5. Achie emen o ele an Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and con ibu ion
o Aichi Biodi e si y Ta ge 11 ..................................... 153
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps and capaci y-building gaps ............ 153
Re e ences......................................................... 154
Addendum by he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global
Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen ,
including Socioeconomic Aspec s.................................. 158
Re e ences......................................................... 159
Chap e 6C: Fishes ........................................................ 161
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 163
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 163
2. Documen ed change in he s a e o Ƽsh biodi e si y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3. Consequences o biodi e si y change on human communi ies,
economies andɸwell-being ........................................ 168
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 169
5. Ou look ........................................................ 171
Re e ences......................................................... 172
Chap e 6D: Ma ine mammals............................................... 177
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 179
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 179
2. Ce aceans...................................................... 181
3. Pinnipeds....................................................... 184
4. Si enians ....................................................... 186
5. O e s and pola bea ............................................. 186
6. Consequences o changes on human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 187
7. Ou look ........................................................ 188
8. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 189
9. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 189
Re e ences......................................................... 190
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Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume II
Chap e 6E: Ma ine ep iles ................................................. 195
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 197
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 197
2. Conse a ion s a us o ma ine ep iles.............................. 197
3. Regional ends.................................................. 199
4. Th ea s......................................................... 201
5. Economic and social consequences o he changes o ma ine ep ile
popula ions..................................................... 203
6. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 204
Re e ences......................................................... 205
Chap e 6F: Seabi ds....................................................... 211
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 213
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 213
2. Desc ip ion o en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020......... 214
3. Consequences o changes in seabi d popula ions on human
communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ............................ 217
4. Ou look ........................................................ 218
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 219
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 220
Re e ences......................................................... 220
Chap e 6G: Ma ine plan s and mac oalgae.................................... 225
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 227
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 227
2. Mang o es ..................................................... 227
3. Sal ma sh plan s................................................ 229
4. Seag asses ..................................................... 230
5. Mac oalgae..................................................... 232
6. Consequences o changes on human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 240
7. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 241
8. Ou look ........................................................ 241
Re e ences......................................................... 242
Chap e 7: T ends in he s a e o biodi e si y in ma ine habi a s..................... 251
In oduc ionɸ ....................................................... 253
Chap e 7A: In e idal zone.................................................. 255
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 257
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 257
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 260
Page
Ŵŵŵŵ ii
Con en s
3. Economic and social consequences................................ 261
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 261
5. Ou look ........................................................ 262
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 263
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 263
Re e ences......................................................... 264
Chap e 7B: Biogenic ee s and sandy, muddy and ocky sho e subs a es ......... 267
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 269
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 269
2. Documen ed change in s a e o biogenic ee s and sandy, muddy
and ocky sho e subs a es ....................................... 272
3. Consequences o he changes on human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 275
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 277
5. Ou look ........................................................ 279
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 280
Re e ences......................................................... 281
Chap e 7C: A oll and island lagoons ......................................... 289
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 291
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 291
2. Documen ed changes in s a e o a olls and island lagoons............. 292
3. Consequences o he changes on human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 295
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences ..................... 296
5. Ou look ........................................................ 296
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 297
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 298
Re e ences......................................................... 299
Chap e 7D: T opical and sub opical co alɸ ee s ............................... 305
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 307
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 307
2. Desc ip ion o en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020......... 308
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social consequences and/o o he
economic o social changes ...................................... 309
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 310
5. Ou look ........................................................ 312
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 313
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 313
Re e ences......................................................... 314
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Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume II
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Chap e 7E: Cold wa e co als ............................................... 321
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 323
1. In oduc ion and summa y o he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 323
2. Desc ip ion o en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020......... 324
3. Economic and social consequences................................ 329
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 330
5. Ou look ........................................................ 330
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 331
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 332
Re e ences......................................................... 333
Chap e 7F: Es ua ies andɸdel as............................................. 339
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 341
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 341
2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o es ua ies and del as.............. 342
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 344
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 345
5. Ou look ........................................................ 346
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 347
Re e ences......................................................... 348
Chap e 7G: Seag ass meadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 355
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 355
2. Socioeconomic consequences .................................... 356
3. Region-speciƼc changes.......................................... 357
4. Ou look ........................................................ 358
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 358
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 359
Re e ences ........................................................ 362
Chap e 7H: Mang o es .................................................... 365
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 367
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 367
2. Documen ed change in s a e o mang o es be ween 2010 and 2020 .... 368
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 370
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 372
5. Ou look ........................................................ 373
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 373
Re e ences......................................................... 374
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Con en s
Page
2. O sho e hyd oca bon explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning . . . 285
3. Economic, social, and en i onmen al aspec s o o sho e hyd oca bon
explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning ....................... 288
4. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 290
5. Role o he o sho e hyd oca bon indus y in acili a ing he ma ine
enewable ene gy indus y ........................................ 291
6. Conclusion ..................................................... 292
Re e ences ........................................................ 293
Chap e 2: T ends in inpu s o an h opoKenic noise in o he ma ine en i onmen ..... 297
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 299
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 299
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al s a us............................. 300
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social consequences and o he economic
o social changes ............................................... 308
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 308
5. Ou look ........................................................ 310
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 312
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 313
Re e ences ........................................................ 313
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene Ky sou ces ........................... 321
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 323
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 323
2. S a e o ma ine enewable ene gy a he global le el .................. 324
3. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s o ma ine enewable ene gy
de elopmen ................................................... 329
4. Socioeconomic beneƼ s and impac s om ma ine enewable ene gy
deploymen ..................................................... 332
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 333
6. An icipa ed u u e ends.......................................... 335
Re e ences......................................................... 336
Chap e 22: In asi e species................................................... 343
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 345
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 345
2. Documen ed baseline and changes in non-indigenous species ......... 347
3. Consequences o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ..... 348
4. Key egion-speciƼc baselines, changes and consequences............. 350
5. Ou look ........................................................ 354
6. O he .......................................................... 356
Re e ences......................................................... 356

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Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume II
Page
Chap e 2: De elopmen s in he e plo a ion o and use o ma ine Kene ic esou ces . 363
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 365
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 365
2. T ends be ween 2010 and 2020.................................... 366
3. Economic and social consequences and changes .................... 370
4. Key egion-speciƼc de elopmen s in knowledge and hei consequences 371
5. Capaci y-building gaps ........................................... 371
6. Me hodological challenges and u u e ends ........................ 373
7. Ma ine gene ic esou ces and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals...... 374
Re e ences......................................................... 376
Chap e 24: 1a ine hyd a esɸƁ a po en ially eme KinK issue ........................ 381
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383
2. Wha a e ma ine hyd a es? ........................................ 383
3. Po en ial isks om ma ine me hane hyd a es ....................... 386
4. Ma ine hyd a es as a sou ce o ene gy.............................. 388
5. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 390
6. Ou look ........................................................ 390
Re e ences......................................................... 390
Chap e 25: Cumula i e e ec s................................................. 395
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397
2. Cumula i e e ec s assessmen s................................... 398
3. Regional applica ions o cumula i e e ec s assessmen s on
he ma ine en i onmen : dis ibu ion and app oaches ................. 402
4. Ou look ........................................................ 406
Re e ences......................................................... 413
Pa si : T ends in manaKemen app oaches o he ma ine en i onmen ............. 421
Chap e 2: De elopmen s in ma ine spa ial planninK.............................. 423
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 425
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 425
2. Types o ma ine spa ial planning ................................... 426
3. Ma ine spa ial planning: a s ep-by-s ep app oach owa d
ecosys em-based managemen .................................... 427
4. Tools o ma ine spa ial planning................................... 428
5. P og ess in implemen ing ma ine spa ial planning .................... 430
Re e ences......................................................... 436
Ŵŵŵŵx ii
Con en s
Page
Chap e 27: De elopmen s in manaKemen app oaches............................ 441
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 443
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 443
2. Managemen app oaches......................................... 444
3. Ad ances in ocean managemen app oaches........................ 448
4. Managemen ools o suppo mi iga ion o and adap a ion o clima e
change, including building esilience................................ 458
5. Key egion-speciƼc issues ........................................ 460
6. Capaci y-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
7. Gaps and u u e pe spec i es...................................... 462
8. Ou look ........................................................ 463
Re e ences......................................................... 465
Chap e 28: De elopmen sɸin he unde s andinK o o e all beneƼ s
om he ocean o humans ..................................................... 471
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 473
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 473
2. BeneƼ s and hei dis ibu ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3. DisbeneƼ s o humans............................................ 478
4. Th ea s o ocean ecosys em se ices............................... 479
5. Sa egua ding ocean beneƼ s h ough egional and in e na ional
coope a ion and imp o ed implemen a ion o in e na ional law as
eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea ....... 480
Re e ences......................................................... 483
Anne es ................................................................. 487
Anne I: O iKinal membe s o he w i inK eams app o ed by he &u eau ............. 489
Anne II: Pee e iewe s nomina ed o each chap e .............................. 497
363
Chap e 23
De elopmen s in
he explo a ion
o and use o
ma ine gene ic
esou ces
Con ibu o s: Robe Blasiak and Ellen Kenching on (join con ene s), Jesús M. A ie a, Jo ge
Ra ael Be múdez-Monsal e, Hilconida Calumpong (co-lead membe ), Shao Changwei, Sanae
Chiba (lead membe ), Hebe (ionisi, Ca los +a cia-So o (co-lead membe ), Helena :iei a and
Bo is Waw ik.
Ŵŵŵŵ365
Chap e 23: De elopmen s in he explo a ion o and use o ma ine gene ic esou ces
Keyno e poin s
1 See Gene al Assembly esolu ion 70/1.
2 Uni ed Na ions En i onmen P og amme, documen UNEP/CBD/COP/10/27, annex, decision X/1.
3 Uni ed Na ions, T ea y Se ies, ol.ɸ133, No.ɸ3133.
4 See Gene al Assembly esolu ion 72/249.
5 See Midwes e n Uni e si y, “Clinical Pipeline, Ma ine Pha macology”.
xMa ine gene ic esou ces con inue o be
he ocus o an expanding ange o com-
me cial and non-comme cial applica ions.
xRapidly dec easing sequencing and gene
syn hesis cos s and swi ad ances in he
me abolic enginee ing and syn he ic biol-
ogy Ƽelds wi hin he bio echnology sec o
ha e ende ed scien is s less elian on
physical samples and inc easingly depend-
en on he exponen ially expanding public
da abases o gene ic sequence da a.
xSponges and algae con inue o a ac
subs an ial in e es o he bioac i e p op-
e ies o hei na u al compounds.
xWi hin he con ex o he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals,1 capaci y-building
issues pe sis , wi h en i ies in a hand ul
o coun ies conduc ing he majo i y o e-
sea ch and de elopmen associa ed wi h
ma ine gene ic esou ces.
xIn e na ional p ocesses and ag eemen s
wi h ele ance o ma ine gene ic esou c-
es include he Nagoya P o ocol2 on Ac-
cess o Gene ic Resou ces and he Fai
and Equi able Sha ing o BeneƼ s A ising
om Thei U iliza ion o he Con en ion
on Biological Di e si y, and he in e go -
e nmen al con e ence on an in e na ional
legally binding ins umen unde he Uni ed
Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea3
on he conse a ion and sus ainable use o
ma ine biological di e si y o a eas beyond
na ional ju isdic ion.4
1. In oduc ion
The ocean is home o a as di e si y o li e
o ms cons i u ing a ich sou ce o ma ine
gene ic esou ces, ha is, gene ic ma e ial o
ma ine o igin con aining unc ional uni s o
he edi y o ac ual o po en ial alue, cha ac e -
ized by high biological and chemical di e si y
(Appel ans and o he s, 2012; Uni ed Na ions,
2017). O e 34,000 ma ine na u al p oduc s
ha e been desc ibed, wi h ecen disco e y
a es eaching mo e han 1,000 compounds
each yea (Lindequis , 2016; Ca oll and o h-
e s, 2019). A o al o 188 new ma ine na u al
p oduc s om deep-sea o ganisms (B yozoa,
Cho da a, Cnida ia, Echinode ma a, Mollusca,
Po i e a and mic obes) ha e been desc ibed
since 2008 (Sk ope a and Wei, 2014). App ox-
ima ely 7ɸ pe ɸcen o hose no el p oduc s
ha e ema kable bioac i i y, wi h 0ɸpe ɸcen
exhibi ing mode a e o high cy o oxici y o-
wa ds a ange o human cance cell lines.
Al hough he bioac i i y o many ma ine na -
u al p oduc s sugges s high po en ial o d ug
disco e y, only 13 ma ine-de i ed d ugs ha e
gained ma ke app o al o da e (Liang and o h-
e s, 2019; Maye and o he s, 2010).5 Howe e ,
a he ime o w i ing, 28 candida es we e in
clinical ials (Al es and o he s, 2018). Ma ine
an i oulan esea ch is cu en ly ocused on
iden i ying iable non- oxic subs ances, and
a ecen e iew has es ima ed ha mo e han
198 an i ouling compounds ha e been ob-
ained om ma ine in e eb a es, speciƼcally
sponges, go gonians and so co als (Qi and
Ma, 2017), in addi ion o he p oduc s de i ed
om mac oalgae and mic oalgae highligh ed
in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen (Uni ed

366ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:Ŵ:olume II
Na ions, 2017). Inno a i e esea ch has also
iden iƼed ing edien s om disca ded Ƽsh ha
a e sui able o use in high-end cosme ics and
a numbe o o he p oduc s (Young, 2014). As
o 2018, a o al o 76 publicly a ailable cos-
meceu ical ing edien s om ma ine na u al
p oduc s had been ma ke ed, eƽec ing a new
g ow h sec o (Calado and o he s, 2018).
A he same ime, consume demand o nu a-
ceu icals has inc eased apidly, as o eseen in
he Ƽ s Assessmen . The global nu aceu ical
ma ke is expec ed o each $580 billion by
2025, mo e han iple he $180 billion p o-
jec ed o 2017 in he Ƽ s Assessmen , and
ma ke g ow h has been linked o inc eased
inno a ion and consume awa eness (G and
6 See Midwes e n Uni e si y, “Clinical Pipeline, Ma ine Pha macology”.
:iew Resea ch, 2017). Ma ine nu aceu ical
p oduc s such as Ƽsh oil and collagen ep e-
sen a la ge po ion o he global ma ke , and
demand o hose p oduc s is expec ed o
g ow in he Asia-PaciƼc egion, in pa icula in
China and India (Sule ia and o he s, 2015).
While ma ine gene ic esou ces a e o g ow-
ing impo ance o he global blue economy,
mos comme cial ac i i y is concen a ed in
a compa a i ely small numbe o coun ies,
sugges ing ha he e is po en ial o echnol-
ogy ans e and capaci y-building (Thompson
and o he s, 2017; Blasiak and o he s, 2018).
Se e al in e na ional p ocesses add essing
gene ic esou ces, including ma ine gene ic
esou ces, a e cu en ly unde way.
2. T ends be ween 2010 and 2020
Technological inno a ions ha e been key o
he ecen ad ances in he explo a ion o and
exploi a ion o ma ine gene ic esou ces. The
disco e y o new ma ine molecules, and hei
sou ces, has been inc easing apidly, especial-
ly since he 1970s (Ƽgu e I). By No embe 2019,
a o al o 34,197 ma ine na u al p oduc s had
been documen ed (Ca oll and o he s, 2019).
Such g ow h is mos likely o ha e been d i en
by mode n sampling and analy ical echniques
ha ha e allowed he collec ion o no el ma ine
gene ic esou ces om deepe en i onmen s
and co e ing a wide ange o chemical di e si-
y. App oxima ely 11ɸpe ɸcen o ma ine gene ic
esou ces associa ed wi h pa en applica ions
a e ound in deep-sea and hyd o he mal en
communi ies, eƽec ing inc eased esea ch in
emo e and ex eme ocean en i onmen s (Bla-
siak and o he s, 2018). Howe e , he numbe o
ma ine gene ic esou ces collec ed a dep hs
o mo e han 50ɸm emains insigniƼcan when
compa ed wi h he whole lib a y o ma ine na -
u al p oduc s (Sk ope a and Wei, 2014). The
disco e y o enzymes om ma ine o ganisms
is also accele a ing hanks o he de elopmen
o inno a i e sc eening me hodologies (Fe e
and o he s, 2019). Enzymes om mic oo gan-
isms adap ed o ex eme condi ions a e o
pa icula in e es o hei applica ion in indus-
ial p ocesses, as hey a e o en ac i e unde
challenging ope a ional condi ions (Bi olli and
o he s, 2019).
2.1. Comme cial applica ion
highligh s
2.1.1. Pha maceu ical applica ions
Thi een d ugs o ma ine o igin ha e ecei ed
ma ke app o al om he Uni ed S a es Food
and D ug Adminis a ion o he Eu opean Med-
icines Agency, six o hem since 2010. The
majo i y o d ugs o ma ine o igin ha e been
de eloped o an icance chemo he apy (Cala-
do and o he s, 2018; Liang and o he s, 2019;
Maye and o he s, 2010).6 Since he app o al
o cy a abine as an an icance agen in 1969,
Ŵŵŵŵ367
Chap e 23: De elopmen s in he explo a ion o and use o ma ine gene ic esou ces
sponges ha e been ega ded as one o he
mos p omising sou ces o an icance d ugs
(Hu and o he s, 2015; see sec . 2.3 below).
O he ma ine in e eb a es, such as unica e
and cone snail species, a e also e y impo -
an sou ces o ma ine na u al p oduc s, as
a e Ƽshes. T abec edin (ET-743) gained Uni ed
S a es Food and D ug Adminis a ion app o al
in 2015 o he ea men o so issue sa co-
ma and o a ian cance , while Pli idepsin was
app o ed by he Aus alian The apeu ic Goods
Adminis a ion in 2018 o he ea men o
mul iple myeloma, leukemia and lymphoma
(see Maye and o he s, 2010).7 Mos ecen ly,
in 2020, Lu binec edin was app o ed o he
ea men o me as a ic small cell lung can-
ce (see Maye and o he s, 2010).8 In all h ee
cases, he ele an compounds we e de i ed
om unica es. Mac oalgae a e also a sou ce
o pha maceu ical p oduc s. Fo example,
OligoG, an oligoalgina e wi h a deƼned s uc-
u e p oduced om b own algae, is cu en ly
in a phase II clinical ial o he ea men o
cys ic Ƽb osis (Rye and o he s, 2018), and he
ed algae biopolyme Ca agelose, which has
b oad an i- i al p ope ies, is used o ea ing
espi a o y diseases (Hackl, 2017).
2.1.2. Cosmeceu ical applica ions
Cosmeceu icals (cosme ics wi h pha maceu-
ical p ope ies) a e one o he as es g owing
ma ke s o he comme cializa ion o ma ine
na u al p oduc s. They ha e a sho e de elop-
men cycle han pha maceu ical and nu aceu-
ical p oduc s, esul ing in mo e apid g ow h
(Rampelo o and T incone, 2018). Those
eme ging no el p oduc s wi h biologically
7 See Midwes e n Uni e si y, “Clinical Pipeline, Ma ine Pha macology”.
8 Ibid.
ac i e ing edien s cons i u e an en i ely new
ype o beau y ca e ha will be a hallma k
o coming decades. The majo i y o cosme-
ceu icals a e de i ed om mac oalgae and
mic oalgae, bu an inc easing numbe a e be-
ing gene a ed h ough ma ine bio echnology
p ocesses based on mic oo ganisms such as
bac e ia and ungi (Calado and o he s, 2018).
The e a e, howe e , en i onmen al conce ns
associa ed wi h ce ain cosme ic ing edien s
(Juliano and Mag ini, 2017).
2.1.3. Food and eed applica ions
The consump ion o omega-3 long-chain poly-
unsa u a ed a y acids is linked o mul iple
posi i e heal h ou comes (Rux on and o he s,
2007). Howe e , he p oduc ion o aquacul-
u e species ich in hose a y acids emains
elian on Ƽsh-based eeds. The de elopmen
o algal oils and al e na i e ansgenic c ops
o omega-3 long-chain polyunsa u a ed a y
acids has consequen ly a ac ed subs an ial
in e es . Ini ial e o s ha e ocused on oilseed
c ops, wi h eliance on enzymes om ma ine
species (i.e., ma ine algae) (Ruiz-Lopez and
o he s, 2014; Zhao and Qiu, 2018). Ag o-indus-
ial co po a ions ha e Ƽled o pa en s asso-
cia ed wi h hose inno a ions and la ge-scale
p oduc ion is en isaged by 2020 (Sp ague
and o he s, 2017). Fu he mo e, in addi ion o
he di ec use o mac oalgae as human ood,
hei applica ion as eed addi i es is showing
po en ial o biological me hane mi iga ion in
he ca le indus y (Roque and o he s, 2019;
Cos ello and o he s, 2019). Mic oalgae a e
also eme ging as impo an bio uels (Fedde ,
2013).
368ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:Ŵ:olume II
Figu e I
6IGIRXXVIRHWVIPEXIHXSQEVMRIKIRIXMGVIWSYVGIW
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Figu e I.A
Numbe o new ma ine na u al p oduc s
(cumula i e)
Sou ce: Ca oll and o he s, 2019.
0
5 x 1011
1 x 1012
1.5 x 1012
2 x 1012
2.5 x 1012
3 x 1012
3.5 x 1012
4 x 1012
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Figu e I.B
Numbe o sequences deposi ed in GenBank
(cumula i e numbe o base pai s)
Sou ce: Uni ed S a es Na ional Ins i u es o Heal h
(We e s and, 2018; Na ional Cen e o Bio echnology
In o ma ion (NCBI), 2018).
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00
1,000.00
10,000.00
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Figu e I.C
Cos o sequencing (dolla s pe base pai )
Sou ce: Na ional Human Genome Resea ch Ins i u e.
Figu e I.D
Numbe o ma ine sequences associa ed
wi L pa en Ƽlings (cumula i e)
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Sou ce: Blasiak and o he s, 2018.
Ŵŵŵŵ369
Chap e 23: De elopmen s in he explo a ion o and use o ma ine gene ic esou ces
2.2. G ow h in public da abases o
gene ic sequence da a
Public da a a chi es a e in eg al o mode n bi-
ological esea ch (Ellenbe g and o he s, 2018;
Rigden and Fe nandez, 2019), in la ge pa
because apid echnological de elopmen s
o e he pas wo decades ha e subs an ially
democ a ized he a ailabili y o nucleic acid
sequencing echnology. The cos pe base o
sequencing has allen by mo e han ou o -
de s o magni ude o e he pas decade alone
(We e s and, 2018), in pa allel wi h exponen-
ial g ow h in he size o publicly a ailable e-
posi o ies (see Ƽgu e I). O e all, he numbe o
bases in GenBank has doubled app oxima ely
e e y 18 mon hs since 1982 (NCBI, 2018).
Al hough he size o public da abases has
g own subs an ially, he e is good eason o be-
lie e ha he e a e s ill signiƼcan gaps in he
cu en s a e o knowledge ega ding he ex an
gene ic di e si y in he ocean. Omics-based
s udies p o ide he bes e idence o ha in e -
p e a ion. The mos ecen and comp ehensi e
su ey o ma ine euka yo ic gene ic di e si y
iden iƼed app oxima ely 53 million genes (Ca -
adec and o he s, 2018), abou hal o which
s h o we d n o s i m i l a i y o e x i s i n g p o e i n s (d e :a -
gas and o he s, 2015). Fu he mo e, es ima es
o oceanic plank on sugges he p esence o
abou 150,000 euka yo ic species, which is a
g ea e han he app oxima ely 11,200 species
ha ha e been o mally desc ibed (de :a gas
and o he s, 2015). La ge-scale ini ia i es such
as Ta a Oceans (Sunagawa and o he s, 2015)
and Ocean Sampling Day (Kop and o he s,
2015) a e gene a ing as quan i ies o in o -
ma ion ha a e inc easing unde s anding o
he mic obial di e si y ha exis s in he ocean
a he global scale (Cou inho and o he s, 2018).
The esul ing public da a se s a ailable ep e-
sen an impo an sou ce o in o ma ion o
sequence-based esea ch e o s (Kamble and
o he s, 2019) and enable new di ec ions in e-
sea ch, such as he use o en i onmen al DNA
9 See www.deepseasponges.o g.
in molecula ecology and in di e si y assess-
men s (Seymou , 2019).
2.3. Highligh ed esea ch
Two comp ehensi e olumes ocused on
ma ine bio echnology we e published in 2018.
The Ƽ s sys ema ically desc ibes ecen
de elopmen s in he ma ine bio echnology
sec o and seeks o deƼne i s cu en and
u u e economic po en ial (Rampelo o and
T incone, 2018), while he second goes beyond
esea ch and de elopmen aspec s o del e
in o in ellec ual p ope y law and he p o ec-
ions o e ed h ough pa en claims (Guilloux,
2018). P e ious s udies on pa en s associa ed
wi h ma ine gene ic esou ces (A ie a and
o he s, 2010; A naud-Haond and o he s, 2011)
we e upda ed wi h an analysis iden i ying he
pa en Ƽlings associa ed wi h 12,998 gene ic
sequences om 862 ma ine species (Blasiak
and o he s, 2018). Ac o s loca ed o head-
qua e ed in 10 coun ies we e esponsible
o pa en Ƽlings co e ing 98ɸpe ɸcen o hose
sequences, while 165 coun ies we e un ep e-
sen ed (Blasiak and o he s, 2018).
SponGES,9 a ou -yea p ojec unded since
2016 h ough he Eu opean Union esea ch and
inno a ion p og amme Ho izon 2020, is aimed
a coupling explo a ion wi h biop ospec ing o
indus ial applica ions, namely, d ug disco e y
and issue enginee ing. Sponges and hei as-
socia ed mic oo ganisms a e he iches and
mos p oliƼc sou ce o new ma ine na u al
p oduc s, accoun ing o nea ly 30ɸpe ɸcen
(almos 5,000) o he compounds desc ibed o
da e (Mehbub and o he s, 2014). F om 2001 o
2010, mo e han 2,400 na u al p oduc s we e
disco e ed om 671 species o sponges (Me-
hbub and o he s, 2014). SponGES esea ch
has al eady iden iƼed unexpec ed mic obial
di e si y and esul ing bio echnological po en-
ial, including uncon en ional C30 s e ols and
new ba e ides wi h po en ial o an i ouling
ac i i y (Lau i ano and Iano a, 2018).
376ŵŵŵ
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