The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume I
The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume I
Co e pho o: Yung-Sen Wu
Uni ed Na ions Wo ld Oceans Day Pho o Compe i ion
Uni ed Na ions publica ion
Sales no.: E.21.V.5
ISBN: 978-92-1-1-130422-0
eISBN: 978-92-1-1-604006-2
Copy igh © Uni ed Na ions, 2021
All igh s ese ed
P in ed a he Uni ed Na ions, New Yo k
iii
Fo ewo d
by he Sec e a y-Gene al
The pas yea has p esen ed unp eceden ed challenges. The co ona i us disease (COVID-19)
pandemic has dis up ed li es and li elihoods and exposed ou socie ies’ agili y. Sadly, he pan-
demic is no he only c isis ha humani y aces. Clima e change and biodi e si y loss con inue
unaba ed, h ea ening sus ainable de elopmen and ou iabili y as a species. These challenges
a e pa icula ly e iden when we look a he s a e o ou plane ’s li e suppo sys em, he ocean.
In 2015, he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen wa ned ha many a eas o he ocean had been se i-
ously deg aded, he g ea es h ea o he ocean being he ailu e o deal wi h he many p essu es
caused by human ac i i ies. The message in he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen is ha he
si ua ion has no imp o ed, wi h he many beneƼ s ha he ocean p o ides a isk. The Assess-
men ad ises ha , o ensu e sus ainabili y, we mus wo k oge he o imp o e in eg a ed ocean
managemen , including h ough join esea ch, capaci y de elopmen and he sha ing o da a,
in o ma ion and echnology.
The ocean plays a c ucial ole in he achie emen o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he
li elihoods o billions o people. We u gen ly need o change how we in e ac wi h i . The o h-
coming Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen and he Uni ed
Na ions Decade on Ecosys em Res o a ion p o ide oppo uni ies o us o unde s and mo e and
o e e se he damage ha has al eady been done. The in o ma ion in he second Assessmen
can assis in his p ocess, as well as in o m ele an in e go e nmen al con e ences scheduled
o 2021.
I u ge leade s and all s akeholde s o heed he wa nings in he Assessmen as we wo k o con-
se e and sus ainably manage ou plane ’s ma ine en i onmen . Le us os e no only a g een
bu also a blue eco e y om he COVID-19 pandemic.
AǞǘǞǣǝ GǗǘȨǚǚȨǙ

Summa y
In i s esolu ions 57/141 and 58/240, he Gene al Assembly decided o es ablish a egula p o-
cess unde he Uni ed Na ions o global epo ing and assessmen o he s a e o he ma ine
en i onmen , including socioeconomic aspec s, bo h cu en and o eseeable, building on exis -
ing egional assessmen s. In i s esolu ion 71/257, he Assembly ecalled ha he scope o he
Ƽ s cycle o he Regula P ocess ocused on es ablishing a baseline and decided ha he scope
o he second cycle would ex end o e alua ing ends and iden i ying gaps. The p og amme o
wo k o he pe iod 2017–2020 o he second cycle o he Regula P ocess includes he p epa-
a ion by he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o
he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, o he second Wo ld
Ocean Assessmen , building on he baselines es ablished by he Fi s Global In eg a ed Ma ine
Assessmen (Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ). In i s esolu ion 72/73, he Assembly decided ha
he G oup o Expe s should p oceed on he basis o a single comp ehensi e assessmen . The
p esen documen was p epa ed by he G oup o Expe s in acco dance wi h hose decisions.
Disclaime
The p esen documen is a p oduc o he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing
and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, which is
esponsible o he con en s o he publica ion. The membe s o he G oup o Expe s and he pool o ex-
pe s who pa icipa ed in he w i ing o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen con ibu ed in hei pe sonal
capaci y. The membe s o he G oup and he pool a e no ep esen a i es o any Go e nmen o any o he
au ho i y o o ganiza ion.
The designa ions employed, including geog aphical names, and he p esen a ion o he ma e ials in he
p esen publica ion, including he ci a ions, maps and bibliog aphy, do no imply he exp ession o any
opinion wha soe e on he pa o he Uni ed Na ions conce ning he names and legal s a us o any coun-
y, e i o y, ci y o a ea o o i s au ho i ies o conce ning he delimi a ion o i s on ie s o bounda ies
and do no imply oƾcial endo semen o accep ance by he Uni ed Na ions. In o ma ion con ained in
he p esen publica ion emana ing om ac ions and decisions aken by S a es does no imply oƾcial
endo semen , accep ance o ecogni ion by he Uni ed Na ions o such ac ions and decisions, and such
in o ma ion is included wi hou p ejudice o he posi ion o any S a e Membe o he Uni ed Na ions.
ii
P e ace
The goal o he Gene al Assembly in c ea ing
he Regula P ocess o he Global Repo ing
and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En-
i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s,
was o ensu e a comp ehensi e o e iew o
he ocean and he ela ionships be ween he
ocean and humans, co e ing all en i onmen al,
social and economic aspec s. Such an o e -
iew would se e as a backg ound o he many
decisions ha mus be aken in ha Ƽeld a he
in e na ional, na ional and local le els in pu sui
o sus ainable de elopmen . The Ƽ s Wo ld
Ocean Assessmen was comple ed in 2015 and
ep esen s a majo s ep owa ds ha goal.
Ine i ably, wi h such an ambi ious goal, no
only we e some aspec s no ully co e ed in he
Ƽ s ou pu o he Regula P ocess, bu also, as
ime passed, he assessmen ha was made
up o 2015 needed o be upda ed. The Gene al
Assembly he e o e p o ided o u he global
in eg a ed ma ine assessmen s o eco d de-
elopmen s om he baseline p o ided by he
Ƽ s Assessmen and, whe e possible, o show
ends. In 2016, i decided ha a second com-
p ehensi e assessmen should be p epa ed by
he end o 2020.
The p esen olume con ains he second
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen . I p o ides mo e
in o ma ion on aspec s o he ocean and i s
ela ionships wi h humans, including sepa a e
assessmen s o he abyssal plains and ma ine
hyd a es, and b ings oge he in speciƼc chap-
e s ma e s ha we e add essed in di e en
sec ions o he Ƽ s Assessmen , such as he
s a e o Ƽsh species and ma ine in as uc u e.
As wi h he Ƽ s Assessmen , he p oduc ion
o he p esen Assessmen has been a majo
ask, elying essen ially on olun a y e o s o
hund eds o expe s in many Ƽelds, wi h suppo
om he egula budge o he Uni ed Na ions.
As be o e, i has been a p i ilege o he G oup
o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global
Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he
Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic
Aspec s, o o ganize, con ibu e o and Ƽnalize
he Assessmen . C ucial suppo has again been
p o ided by he Sec e a ia , including he Di i-
sion o Ocean A ai s and he Law o he Sea,
se e al in e na ional o ganiza ions and a num-
be o S a es Membe s o he Uni ed Na ions,
as de ailed in chap e 2. The G oup o Expe s
is g a e ul o all hose people and ins i u ions
bu , unde he e ms o e e ence and wo king
me hods endo sed by he Gene al Assembly, is
ul ima ely esponsible o he Ƽnal ex .
The bulk o he ex was w i en be o e he ou -
b eak o he co ona i us disease (COVID-19)
pandemic. Some men ion o he e ec s o ha
pandemic has been included ( o example, in
he sec ions o chap e 8A dealing wi h Ƽshe -
ies, shipping and ou ism), bu he ull implica-
ions o he pandemic on human in e ac ions
wi h he ocean a e s ill being wo ked ou and
will need o be explo ed ully in he hi d cycle o
he Regula P ocess. Ne e heless, he ocean
and he se ices ha i p o ides will ha e an im-
po an ole in he eco e y om he pandemic.
I is hoped ha he in o ma ion in he p esen
Assessmen will help wi h ha p ocess.
As wi h he Ƽ s Assessmen , he p esen
documen con ains no policy analysis o
ecommenda ions, in line wi h he guidance
endo sed by he Gene al Assembly. I is he e-
o e o na ional Go e nmen s and compe en
in e na ional au ho i ies o decide wha ac ion
should be aken in he ligh o he assessmen s
unde he Regula P ocess.
RȨǞǣǙǝǞ RǗǕȳ and AǠȳǞ Sǣǟȱǝȱǡ
Join Coo dina o s o
he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess
JǚǞ SȱǤǟǣȰǘ
Membe o he G oup o Expe s o he
Regula P ocess, assis ing he Join Coo dina o s
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Con en s
Page
Chap e 7I: Sal ma shes ................................................... 381
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 385
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 386
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 386
5. Ou look ........................................................ 387
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 388
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 389
Re e ences......................................................... 389
Chap e 7J: Con inen al slopes and subma ine canyons......................... 395
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397
2. De elopmen s in unde s anding o slopes and canyons ............... 399
3. Ecosys em se ices and beneƼ s on slopes and in canyons ............ 404
4. Human impac s ................................................. 405
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 406
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 407
Re e ences ........................................................ 408
Chap e 7K: High-la i ude ice................................................ 421
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 423
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 423
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 424
3. Economic and social consequences................................ 428
4. Ou look ........................................................ 430
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 431
Re e ences......................................................... 431
Chap e 7L: Seamoun s andɸpinnacles........................................ 437
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 439
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 439
2. Desc ip ion o changes in knowledge be ween 2010 and 2020.......... 440
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social changes......................... 441
4. Key egion-speciƼc esea ch in ecen yea s ......................... 442
5. Ou look ........................................................ 444
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 444
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 445
Re e ences......................................................... 446

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Chap e 7M: Abyssal plains ................................................. 453
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 455
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 455
2. Shi ing baselines and documen ing s a us and change in abyssal
biodi e si y ..................................................... 456
3. Majo na u al and an h opogenic p essu es.......................... 464
4. Consequences o he changes on human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 465
5. Ou look ........................................................ 468
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 468
Re e ences......................................................... 469
Chap e 7N: Open ocean.................................................... 477
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 479
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 479
2. En i onmen al changes in he open ocean since 2010................. 481
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 484
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 486
5. Ou look ........................................................ 487
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 488
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 488
Re e ences......................................................... 488
Chap e 7O: Ridges, pla eaux and enches.................................... 495
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 497
1. In oduc ion and summa y o he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 497
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020 ..... 499
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social changes be ween 2010 and 2020 . . . 502
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 505
5. Ou look ........................................................ 506
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 507
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 507
Re e ences ........................................................ 508
Chap e 7P: Hyd o he mal en s and coldɸseeps ............................... 513
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 515
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 515
2. En i onmen al changes since he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 518
3. Economic and social consequences................................ 519
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 521
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5. Ou look ........................................................ 523
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 523
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps .............................. 524
Re e ences......................................................... 524
Chap e 7Q: Sa gasso Sea .................................................. 531
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 533
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 533
2. Change o s a e ................................................. 534
3. Ins i u ional a angemen s ........................................ 537
4. Consequences o changes ........................................ 538
5. Ou look ........................................................ 539
Re e ences......................................................... 540
Volume II
Chap e 8: T ends in he s a e o human socie y in ela ion o he ocean.............. 1
Chap e 8A: Coas al communi ies andɸma i ime indus ies ...................... 3
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 5
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 5
2. Coas al communi ies............................................. 6
3. Cap u e Ƽshe ies, shellƼsh ha es ing and aquacul u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4. Shipping........................................................ 10
5. Seabed mining .................................................. 14
6. O sho e hyd oca bons ........................................... 15
7. Tou ism and ec ea ion ........................................... 15
8. Ma ine gene ic esou ces ......................................... 20
9. Ma ine enewable ene gy ......................................... 21
10. Desaliniza ion................................................... 21
11. Sal p oduc ion.................................................. 22
12. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 23
13. Ou look ........................................................ 24
Re e ences......................................................... 24
Chap e 8B: Human heal h as a ec ed by he ocean ............................ 31
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 33
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 33
2. Gene al aspec s o he ela ionship be ween human heal h and he ocean 33
3. Heal h o coas al communi ies ela i e o inland communi ies.......... 39
4. E ec s o exposu e o con amina ed seawa e ....................... 39
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5. P oblems o human heal h posed by ood om he sea ............... 42
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 44
7. Ou look ........................................................ 45
Re e ences......................................................... 45
Pa Ƽ e: T ends in p essu es onɸ he ma ine en i onmen .......................... 53
Chap e : P essu es om chanKes in clima e and a mosphe e ..................... 55
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 57
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 57
2. Clima e p essu es: ex eme clima e e en s and p essu es om changes
in ocean physical and chemical p ope ies........................... 58
3. Capaci y-building: Global Ocean AcidiƼca ion Obse ing Ne wo k and
Global Ocean Oxygen Ne wo k .................................... 67
4. Summa y....................................................... 68
Re e ences......................................................... 69
Chap e 1: ChanKes in nu ien inpu s o he ma ine en i onmen ................... 77
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 79
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 79
2. Si ua ion epo ed in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............... 81
3. Global-scale pa e ns and ends................................... 82
4. Pa e ns and ends wi hin egions ................................. 85
5. Ou look ........................................................ 91
Re e ences......................................................... 92
Chap e 11: ChanKes in liUuid and a mosphe ic inpu s o he ma ine en i onmen om
land includinK h ouKh K oundwa e  ships and o sho e ins alla ions............... 101
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 103
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 104
2. Si ua ion eco ded in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............... 104
3. Pe sis en o ganic pollu an s, including un-o om he use o
ag icul u al pes icides............................................ 105
4. Me als ......................................................... 112
5. Radioac i e subs ances .......................................... 122
6. Pha maceu icals and pe sonal ca e p oduc s ........................ 127
7. A mosphe ic pollu an s (ni ogen oxides, sul u oxides) ............... 131
8. Hyd oca bons om e es ial sou ces, ships and o sho e ins alla ions,
including a angemen s o esponse o spills and discha ges .......... 132
9. O he subs ances used on, and discha ged om, o sho e ins alla ions . . 134
10. Rela ionship o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals .................. 135
11. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 136
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12. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 138
Re e ences......................................................... 139
Chap e 12: ChanKes in inpu s and dis ibu ion o solid was e o he han d edKed
ma e ial in he ma ine en i onmen ............................................. 151
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 153
1. Ac i i ies esul ing in ma ine deb is, including plas ics, abandoned Ƽshing
gea , mic opa icles and nanopa icles, and es ima es o sou ces om
land, ships and o sho e ins alla ions ............................... 153
2. Dumping a sea, including ga bage om ships and sewage sludge . . . . . . 171
Re e ences......................................................... 177
Chap e 1: ChanKes in e osion and sedimen a ion................................ 185
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 187
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 187
2. Changes in s a e o coas al e osion and sedimen a ion................ 188
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 192
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 193
5. Ou look ........................................................ 195
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................ 195
Re e ences......................................................... 196
Chap e 14: ChanKes in coas al and ma ine in as uc u e.......................... 201
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 203
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 203
2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o ma ine and coas al in as uc u es . 204
3. Consequences o changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 207
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 207
5. Ou look ........................................................ 210
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 211
Re e ences......................................................... 211
Chap e 1: ChanKes in cap u e Ƽshe ies and ha es inK o wild ma ine in e eb a es.. 215
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 217
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 217
2. Ca ch-landing dispa i ies, Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
and small-scale Ƽshe ies ......................................... 220
3. In e eb a e landings ............................................ 224
4. Le els o by-ca ch and side e ec s ................................ 225
5. Pos -ha es Ƽsh losses .......................................... 225
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6. Po en ial o Ƽshe ies enhancemen ................................ 225
7. Ma ine p o ein and oils in ag icul u e and aquacul u e................. 225
8. Illegal, un epo ed o un egula ed Ƽshing ............................ 226
9. Ou look ........................................................ 227
10. Key knowledge gaps ............................................. 228
11. Key capaci y-building gaps........................................ 228
Re e ences......................................................... 228
Chap e 1: ChanKes in aUuacul u e............................................. 235
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 237
1. Cu en s a us and majo imp o emen s ............................ 237
2. Aquacul u e and he en i onmen .................................. 240
3. Aquacul u e and socie y .......................................... 241
4. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 241
5. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 242
6. Ou look ........................................................ 243
Re e ences......................................................... 244
Chap e 17: ChanKes in seaweed ha es inK andɸuse .............................. 247
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 249
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 249
2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o seaweed p oduc ion and uses
(2012–2017) .................................................... 250
3. Consequences o changes in seaweed ha es ing and use o
communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ............................ 253
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 253
5. Ou look ........................................................ 254
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 254
Re e ences......................................................... 255
Chap e 18: ChanKes in seabed mininK .......................................... 257
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 259
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 259
2. Changes in scale and signiƼcance o sea ƽoo mining ................ 262
3. En i onmen al aspec s ........................................... 270
4. Economic and social impac s...................................... 273
5. Capaci y-building needs .......................................... 276
Re e ences......................................................... 277
Chap e 1: ChanKes in hyd oca bon e plo a ion and e ac ion .................... 281
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 283
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 283

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2. O sho e hyd oca bon explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning . . . 285
3. Economic, social, and en i onmen al aspec s o o sho e hyd oca bon
explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning ....................... 288
4. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 290
5. Role o he o sho e hyd oca bon indus y in acili a ing he ma ine
enewable ene gy indus y ........................................ 291
6. Conclusion ..................................................... 292
Re e ences ........................................................ 293
Chap e 2: T ends in inpu s o an h opoKenic noise in o he ma ine en i onmen ..... 297
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 299
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 299
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al s a us............................. 300
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social consequences and o he economic
o social changes ............................................... 308
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 308
5. Ou look ........................................................ 310
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 312
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 313
Re e ences ........................................................ 313
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene Ky sou ces ........................... 321
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 323
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 323
2. S a e o ma ine enewable ene gy a he global le el .................. 324
3. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s o ma ine enewable ene gy
de elopmen ................................................... 329
4. Socioeconomic beneƼ s and impac s om ma ine enewable ene gy
deploymen ..................................................... 332
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 333
6. An icipa ed u u e ends.......................................... 335
Re e ences......................................................... 336
Chap e 22: In asi e species ................................................... 343
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 345
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 345
2. Documen ed baseline and changes in non-indigenous species ......... 347
3. Consequences o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ..... 348
4. Key egion-speciƼc baselines, changes and consequences............. 350
5. Ou look ........................................................ 354
6. O he .......................................................... 356
Re e ences......................................................... 356
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Chap e 2: De elopmen s in he e plo a ion o and use o ma ine Kene ic esou ces . 363
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 365
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 365
2. T ends be ween 2010 and 2020.................................... 366
3. Economic and social consequences and changes .................... 370
4. Key egion-speciƼc de elopmen s in knowledge and hei consequences 371
5. Capaci y-building gaps ........................................... 371
6. Me hodological challenges and u u e ends ........................ 373
7. Ma ine gene ic esou ces and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals...... 374
Re e ences......................................................... 376
Chap e 24: 1a ine hyd a esɸƁ a po en ially eme KinK issue ........................ 381
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383
2. Wha a e ma ine hyd a es? ........................................ 383
3. Po en ial isks om ma ine me hane hyd a es ....................... 386
4. Ma ine hyd a es as a sou ce o ene gy.............................. 388
5. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 390
6. Ou look ........................................................ 390
Re e ences......................................................... 390
Chap e 25: Cumula i e e ec s................................................. 395
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397
2. Cumula i e e ec s assessmen s................................... 398
3. Regional applica ions o cumula i e e ec s assessmen s on
he ma ine en i onmen : dis ibu ion and app oaches ................. 402
4. Ou look ........................................................ 406
Re e ences......................................................... 413
Pa si : T ends in manaKemen app oaches o he ma ine en i onmen ............. 421
Chap e 2: De elopmen s in ma ine spa ial planninK.............................. 423
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 425
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 425
2. Types o ma ine spa ial planning ................................... 426
3. Ma ine spa ial planning: a s ep-by-s ep app oach owa d
ecosys em-based managemen .................................... 427
4. Tools o ma ine spa ial planning................................... 428
5. P og ess in implemen ing ma ine spa ial planning .................... 430
Re e ences......................................................... 436
Ŵŵŵŵxxiii
Con en s
Page
Chap e 27: De elopmen s in manaKemen app oaches............................ 441
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 443
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 443
2. Managemen app oaches......................................... 444
3. Ad ances in ocean managemen app oaches........................ 448
4. Managemen ools o suppo mi iga ion o and adap a ion o clima e
change, including building esilience................................ 458
5. Key egion-speciƼc issues ........................................ 460
6. Capaci y-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
7. Gaps and u u e pe spec i es...................................... 462
8. Ou look ........................................................ 463
Re e ences......................................................... 465
Chap e 28: De elopmen sɸin he unde s andinK o o e all beneƼ s
om he ocean o humans ..................................................... 471
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 473
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 473
2. BeneƼ s and hei dis ibu ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3. DisbeneƼ s o humans............................................ 478
4. Th ea s o ocean ecosys em se ices............................... 479
5. Sa egua ding ocean beneƼ s h ough egional and in e na ional
coope a ion and imp o ed implemen a ion o in e na ional law as
eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea ....... 480
Re e ences......................................................... 483
Anne es ................................................................. 487
Anne I: O iKinal membe s o he w i inK eams app o ed by he &u eau ............. 489
Anne II: Pee e iewe s nomina ed o each chap e .............................. 497
39
Chap e 2
App oach o he
assessmen
Con ibu o s: Ma ia João Bebianno, Hilconida Calumpong, Sanae Chiba, Ka en E ans, Ca los
Ga cia-So o, Osman Keh Kama a, En ique Ma scho , Essam Yassin Mohammed, Henn Oja ee ,
Chul Pa k, Ylenia Rand iana isoa, Renison Ruwa, Jö n Schmid , Alan Simcock, Anas asia S a i,
Joshua T. Tuhumwi e, Ca Thanh Vu, Juying Wang and Tymon Zielinski (G oup o Expe s o he
Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen ,
including Socioeconomic Aspec s).