WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume II
The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume II
Co e pho o: Yung-Sen Wu
Uni ed Na ions Wo ld Oceans Day Pho o Compe i ion
Uni ed Na ions publica ion
Sales no.: E.21.V.5
ISBN: 978-92-1-1-130422-0
eISBN: 978-92-1-1-604006-2
Copy igh © Uni ed Na ions, 2021
All igh s ese ed
P in ed a he Uni ed Na ions, New Yo k
iii
Con en s
Volume I
Page
Fo ewo d by he Sec e a y-Gene al ............................................. iii
Summa y .................................................................
P e ace ................................................................. ii
Pa one: Summa y ........................................................... 1
Chap e 1: O e all summa y.................................................... 3
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 5
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 5
2. D i e s ......................................................... 6
3. Cleaning up he ocean............................................ 7
4. P o ec ing ma ine ecosys ems..................................... 10
5. Unde s anding o he ocean o sus ainable managemen ............. 13
6. P omo ing sa e y om he ocean .................................. 15
7. Sus ainable ood om he ocean................................... 16
8. Sus ainable economic use o he ocean ............................. 19
9. E ec i eimplemen a iono in e na ionallawas e lec edin
he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea ................. 21
Pa wo: In oduc ion......................................................... 37
Chap e 2: App oach o he assessmen ......................................... 39
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 41
1. Pu pose o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ..................... 41
2. P ima y audience and amewo k o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen 42
3. P epa a ion o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen .................. 43
4. Te minology .................................................... 44
5. Acknowledgemen s .............................................. 45
Re e ences......................................................... 45
Chap e 3: Scien i ic unde s anding o  he ocean.................................. 47
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 49
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 49
2. Desc ip ion o changes in da a, echnology and models since he
i s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen and hei consequences o o e all
unde s anding, including socioeconomic consequences............... 50
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Wo ldOceanAssessmen II: VolumeII
Page
3. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 51
4. Ou look o scien i icunde s andingo  heocean..................... 56
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 56
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 57
Re e ences......................................................... 58
Pa h ee: D i e s o changes in hema ine en i onmen .......................... 63
Chap e 4: D i e s ............................................................ 65
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 67
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 67
2. D i e s o change in he ma ine en i onmen ......................... 69
3. Key egion-speci icissueso aspec sassocia edwi hd i e s .......... 73
4. Ou look ........................................................ 74
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................. 76
Re e ences......................................................... 77
Pa ou : Cu en s a e o he ma ine en i onmen andi s ends ................... 81
Chap e 5: T ends in he physical and chemical s a e o  he ocean................... 83
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 85
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 85
2. Physical and chemical s a e o he ocean............................ 87
3. Knowledge gaps................................................. 100
4. Summa y....................................................... 101
Re e ences......................................................... 103
Chap e 6: T ends in he biodi e si y o  hemain axa o ma ine bio a ................ 111
In oduc ion........................................................ 113
Chap e 6A:Plank on(phy oplank on,zooplank on,mic obesand i uses)......... 115
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 117
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 117
2. Summa yo chap e 6o  he i s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........... 118
3. Regions a ge ed in he p esen Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............. 119
4. Es ima ing plank on di e si y ..................................... 120
5. Mic obial plank on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6. Me azoan zooplank on ........................................... 124
7. Documen ed ends .............................................. 125
8. Ou look ........................................................ 128
Re e ences......................................................... 130

Con en s
Chap e 6B: Ma ine in e eb a es ............................................ 141
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 143
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 143
2. Summa yo  hesi ua ion eco dedin he i s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen . 143
3. Desc ip iono en i onmen alchanges(2010–2020)................... 144
4. In e na ional and go e nmen al esponses .......................... 151
5. Achie emen o ele an Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and con ibu ion
o Aichi Biodi e si y Ta ge 11 ..................................... 153
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps and capaci y-building gaps ............ 153
Re e ences......................................................... 154
Addendum by he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global
Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen ,
including Socioeconomic Aspec s.................................. 158
Re e ences......................................................... 159
Chap e 6C: Fishes ........................................................ 161
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 163
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 163
2. Documen edchangein hes a eo  ishbiodi e si y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3. Consequences o biodi e si y change on human communi ies,
economiesandwell-being ........................................ 168
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 169
5. Ou look ........................................................ 171
Re e ences......................................................... 172
Chap e 6D: Ma ine mammals............................................... 177
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 179
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 179
2. Ce aceans ...................................................... 181
3. Pinnipeds....................................................... 184
4. Si enians ....................................................... 186
5. O e s and pola bea ............................................. 186
6. Consequences o changes on human communi ies, economies
andwell-being................................................... 187
7. Ou look ........................................................ 188
8. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 189
9. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 189
Re e ences......................................................... 190
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Wo ldOceanAssessmen II: VolumeII
Chap e 6E: Ma ine ep iles ................................................. 195
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 197
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 197
2. Conse a ion s a us o ma ine ep iles .............................. 197
3. Regional ends.................................................. 199
4. Th ea s......................................................... 201
5. Economic and social consequences o he changes o ma ine ep ile
popula ions ..................................................... 203
6. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 204
Re e ences......................................................... 205
Chap e 6F: Seabi ds....................................................... 211
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 213
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 213
2. Desc ip ion o en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020......... 214
3. Consequences o changes in seabi d popula ions on human
communi ies,economiesandwell-being ............................ 217
4. Ou look ........................................................ 218
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 219
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 220
Re e ences......................................................... 220
Chap e 6G: Ma ine plan s and mac oalgae.................................... 225
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 227
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 227
2. Mang o es ..................................................... 227
3. Sal ma sh plan s ................................................ 229
4. Seag asses ..................................................... 230
5. Mac oalgae ..................................................... 232
6. Consequences o changes on human communi ies, economies
andwell-being................................................... 240
7. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................. 241
8. Ou look ........................................................ 241
Re e ences......................................................... 242
Chap e 7: T ends in he s a e o biodi e si y in ma ine habi a s..................... 251
In oduc ion ....................................................... 253
Chap e 7A: In e idal zone.................................................. 255
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 257
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 257
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 260
Page
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Con en s
3. Economic and social consequences ................................ 261
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 261
5. Ou look ........................................................ 262
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 263
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 263
Re e ences......................................................... 264
Chap e 7B: Biogenic ee s and sandy, muddy and ocky sho e subs a es ......... 267
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 269
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 269
2. Documen ed change in s a e o biogenic ee s and sandy, muddy
and ocky sho e subs a es ....................................... 272
3. Consequences o he changes on human communi ies, economies
andwell-being................................................... 275
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 277
5. Ou look ........................................................ 279
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................. 280
Re e ences......................................................... 281
Chap e 7C: A oll and island lagoons ......................................... 289
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 291
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 291
2. Documen ed changes in s a e o a olls and island lagoons............. 292
3. Consequences o he changes on human communi ies, economies
andwell-being................................................... 295
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences ..................... 296
5. Ou look ........................................................ 296
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 297
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 298
Re e ences......................................................... 299
Chap e 7D:T opicalandsub opicalco al ee s ............................... 305
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 307
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 307
2. Desc ip ion o en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020......... 308
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social consequences and/o o he
economic o social changes ...................................... 309
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 310
5. Ou look ........................................................ 312
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 313
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 313
Re e ences......................................................... 314
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Wo ldOceanAssessmen II: VolumeII
Page
Chap e 7E: Cold wa e co als ............................................... 321
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 323
1. In oduc ionandsumma yo  he i s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 323
2. Desc ip ion o en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020......... 324
3. Economic and social consequences ................................ 329
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 330
5. Ou look ........................................................ 330
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 331
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 332
Re e ences......................................................... 333
Chap e 7F:Es ua iesanddel as............................................. 339
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 341
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 341
2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o es ua ies and del as.............. 342
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andwell-being................................................... 344
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 345
5. Ou look ........................................................ 346
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................. 347
Re e ences......................................................... 348
Chap e 7G: Seag ass meadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 355
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 355
2. Socioeconomic consequences .................................... 356
3. Region-speci icchanges.......................................... 357
4. Ou look ........................................................ 358
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 358
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 359
Re e ences ........................................................ 362
Chap e 7H: Mang o es .................................................... 365
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 367
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 367
2. Documen ed change in s a e o mang o es be ween 2010 and 2020 .... 368
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andwell-being................................................... 370
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 372
5. Ou look ........................................................ 373
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................. 373
Re e ences......................................................... 374
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Con en s
Page
2. O sho e hyd oca bon explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning ... 285
3. Economic, social, and en i onmen al aspec s o o sho e hyd oca bon
explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning ....................... 288
4. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 290
5. Role o he o sho e hyd oca bon indus y in acili a ing he ma ine
enewable ene gy indus y ........................................ 291
6. Conclusion ..................................................... 292
Re e ences ........................................................ 293
Chap e 20: T ends in inpu s o an h opogenic noise in o he ma ine en i onmen ..... 297
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 299
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 299
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al s a us ............................. 300
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social consequences and o he economic
o social changes ............................................... 308
4. Key egion-speci icchangesandconsequences...................... 308
5. Ou look ........................................................ 310
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 312
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 313
Re e ences ........................................................ 313
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene gy sou ces ........................... 321
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 323
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 323
2. S a e o ma ine enewable ene gy a he global le el .................. 324
3. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s o ma ine enewable ene gy
de elopmen ................................................... 329
4. Socioeconomicbene i sandimpac s omma ine enewableene gy
deploymen ..................................................... 332
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................. 333
6. An icipa ed u u e ends.......................................... 335
Re e ences......................................................... 336
Chap e 22: In asi e species ................................................... 343
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 345
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 345
2. Documen ed baseline and changes in non-indigenous species ......... 347
3. Consequences o humancommuni ies,economiesandwell-being..... 348
4. Key egion-speci icbaselines,changesandconsequences............. 350
5. Ou look ........................................................ 354
6. O he .......................................................... 356
Re e ences......................................................... 356

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Wo ldOceanAssessmen II: VolumeII
Page
Chap e 23: De elopmen s in he explo a ion o and use o ma ine gene ic esou ces . 363
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 365
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 365
2. T ends be ween 2010 and 2020 .................................... 366
3. Economic and social consequences and changes .................... 370
4. Key egion-speci icde elopmen sinknowledgeand hei consequences 371
5. Capaci y-building gaps ........................................... 371
6. Me hodological challenges and u u e ends ........................ 373
7. Ma ine gene ic esou ces and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals ...... 374
Re e ences......................................................... 376
Chap e 24: Ma ine hyd a es– a po en ially eme ging issue ........................ 381
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383
2. Wha a e ma ine hyd a es? ........................................ 383
3. Po en ial isks om ma ine me hane hyd a es ....................... 386
4. Ma ine hyd a es as a sou ce o ene gy .............................. 388
5. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 390
6. Ou look ........................................................ 390
Re e ences......................................................... 390
Chap e 25: Cumula i e e ec s................................................. 395
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397
2. Cumula i e e ec s assessmen s................................... 398
3. Regional applica ions o cumula i e e ec s assessmen s on
he ma ine en i onmen : dis ibu ion and app oaches ................. 402
4. Ou look ........................................................ 406
Re e ences......................................................... 413
Pa six: T ends in managemen app oaches o he ma ine en i onmen ............. 421
Chap e 26: De elopmen s in ma ine spa ial planning.............................. 423
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 425
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 425
2. Types o ma ine spa ial planning ................................... 426
3. Ma ine spa ial planning: a s ep-by-s ep app oach owa d
ecosys em-based managemen .................................... 427
4. Tools o ma ine spa ial planning................................... 428
5. P og ess in implemen ing ma ine spa ial planning .................... 430
Re e ences......................................................... 436
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Con en s
Page
Chap e 27: De elopmen s in managemen app oaches............................ 441
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 443
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 443
2. Managemen app oaches......................................... 444
3. Ad ances in ocean managemen app oaches ........................ 448
4. Managemen ools o suppo mi iga ion o and adap a ion o clima e
change, including building esilience................................ 458
5. Key egion-speci icissues ........................................ 460
6. Capaci y-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
7. Gaps and u u e pe spec i es...................................... 462
8. Ou look ........................................................ 463
Re e ences......................................................... 465
Chap e 28: De elopmen sin he unde s anding o o e all bene i s
om he ocean o humans ..................................................... 471
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 473
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 473
2. Bene i sand hei dis ibu ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3. Disbene i s ohumans............................................ 478
4. Th ea s o ocean ecosys em se ices............................... 479
5. Sa egua dingoceanbene i s h ough egionalandin e na ional
coope a ion and imp o ed implemen a ion o in e na ional law as
e lec edin heUni edNa ionsCon en ionon heLawo  heSea ....... 480
Re e ences......................................................... 483
Annexes ................................................................. 487
Annex I: O iginal membe s o he w i ing eams app o ed by he Bu eau ............. 489
Annex II: Pee e iewe s nomina ed o each chap e .............................. 497
321
Chap e 21
De elopmen s in
enewable ene gy
sou ces
Con ibu o s: Tak o Soukissian (con ene ), Joan Bonda e , Vale ie Cummins, Ama deep Dhanju,
Ca los Ga cia-So o (co-lead membe ), La s Golmen, Osman Keh Kama a (co-lead membe ), Jimmy
Mu phy, E ic Mwangi Njo oge, Anas asia S a i (lead membe ) and Geo ges Vougioukalakis.

323
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene gy sou ces
Keyno e poin s
1 Ene da a, “Consump ion”, Global Ene gy S a is ical Yea book 2020. A ailable a h ps://yea book.ene da a.ne /
o al-ene gy/wo ld-consump ion-s a is ics.h ml.
•The o sho e wind sec o is expanding
globally o egions wi h no u ili y-scale
(g id) ins alla ions a p esen . The use o
loa ing pla o ms is a s ep change ena-
bling he indus y o open up la ge a eas
wi h deepe wa e s.
•In 2019, 28.3 gigawa s (GW) o ins alled
capaci y om he o sho e wind sec o
was deployed globally, wi h 22 GW o Eu-
ope, p ima ily in he No h Sea, 5.9 GW o
China and 0.4 GW in o he ma ke s.
•In he nex decade, Asia and he Uni ed
S a es o Ame ica could be majo g ow h
d i e s o he de elopmen and ins alla-
ion o o sho e wind powe .
•Wa e and ocean cu en ene gy p ojec s
ha e no ye achie ed ull comme cializa-
ion a u ili y scale, and idal ene gy p o-
jec s a e s ill a e.
•P og ess in ene gy s o age could make a
signi ican con ibu ion o he de elopmen
o o sho e wind powe and o he ma ine
enewable ene gy (MRE) echnologies.
•P ope si ing o MRE p ojec s could mini-
mize con lic s wi h o he ocean uses and po-
en ial impac s on he ma ine en i onmen .
1. In oduc ion
The p esen chap e co e s ad ances in
knowledge and capaci y made in ecen yea s
o he a ious ypes o ma ine enewable en-
e gy (MRE) a he global le el. Fo he pu pose
o he p esen chap e , MRE as a ca ego y
includes o sho e wind ene gy, idal and ocean
cu en ene gy, wa e ene gy, ocean he mal
ene gy, osmo ic powe , ma ine biomass ene -
gy and o sho e sola and geo he mal ene gy.
The chap e has linkages wi h chap e s 6F, 8A,
9, 19, 20, 26, 27 and 28 o he p esen Assess-
men .
1.1. Clima e change and he clean
ene gy challenge
Fossil uel ene gy use accoun s o a la ge
p opo ion o global an h opogenic g een-
house gas emissions. In 2019, global ene gy
consump ion inc eased by 0.6pe cen ,1 while
o al emissions o ene gy- ela ed ca bon di-
oxide (CO2) ell by 3.2pe cen (In e na ional
Ene gy Agency (IEA), 2020). Howe e , global
a e age a mosphe ic CO2 was 409.8 pa s pe
million, he highes le el o 800,000 yea s
(Dlugokencky and Tans, 2020), while he global
a e age empe a u e was abou 1.1°C, wi h a
s anda d e o o 0.1°C, abo e p e-indus ial
le els (Wo ld Me eo ological O ganiza ion
(WMO), 2020).
In iew o he cu en s a us o g eenhouse
gas emissions, i is e y likely ha he ag eed
empe a u e h esholds o 1.5°C o 2°C abo e
p e-indus ial le els will be exceeded. As clea -
ly highligh ed in he special epo en i led
Global Wa ming o 1.5°C o he In e go e n-
men al Panel on Clima e Change (2018), o
global wa ming no o exceed 1.5°C, global ne
an h opogenic emissions o CO2 would need
o all by abou 45pe cen om 2010 le els
by 2030, eaching “ne ze o” a ound 2050. Tha
means ha any emaining emissions would
need o be balanced by emo ing CO2 om
he ai . Reducing g eenhouse gas emissions
is he e o e an impo an s ep owa ds clima e
change mi iga ion. In o de o mo e in ha
324
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II: Volume II
di ec ion, many S a es a e aking measu es o
inc ease he de elopmen o enewable ene gy
sou ces such as MRE in o de o mee na ional
clean ene gy and clima e change goals. MRE
2 See Gene al Assembly esolu ion 70/1.
3 See Eu opean Commission, “New echnologies in he ocean ene gy sec o ”, 29 Oc obe 2018.
4 See Global Wind Ene gy Council, “The g ow h o he global o sho e wind ma ke will be d i en by Asia”, 23 Sep-
embe 2019.
5 See GE, “GE Renewable Ene gy un eils he i s Haliade-X 12 MW, he wo ld’s mos powe ul o sho e wind u -
bine”, 22 July 2019.
is also linked o Sus ainable De elopmen
Goal 7, in which a o dable and clean ene gy
is ecognized as a key d i e o de elopmen .2
2. S a e o ma ine enewable ene gy a he global le el
2.1. Ad ances in knowledge and
capaci y be ween 2010 and 2020
The ocean has he po en ial o be a majo
sou ce o enewable ene gy. In addi ion o cli-
ma e change mi iga ion, MRE can con ibu e o
socioeconomic de elopmen , ene gy secu i y
and ene gy access in emo e coas al egions
(Edenho e and o he s, 2011). In 2019, global
ins alled o sho e wind capaci y inc eased by
4.7 GW, a 19.8pe cen inc ease on 2018, o a
o al o 28.3 GW. The global capaci y o o he
ypes o MRE eached 531 megawa s (MW),
90 pe  cen o which came om wo idal
ba ages in F ance and he Republic o Ko ea
(In e na ional Renewable Ene gy Agency (IRE-
NA), 2020a).
The a ious ypes o MRE echnologies a e
e ol ing and de eloping a di e en speeds:
bo om- ixed o sho e wind echnology is
ma u e and echnically ad anced, loa ing o -
sho e wind echnology is on he cusp o being
comme cialized and idal ene gy con e e s
ha e eached he comme cial s age, while o h-
e MRE echnologies a e cu en ly a he de el-
opmen s age.3 The eme ging o sho e wind
ma ke s include India, Japan, he Republic o
Ko ea and he Uni ed S a es.4 The e has been
a signi ican inc ease in wind u bine a ed ca-
paci ies, wi h u bines o up o 12 MW capaci y
expec ed o be on he ma ke in 2021.5
2.2. Regional ad ances
2.2.1. O sho e wind ene gy
The global echnical po en ial o o sho e
wind ene gy is es ima ed by IEA (in collabo-
a ion wi h Impe ial College London) a mo e
han 120,000 GW (IEA, 2019). Eu ope, wi h
cumula i e capaci y o 21.98 GW in 2019,
domina es he sec o . The main coun ies de-
eloping o sho e wind ene gy a e he Uni ed
Kingdom o G ea B i ain and No he n I eland
(1.7 GW ins alled in 2019 and 9.9 GW in o al),
Ge many (1.1 GW ins alled in 2019 and 7.5 GW
in o al), and China (1.3 GW ins alled in 2019
and 5.9 GW in o al) (IRENA, 2020a).
The e ha e been signi ican de elopmen s in
he sec o . The la ges o sho e wind a m in
he wo ld, he Ho nsea One P ojec in he Uni -
ed Kingdom, was comple ed in 2020 wi h an
ins alled capaci y o 1.2 GW. In 2019, he Halia-
de-X 12 MW p o o ype de eloped by he Uni ed
S a es wind u bine manu ac u e GE became
he la ges wind u bine e e buil . As he size o
bo h o sho e wind u bines and o sho e wind
a ms con inues o inc ease, conce ns abou
po en ial en i onmen al impac s, impac s on
ishe ies and issues ela ed o human use o
a eas nea o wi hin wind a ms a e becoming
mo e impo an .
O sho e wind ene gy is demons a ing he
iabili y, bo h echnical and economic, o
325
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene gy sou ces
u ili y-scale p ojec s in di e en ma ine en i-
onmen s. The globally weigh ed le elized cos
o ene gy (LCOE)6 o u ili y-scale p ojec s has
allen by 28.6pe cen since 2010, hus d i ing
ins alla ion a ound he wo ld (IRENA, 2020b).
Mo eo e , he sec o es ima es ha LCOE al-
ues in he o de o €50/MWh a e achie able by
2030.7 The main d i e s o cos educ ion in-
clude he use o la ge , mo e e icien u bines
in bigge o sho e wind a m de elopmen s,
he educed capi al cos o inancing p ojec s,
and he ce ain y o a long pipeline o p ojec s,
which has allowed he supply chain o in es
and inno a e. Fixed pla o ms a e iable o
wa e dep hs up o 60 m, bu he indus y also
plans o ope a e in deepe wa e s using loa -
ing pla o ms wi hin he nex decade. Many
coas al coun ies wo ldwide see loa ing wind
6 The le elized cos o ene gy is he p esen alue o he a e age minimum p ice o p oduced elec ical ene gy
equi ed o o se he o al cos o i s p oduc ion (cons uc ion, ope a ion and main enance, and uel cos s). I
is le elized o e he li e ime o a gene a ing plan .
7 See also Ke y Chambe lain, “O sho e wind opex se o all 40% by 2030 as supplie s dig deep”, Reu e s
E en s, 25 Oc obe 2017.
powe as a u u e majo con ibu o o he
achie emen o enewable ene gy p oduc ion
a ge s. The wo ld’s i s u ili y-scale loa ing
o sho e wind a m began p oduc ion in 2017
(o he coas o Pe e head, Sco land, Uni ed
Kingdom) using he Hywind concep de el-
oped by he No wegian company Equino (Mu-
sial and o he s, 2019; see igu ebelow). This
ma ks an impo an miles one o he o sho e
wind indus y in he de elopmen o p ojec s in
deepe wa e and u he om he coas .
The success o o sho e wind powe in educ-
ing ins alla ion and p oduc ion cos s, com-
bined wi h exis ing expe ise in onsho e wind
ene gy, has made o sho e wind he leading
MRE echnology.
Wo ld’s i s comme cial wind a m comp ising loa ing wind u bines
Pho og aphe : Øy ind G a ås/Woldcam; image p o ided by Equino .
326
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II: Volume II
2.2.2. Tidal and ocean cu en ene gy
Global idal ene gy capaci y (combined he-
o e ical idal ange and s eam esou ce)
is es ima ed a 3 e awa (TW) (Lewis and
o he s, 2011; Sco ish En e p ise, 2018), while
he wo ldwide po en ial o ocean cu en s is
es ima ed a 450 GW.8 Tidal s eam ene gy
equi es low speeds g ea e han 2.0 m/s o
be exploi able (Enca nacion and o he s, 2019).
The unnelling e ec s o bays, es ua ies and
inle s can p o ide a iable idal o cu en en-
e gy esou ce. Such loca ions as he Bay o
Fundy in Canada, Cook S ai in New Zealand
and he Pen land Fi h in Sco land a e known
o hei signi ican po en ial and ha e been
a ge ed o de elopmen . Ea ly comme cial
en u es, such as he 240-MW La Rance idal
ene gy s a ion in F ance and he 254-MW Si-
hwa Lake idal powe s a ion in he Republic
o Ko ea, ha nessed idal ene gy by impound-
men h ough he cons uc ion o ba ages.
Al hough a ious idal p ojec s ha e been p o-
posed, in pa icula on he wes coas o he
Uni ed Kingdom, p og ess wi h ega d o con-
s uc ion has been slow, mainly because idal
ba ages can a ec ecosys ems and wa e
quali y (Kadi i and o he s, 2012). Ve y high capi-
al cos s a e ano he de e en . The idal ene gy
indus y has he e o e ocused p ima ily on ex-
ac ing ene gy om as - lowing idal s eams
using ho izon al axis idal u bines, which ha e
p og essed om single p o o ype deploy-
men s o small-scale a ays (Enca nacion and
o he s, 2019). The en i onmen al moni o ing
p og amme implemen ed o he deploymen
o he i s la ge-scale comme cial idal s eam
gene a o (SeaGen) became he oad map o
u u e idal p ojec s (Sa idge and o he s, 2014).
The i s g id-connec ed idal a ay wi h h ee
8 See Ocean Ene gy Council, “Ocean Cu en Ene gy”. A ailable a www.oceanene gycouncil.com/ocean-ene gy/
ocean-cu en -ene gy.
9 See Yasmin Ali, “Wo ld’s i s g id connec ed baseload idal powe s a ion”, Mic og id Knowledge, 27 No embe
2018.
10 See Simec A lan is Ene gy, “MeyGen”.
11 See O sho e Ene gy, “OpenHyd o ano he casual y o inno a ion ‘ alley o dea h’, EMEC says”, 27 July 2018.
100 kW u bines has been ope a ing success-
ully in he She land Islands since 2016,9 while
he MeyGen p ojec , also in Sco land, is he
la ges idal ene gy a ay cu en ly deployed,
wi h 6 MW.10 Howe e , since 2016, he indus y
has la gely s alled, in pa icula in he Uni ed
Kingdom. In addi ion, he high-p o ile collapse
o OpenHyd o c ea ed signi ican nega i e pub-
lici y o he indus y.11 As o 2020, idal ene gy
has ye o make a signi ican leap owa ds he
ins alla ion o u ili y-scale p ojec s.
2.2.3. Wa e ene gy
The wo ld’s heo e ical wa e powe esou ce
is es ima ed a 2.11 TW, and si es wi h alues
a ound 30 kW/m (o e en lowe ) a e usually
conside ed o be comme cially iable o wa e
ene gy ex ac ion, depending on he echnol-
ogy (Sandbe g and o he s, 2016). The loca-
ions wi h he la ges wa e powe esou ce
a e be ween la i udes 40° and 60° (Gunn and
S ock-Williams, 2012). Fo ins ance, wa e
ene gy si es o he coas o I eland p esen
annual a e age powe densi y le els o mo e
han 80 kW/m.
As o 2019, he sec o was s ill no close o
comme cializa ion, bu p og ess had been
made in assessing he di icul ies in ol ed in
ex ac ing wa e powe a a easonable cos .
Signi ican challenges a e he hos ile en i on-
men in which wa e ene gy con e e s p oduce
powe and he need o design echnologies
ha can eliably ope a e o e he li e ime o
a comme cial p ojec . A la ge numbe o di -
e en wa e ene gy con e sion concep s and
de ices a e unde de elopmen , bu such a i-
e y has esul ed in a lack o con e gence and
o e all ocus wi hin he sec o . Howe e , since
2015, mul iple ull-scale wa e ene gy con e -
e s ha e been deployed by such de elope s as
333
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene gy sou ces
same in as uc u e, o example) can be a-
cili a ed h ough ma ine spa ial planning (see
chap. 26), as well as echnical ad ances in he
design o mo e obus ish cages, echnologi-
cal de elopmen s in au oma ion, ad ances in
moo ing sys ems and bene i -sha ing (whe e
MRE a ays p o ide shel e o ish a ms).
Mo eo e , abandoned oil and gas pla o ms
can be con e ed in o p oduc ion and s o age
uni s ha con e elec ici y om o sho e wind
a ms in o hyd ogen and syn he ic gas (Jepma
and an Scho , 2016; see also chap. 19). Syn-
e gies may also a ise be ween he MRE sec o
and o he ma ine indus ies, such as anspo
and ope a ions, supply and manu ac u e, new
ma e ials and mining (Hucke by and o he s,
2016), and sho eline p o ec ion and ma ine con-
se a ion e o s (LiVecchi and o he s, 2019).
4.2. Po en ial ad e se socioeconomic
impac s
Conside able challenges will ha e o be aced
in o de o achie e he deploymen o MRE, as
a new ene gy sou ce, on a signi ican scale.
Apa om he highe ene gy cos o MRE
ins alla ions compa ed wi h land-based ins al-
la ions, social accep ance also needs o be ad-
d essed. MRE ins alla ions may mee s ong
opposi ion om o he ma i ime sec o s and
local coas al communi ies ha a e eluc an o
sha e ma ine space (Dal on and o he s, 2015;
Lange and o he s, 2018). Impo an issues
a ising om he in e ac ions o ishe ies and
o sho e wind a ms include he loss o ishing
g ounds and displacemen , gea damage, inad-
equa e compensa ion schemes and he need
o a mo e dynamic engagemen o ishe s in
planning p ocesses (G ay and o he s, 2016).
MRE ins alla ions may also be a cause o con-
ce n o he coas al ou ism sec o because o
he po en ial isual dis u bance. S udies con-
duc ed on he F ench Medi e anean coas ,
as well as in No h Wales, Uni ed Kingdom,
and New Zealand, e ealed he opposi ion o
coas al communi ies o o sho e wind a ms
and wa e ene gy ins alla ions, especially in
places o high scenic beau y (De ine-W igh
and Howes, 2010; Wes e be g and o he s,
2013; B ownlee and o he s, 2015). Po en ial
con lic s ega ding sa e na iga ion and ope -
a ion o ma ine essels may also a ise when
MRE ins alla ions a e close o exis ing ma i-
ime anspo ou es.
In conclusion, he po en ial en i onmen al and
socioeconomic isks unde line he impo ance
o ex ensi e s akeholde engagemen , obus
en i onmen al impac assessmen s and
isk analysis be o e planning and si ing MRE
p ojec s.
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps
5.1. Cos educ ion
Cos educ ion is he mos impo an issue ha
he MRE indus y has o add ess. Bo om- ixed
o sho e wind a ms may be app oaching cos
pa i y wi h con en ional elec ici y gene a-
ion sou ces in some ma ke s; howe e , no
o he MRE echnology is close o becoming
comme cially iable wi hou u he esea ch
and de elopmen , a ge ed inno a ion and
signi ican inancial incen i es. The educ ion
o MRE cos s is necessa y o a ac in es o s
and ad ance he sec o ’s de elopmen . Cos
educ ion can be achie ed on he basis o he
ollowing pilla s (SI Ocean, 2013; Sma and
Noonan, 2018):
•Scale and olume. La ge MRE de ices
and a ay ins alla ions dec ease he man-
u ac u ing and ins alla ion cos s, while he
la ge -scale p oduc ion o MRE de ices
educes he o e all indi idual componen
cos .

334
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II: Volume II
•Expe ience and gene a ion o knowledge.
Knowledge gene a ion is impo an o
MRE capaci y-building and cos educ ion.
New knowledge acqui ed h ough expe-
ience and lea ning-by-doing will os e
he in eg a ion o MRE in o ele an S a e
policies. The sha ing o da a and in o ma-
ion, exchanges o expe iences, esea ch
and de elopmen and lessons lea ned a e
impo an d i e s o cos educ ion.
•Inno a ion. Ta ge ed inno a ion (in he
esea ch and de elopmen phase o an
MRE concep o in he con ex o ac ual
indus ial MRE p ojec s) will educe cos s
and inc ease he yield and eliabili y o
MRE de ices.
•Ene gy s o age. Accu a e sho - e m o e-
cas ing and ene gy s o age a e ele an
o he issues o in e mi en elec ici y
gene a ion and s ochas ic luc ua ion, e-
spec i ely. Cu en echnologies o ene gy
s o age consis o elec ochemical sys-
ems (e.g., ba e ies and uel cells, and hy-
d ogen ene gy s o age), elec ical s o age
(e.g., supe capaci o ene gy s o age and
magne ic sys ems), mechanical sys ems
(e.g., lywheels and wa e pumps) and he -
mal sys ems (Ould Am ouche and o he s,
2016; Olabi, 2017). Pumped hyd oelec ic
ene gy s o age is he mos ma u e o hose
echnologies and he la ges in scale (see
also Wang and o he s, 2019).
5.2. En i onmen al moni o ing and
mi iga ion measu es
The en i onmen al moni o ing o ma ine o -
ganisms and me ocean (oceanog aphic and
me eo ological) cha ac e is ics is essen ial
o iden i ying and quan i ying a iabili y in
he ma ine en i onmen om he design o
22 See, o example, Uni ed S a es Depa men o Comme ce, Na ional Oceanic and A mosphe ic Adminis a ion,
“Takes o ma ine mammals inciden al o speci ied ac i i ies; aking ma ine mammals inciden al o cons uc-
ion o he Vineya d Wind O sho e Wind P ojec ”, Fede al Regis e , ol.84, No.83, 30 Ap il 2019. A ailable a
www.go in o.go /con en /pkg/FR-2019-04-30/pd /2019-08666.pd .
he decommissioning o an MRE ins alla ion,
while he mapping o he ocean loo may con-
ibu e signi ican ly o he p ope si ing o MRE
ins alla ions (Mulcan and o he s, 2015).
The es ablishmen o en i onmen al baselines
(e.g., mapping and cha ac e iza ion o he sea-
bed, including sedimen composi ion and shal-
low and deep geology) and he moni o ing o
bio ic elemen s a e necessa y o add ess any
ad e se impac on biodi e si y o he ac i i ies
in ques ion. In ha con ex , he e is a need o
de ine s anda ds o he analysis o en i on-
men al moni o ing da a o MRE de elopmen
si es and o iden i y he a ea o e which bio-
logical e ec s may occu o in o m baseline
da a collec ion.22 I is also necessa y o se
h esholds, de e mine changes in species
abundance, di e si y, dis ibu ion and beha -
iou and eadjus managemen ac ions (Foley
and o he s, 2015). The MRE echnologies
used and he s esso s in oduced in he ma-
ine en i onmen should be conside ed when
designing moni o ing p ocedu es. P edic i e
models can be a supplemen a y ool, ideally
when combined wi h in si u obse a ions.
Me ocean da a can be ob ained om in si u
measu emen s, ou pu s om nume ical mod-
els and emo e sensing ins umen s. Long-
e m da a a e equi ed o he p elimina y
es ima ion o he a ailable MRE esou ce and
he me ocean clima e cha ac e is ics in he
a ea o he ins alla ion. Sho (up o 3 days)
and medium- e m (3–7 days) o ecas ing o
me ocean condi ions is also impo an o
ope a ional planning ac i i ies. Du ing he
ope a ion phase, eliable sho - e m o ecas s
o he expec ed powe p oduc ion a e equi ed
o la ge-scale powe in eg a ion.
335
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene gy sou ces
5.3. S a egic conside a ions o
de elopmen o ma ine enewable
ene gy, including unding
The de elopmen o na ional ene gy s a egies
may in ol e a numbe o objec i es. In ha
con ex , some c i ical ac o s o be conside ed
include educing he cos o MRE and enhanc-
ing i s la ge-scale in eg a ion in o elec ic
powe sys ems; le e aging a di e si y o MRE
sou ces and de e mining hei geog aphical
dis ibu ion; educing ba ie s o deploymen ,
including si ing con lic s and pe mi ing p o-
cesses; and a ac ing signi ican in es men
in he sec o .
Fu he mo e, he Wo ld Conse a ion Con-
g ess o he In e na ional Union o Conse -
a ion o Na u e (IUCN), a i s six h session,
asked S a es and compe en au ho i ies o
implemen a s a egy o he de elopmen o
o sho e enewable ene gy ha akes en i on-
men al issues in o accoun and o subjec ha
s a egy o igo ous s a egic en i onmen al
assessmen (IUCN, 2016). Tha commi men
is comple ely in line wi h Sus ainable De elop-
men Goal 7.3
23 See www.o sho ewindus.o g/abou -us.
The ull de elopmen o MRE can enhance
he di e si y o low-ca bon ene gy op ions
and p o ide iable al e na i es o ossil uel.
T adi ional comme cial unding sou ces a e
o en insu icien o achie e ha goal, so in-
no a i e s a egies a e equi ed. P i a e-pub-
lic pa ne ships a e conside ed c i ical o
he de elopmen o MRE. Fo example, he
Eu opean Commission has se up he Ocean
Ene gy Fo um, b inging oge he indus y,
inance, academia and public au ho i ies o
iden i y solu ions and make in es men mo e
a ac i e. In he Uni ed S a es, he Business
Ne wo k o O sho e Wind23 is p omo ing he
o sho e wind indus y.
The impo ance o he public sec o ’s suppo
is no con ined o he unding o he ea ly
s ages o de elopmen o new echnologies.
Equally, i no mo e, impo an is i s ole in
c ea ing a a ou able p i a e in es men en-
i onmen h ough inancial and iscal incen-
i es, enewable po olio s anda ds, o se s o
eed-in a i s. In es men in new echnologies
is gene ally limi ed o S a es wi h he inancial
means o accep he isks associa ed wi h
echnologies ha a e no comme cially iable.
Howe e , de eloping coun ies could in es in
hose MRE echnologies ha a e mo e ma u e.
6. An icipa ed u u e ends
Al hough conside able p og ess has been
made owa ds he exploi a ion o MRE, he
indus y is s ill in he ea ly s ages o de elop-
men , excep o he o sho e wind sec o . As
in gene al wa e ene gy and idal ene gy a e no
ye comme cially iable, he immedia e a ge
is o encou age mo e o sho e deploymen s o
single p o o ypes o small-scale a ays. Such
deploymen s, i success ul, will build con i-
dence in he sec o and encou age he in es -
men s equi ed o de elop la ge-scale a ms.
Technological ad ances a e also equi ed o
imp o e powe ake-o pe o mance and eli-
abili y, along wi h con ol sys ems o maximize
powe abso p ion. The su i abili y, eliabili y
and cos - educ ion po en ial o wa e and idal
echnologies o se he signi ican in es men
isk.
In Eu ope, ambi ious LCOE educ ion a ge s
o o sho e wind, wa e and idal ene gy ha e
been es ablished unde he S a egic Ene gy
Technology Plan (Eu opean Commission
336
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II: Volume II
Di ec o a e-Gene al o Ene gy and o he s,
2018). The goal o o sho e wind ene gy is o
educe LCOE o a no-subsidies poin o ixed
o sho e wind and o less han €120/MWh
o loa ing o sho e wind by 2025. The co -
esponding a ge s o wa e and idal ene gy
a e €200/MWh and €150/MWh, espec i ely.
Wo ldwide suppo by na ional Go e nmen s
would allow he indus y o de elop he c i ical
mass ha would in u n gene a e la ge cos
educ ions. The co esponding LCOE p ojec-
ions o salini y g adien ene gy and ocean
he mal ene gy con e sion a e €80/MWh and
€150–200/MWh, espec i ely (Ocean Ene gy
Eu ope, 2016).
A ecen end o inc eased open sea deploy-
men s o wa e, idal and ocean cu en de ic-
es has been o ocus on niche ma ke s. Local
MRE op ions may o e a solu ion o ene gy
needs in o -g id a eas and emo e coas al
and island communi ies (e.g. small island
de eloping S a es), including o desalina ion
and aquacul u e (LiVecchi and o he s 2019;
Rusu and Onea, 2019).24 In such applica ions,
wa e and idal ene gy ha e he po en ial o be
compe i i e wi h diesel gene a o s. In mos
24 See Uni ed S a es Depa men o Ene gy, O ice o Ene gy E iciency and Renewable Ene gy, “Powe ing he Blue
Economy”.
cases, wa e and idal ene gy de ices would
be smalle in size han u ili y-scale de ices,
so a high capi al ou lay would no be equi ed.
Wo king owa ds u ili y scale by inc emen ally
scaling up de ices and a ay size may p o ide
he pa hway o he comme cializa ion o wa e
and idal ene gy.
The o sho e wind sec o is expec ed o ex-
pand globally, including in a eas whe e no
o sho e wind a ms a e cu en ly ope a ional.
In he nex decade, Asia and he Uni ed S a es
a e expec ed o make signi ican p og ess,
wi h g ow h in o sho e wind ene gy also
accele a ing in nascen ma ke s. The use o
loa ing pla o ms is a s ep change o he
indus y. Floa ing wind ene gy is on he cusp
o comme cial deploymen , and he e a e new
echnologies a ea lie s ages o de elopmen
wi h he po en ial o o sho e deploymen . Fo
example, mul i- u bine pla o ms may o e an
al e na i e o con inuous inc eases in wind u -
bine size. High-al i ude wind concep s, such
as au onomous ki es o unpilo ed ai c a , and
hyb id pla o ms combining a ious ypes o
MRE echnology on a single pla o m a e also
mo ing along he de elopmen p ocess.
Acknowledgemen s:
We would like o acknowledge he subs an ial con ibu ion o Nikolaos
Koukouzas wi h espec o o sho e geo he mal ene gy.
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Annex I: O iginal membe s o he w i ing eams app o ed by he Bu eau
Chap e 7K
G an R. Bigg (con ene ), Mau izio Azza o,
Hilconida Calumpong (chap e lead membe ),
Ka en E ans (subchap e lead membe ), Huw
G i i hs and Mo iaki Yasuha a.
Chap e 7L
Malcolm R. Cla k (con ene ), Angelo F. Be -
na dino, Hilconida Calumpong (chap e lead
membe ), Jason M. Hall-Spence , J. Mu ay
Robe s, Bha ani E. Na ayanaswamy, Paul
Snelg o e and Joshua T. Tuhumwi e (subchap-
e lead membe ).
Chap e 7M
Je oen Ingels (con ene ), Di a Amon, Angelo
F. Be na dino, Punyasloke Bhadu y, Holly Bik,
Hilconida Calumpong (chap e lead membe ),
Malcolm R. Cla k, Thomas Dahlg en, Daniel
O.B. Jones, C aig McClain, Cli on Nunnally,
Paul Snelg o e, Fuji Toyonobu, Joshua T.
Tuhumwi e (subchap e lead membe ) and
Mo iaki Yasuha a.
Chap e 7N
Pe e C oo (con ene ), Hilconida Calumpong
(chap e lead membe ), Fe nanda de Oli ei a
Lana, Osman Keh Kama a (co-lead mem-
be ), Joseph Mon oya, T acey T. Su on,
Michael Vecchione and Tymon Zielinski (co-
lead membe ).
Chap e 7O
Ana Colaço (con ene ), Angelika B and , Hil-
conida Calumpong (chap e lead membe ),
Ana Hila io, Tomo Ki ahashi, Nuno Lou enço,
Bha ani E. Na ayanaswamy, Iman s Geo ge
P iede, Ashley Rowden, Joshua T. Tuhumwi e
(subchap e lead membe ), Michael Vecchione
and Hi omi Wa anabe.
Chap e 7P
Nadine Le B is (con ene ), Hilconida Calum-
pong (chap e lead membe ), Sanae Chiba
(subchap e lead membe ), Ana Colaço, El a
Escoba , Anna Me axas, Pa aske i Nomikou,
Julia Sigwa , Ve ena Tunnicli e and Hi omi
Wa anabe.
Chap e 7Q
Howa d S.J. Roe (con ene ), Hilconida Calum-
pong (chap e lead membe ), Da id F ees one,
Lau ence Kell, B ian E. Luckhu s , Chul Pa k
(co-lead membe ) and Tammy Wa en.
Chap e 8A
Alan Simcock (con ene and chap e lead
membe ), Aus in Becke , Ma celo Be ello i,
Joan Bonda e , Robe Boysen, An hony
Cha les, Leand a Gonçal es, Miguel Iñíguez,
Osman Keh Kama a (co-lead membe ), Paula
Keene , Jenna Lamphe e, Candace May,
Angeliki N. Menegaki, Ishmael Mensah, Es-
sam Yassin Mohammed (co-lead membe ),
Tanya O’Ga a, Ch is ina Pi a, Jean Edmond
Rand ianan enaina, Ma ia Sahib, Regina Sal a-
do , Anas asia S a i (co-lead membe ), Jean-
Claude Tibe and G ego y We e au.
Chap e 8B
Michael Moo e (con ene ), Ma in Edwa ds,
Bella S. Galil, Osman Keh Kama a (co-lead
membe ), Essam Yassin Mohammed (co-
lead membe ), Alan Simcock (lead membe ),
Anas asia S a i (co-lead membe ) and Dick
Ve haak.
Chap e 9
Ca los Ga cia-So o (con ene and lead mem-
be ), Denise B ei bu g, Monica Campillos,
Pa icia Cas illo-B iceno, Sanae Chiba (co-lead
membe ), Ma hew Collins, Ganix Esnaola,
Ka en E ans (co-lead membe ), Louise B. Fi h,
Thomas F öliche , Jason M. Hall-Spence , Da id
Halpe n, Ka en L. Hun e , Gab iel Iba a, Sung-
Yong Kim, Roxy M. Koll, Ka hleen McInnes, Jon
Saenz, Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead membe ), Bess
Wa d and Tymon Zielinski (co-lead membe ).
Chap e 10
Thomas Malone (con ene ), A chis Ambulke ,
Ma ia João Bebianno (co-lead membe ), Paula
Bon empi, Michael K om, Ha i Kuosa, Joseph
Mon oya, Alice New on, Yapo Ossey, João
Sa kis Yunes, Walke Smi h, La s Sones en,
Geo gios Sylaios, Juying Wang (lead membe )
and Kedong Yin.

494
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II: Volume II
Chap e 11
Ral Ebinghous (con ene : pha maceu icals
and pe sonal ca e p oduc s), Bjø n Eina
G øs ik (con ene : hyd oca bons), Ida-Maja
Hassellö (con ene : ships), Colin F. Mo a
(con e ne : pe sis en o ganic pollu an s),
Alan Simcock (con ene : adioac i i y; and
co-lead membe ), La s Sones en (con ene :
a mosphe ic inpu s), Penny Vlahos (con en-
e : me als), E ic P. Ach e be g, Babajide Alo,
Robin Ande son, Ca los F ancisco And ade,
Michael Angelidis, Ma ia João Bebianno (lead
membe ), A sonina Be a, Nene Bi T ace Bon-
i ace, Miguel Cae ano, Isabel Na alia Ga cia
A e alo, Kissao Gnandi, Julio Es eban Gue a
Massón, Gi Hoon Hong, Suk Hyun Kim, Raine
Lohmann, Kida Rose Ninsemon, Jae Ryoung
Oh, Bing Qiao, Monika S ankiewicz, Joshua T.
Tuhumwi e (co-lead membe ), Juying Wang
(co-lead membe ) and Judi h Weis.
Chap e 12
F ançois Galgani (con ene : ma ine deb is),
Aleke S ö en-O’B ien (con ene : dumping),
A chis Ambulka , Mau izio Azza o, Ma ia João
Bebianno (lead membe ), A sonina Be a, Joan
Bonda e , Alan Deidun, Fe nanda de Oli ei a
Lana, Huw G i i hs, Bjø n Eina G øs ik, Ma in
Hassellö , Ch is os Ioakeimidis, Jenna Jam-
beck, Ahmed M. Kawse , Paula Keene , I yna
Maka enko, Chelsea Rochman, Qama Schuy-
le , Paula Sob al, Kons an inos Topouizelis,
Joshua T. Tuhumwi e (co-lead membe ), Dick
Ve haak, Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead membe ),
Penny Vlahos, Juying Wang (co-lead membe )
and Judi h Weis.
Chap e 13
Ca Thanh Vu (con ene and lead membe ),
Paule e Bynoe, T ang Minh Duong, Ma Elio ,
F ank Hall, Syl ain Monde, Tuan Le Nguyen,
Roshanka Ranasinghe, Ma hieu de Schippe
and Joshua T. Tuhumwi e (co-lead membe ).
Chap e 14
Ca Thanh Vu (con ene and lead membe ),
Ma chonnawe Hube Bakai, Sam Ben ley,
Nene Bi T ace Boni ace, Lionel Ca e , Ca he-
ine C eese, Robe Dapa, Hugo Masson Fiallos,
Regina Folo unsho, Gheo ghe F adee -B a ,
Alan Simcock (co-lead membe ) and Alix Wil-
lemez.
Chap e 15
Po e Hoagland (con ene ), Megan Bailey,
Lena Be gs öm, Alida Bundy, Fe nanda de
Oli ei a Lana, Ka en E ans (co-lead membe ),
Manuel Hidalgo, And ew Johnson, Melina
Kou an idou, Hec o Lozano-Mon es, En ique
Ma scho (lead membe ), Essam Yassin
Mohammed (co-lead membe ), Henn Oja ee
(co-lead membe ), F anklin O maza-Gonzalez,
Iman s Geo ge P iede, Ylenia Rand ianisoa
(co-lead membe ), Jö n Schmid (co-lead
membe ), Zacha ie Sohou, Bu cu Bilgin Topçu,
Lynn Wa e house and Chang-Ik Zhang.
Chap e 16
Rohana Subasinghe (con ene ), Ped o Ba ón,
Malcolm Be e idge, En ique Ma scho (lead
membe ), Do is Oli a and Renison Ruwa
( co-lead membe ).
Chap e 17
Hilconida Calumpong (con ene and lead
membe ), Paula Bon empi, Adam Hughes,
F anciane Pellizza i, Isabel Sousa Pin o,
Renison Ruwa (co-lead membe ), Jö n Schmid
(co-lead membe ) and Noemí Sola -Bacho.
Chap e 18
James R. Hein (join con ene ), Ped o
Madu ei a (join con ene ), Ma ia João Bebian-
no (co-lead membe ), Ana Colaço, Gio gio de
la To e, Pa aske i Nomikou, Luis M. Pinhei o,
Richa d Ro h, P adeep Singh, Anas asia S a i
(co-lead membe ) and Joshua T. Tuhumwi e
(lead membe ).
495
Annex I: O iginal membe s o he w i ing eams app o ed by he Bu eau
Chap e 19
Ama deep Dhanju (con ene ), A sonina Be a,
Hans-Pe e Damian, Robe Dapa, Gio gio de la
To e, Kacou Yeboue Se aphim, Alan Simcock
(co-lead membe ) and Joshua T. Tuhumwi e
(lead membe ).
Chap e 20
Ana Ši o ić (con ene ), Ka en E ans (lead
membe ), Ca los Ga cia-So o (co-lead
membe ), John A. Hildeb and, Sé gio M. Jesus
and James H. Mille .
Chap e 21
Tak o Soukissian (con ene ), Joan Bonda e ,
Vale ie Cummins, Ama deep Dhanju, Ca los
Ga cia-So o (co-lead membe ), La s Golmen,
Osman Keh Kama a (co-lead membe ), Jimmy
Mu phy, E ic Mwangi Njo oge, Anas asia S a i
(lead membe ) and Geo ges Vougioukalakis.
Chap e 22
Thomas W. The iaul (con ene ), Ma nie L.
Campbell, Alan Deidun, Bella S. Galil, Chad
L. Hewi , G aeme Inglis, Henn Oja ee (lead
membe ), Chul Pa k (co-lad membe ), Bing
Qiao, Renison Ruwa (co-lead membe ) and
E angelina Schwind .
Chap e 23
Robe Blasiak (join con ene ), Ellen Kench-
ing on (join con eno ), Jesús M. A ie a,
Jo ge Ra ael Be múdez-Monsal e, Hilconida
Calumpong (co-lead membe ), Shao Changwei,
Sanae Chiba (lead membe ), Hebe Dionisi,
Ca los Ga cia-So o (co-lead membe ), Helena
Viei a and Bo is Waw ik.
Chap e 24
Alan Simcock (con ene and lead membe ),
Ca los Ga cia-So o (co-lead membe ), Aninda
Mazumda , Aa on Micalle , Joseph Mon oya,
Ka he ine E.A. Sega a, Joshua T. Tuhumwi e
(co-lead membe ) and Leonid Yu gano .
Chap e 25
Ka en E ans (con ene and lead membe ),
Roland Co mie , Pie s Duns an, Elizabe h
Ful on, Essam Yassin Mohammed (co-lead
membe ), Jö n Schmid (co-lead membe ),
Alan Simcock (co-lead membe ), Vanessa
S elzenmülle , Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead membe )
and Skip on Woolley.
Chap e 26
Alan Simcock (con ene and lead membe ),
Ja bas Bone i, Louis Cellie s, Ka en E ans
(co-lead membe ), Leand a Gonçal es, S åle
Na ud, Ma cus Pole e, Julian Renya and Ca
Thanh Vu (co-lead membe ).
Chap e 27
Pie s Duns an (con ene ), Hilconida Calum-
pong (co-lead membe ), Louis Cellie s, Vale ie
Cummins, Ana C is ina de Jesus, Michael Ellio ,
Ka en E ans (co-lead membe ), An ony Fi h,
F édé ic Guicha d, Quen in Hanich, Manuel
Hildago, Hec o Manuel Lozano- Mon es,
Chanda L. Meek, Essam Yassin Mohammed
(co-lead membe ), Ma cus Pole e, Jemma
Pu anda e, Ani a Smi h, Anas asia S a i (lead
membe ) and Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead membe ).
Chap e 28
Luciano He manns (con ene ), Denis
Wo lnanyo Ahe o, Adem Bilgin, Robe Blasiak,
Cecile B uge e, Ka en E ans, An ony Fi h,
Ma inez Eymael Ga cia Sche e , Debo ah
G ea es, Osman Keh Kama a (co-lead mem-
be ), Wenhai Lu, I yna Maka enko, Juan Ramon
Ma inez, Essam Yassin Mohammed (lead
membe ), S åle Na ud, Jö n Schmid (co-
lead membe ), Ani a Smi h, Anas asia S a i
(co-lead membe ), Rashid Sumaila, Ka e yna
U kina, Hans Van Tilbu g, Wojciech Waw zyn-
ski and Vladimi Žulkus.
497
Annex II
Pee e iewe s
nomina ed o
each chap e

499
Annex II: Pee e iewe s nomina ed o each chap e
Chap e 3
Chaolun Li and Alexande Tu a.
Chap e 4
Pa icio Be nal and Robe Wa son.
Chap e 5
Jae Hak Lee and B on e Tilb ook.
Chap e 6A
Gus a o Fe ey a, Ch is ian M. Na anjo,
Ma ia Tapia and Geo ge Wia e.
Chap e 6B
Wenqian Cai and Thomas G. Dahlg en.
Chap e 6C
My iam L ei and Joanne Mo gan.
Chap e 6D
T e o B anch and Edua do R. Secchi.
Chap e 6E
Ma ia Angela Ma co aldi, Honghui Huang
and B yan Wallace.
Chap e 6F
Ma celo Be ello i, Da id Thompson
and Thomas Webb.
Chap e 6G
Alan C i chley, Pe e Edwa ds and
Paulo An unes Ho a.
Chap e 7A
G ego io Biga i and Rachel P zeslawski.
Chap e 7B
Ca ia Ba bosa, Alejand o Bo olus,
M. M. Ma u Hossain and Rachel P zeslawski.
Chap e 7C
Miguel Es eban and Jemma Pu anda e.
Chap e 7D
Ca ia Ba bosa, Elamin Mohammed Elamin
Abdel ahman and Wil o d Schmid .
Chap e 7E
Pe e Aus e , Ma k Cos ello and Nadine Le B is.
Chap e 7F
Osca I iba ne and João Ma ques.
Chap e 7G
Pe e Edwa ds and Pa Hu chings.
Chap e 7H
Denis Ahe o, Sean G een and Elamin
Mohammed Elamin Abdel ahman.
Chap e 7I
Alejand o Bo olus and Da id Johnson.
Chap e 7J
Aa on Micalle and Paul Snelg o e.
Chap e 7K
Robin Ande son, Thomas G. Dahlg en
and Russel Tai .
Chap e 7L
Ka en S ocks and Chunsheng Wang.
Chap e 7M
Geo gios Kazanidis and Tomo Ki ahashi.
Chap e 7N
Sil ia I. Rome o and Jan Ma cin Węsławski.
Chap e 7O
Anna Me axas and Paul Snelg o e.
Chap e 7P
Se-Jong Ju, Cindy Lee Van Do e and
Chunsheng Wang.
Chap e 7Q
Robin Ande son and Michael Vecchione.
Chap e 8A
Ma nie Campbell and Vi o Manuel Oli ei a
Vasconcelos.
Chap e 8B
Pe e Ha is, Da id Lusseau, G an Mu ay,
Ma cus Pole e, Ma isol Ve eda and
Wojciech Waw zynski.
Chap e 9
Jae Hak Lee and B on e Tilb ook.
500
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II: Volume II
Chap e 10
No a Mon oya, Song Sun and
Mi suo Uema su.
Chap e 11
Pe e Liss, Isabel Na alia Ga cia A e alo,
Fani Sakella iadou, Peiyan Sun and
And ea Weiss.
Chap e 12
Jongmyoung Lee, Daoji Li, Ka a L. Law
and Alessand o Tu a.
Chap e 13
Ja bas Bone i Filho, Geo gios Sylaios
and Ge -Jan Reicha .
Chap e 14
Cons an ina Skana is and Jean Ma ie
Bope Bope Lapwong.
Chap e 15
Sukgeun Jung, Ch is ina Pi a and
Rashid Sumaila.
Chap e 16
Pa icio Be nal and Lionel Dabbadie.
Chap e 17
Alan C i chley and Huang Honghui.
Chap e 18
Elaine Bake , Hans-Pe e Damian and
Chunsheng Wang.
Chap e 19
Pe e Ha is and Ma k Sh imp on.
Chap e 20
Daniel Cos a, B uce Howe and
Isabel Na alia Ga cia A e alo.
Chap e 21
C aig S e ens and Eugen Rusu.
Chap e 22
Alejand o Bo olus and Cyn hia McKenzie.
Chap e 23
El a Escoba , Kenne h Halanych and
Gab iel Hoinsoude Segniagbe o.
Chap e 24
Luis Pinhei o and Ca olyn Ruppel.
Chap e 25
Ken An hony, Na alie Ban and
Benjamin Halpe n.
Chap e 26
Chanda Meek and Ka e yna U kina.
Chap e 27
Na lia Ban and Me e Ske n-Mau i zen.
Chap e 28
Dolo es Elkin, Vinicius Halmenschlage ,
Chul-Oh Shin, Regina Sal ado and
Ma jan Van den Bel .
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
20-11859
ISBN 978-92-1-130422-0