Guiding wo kplace lea ning
in oca ional educa ion and aining: a li e a u e
e iew
Susanna Mikkonen1, Lau a Pyl äs1, He a Rin ala2, Pe i Nokelainen2* and Liisa Pos a e 3
Backg ound
In e es in wo kplace lea ning has g own in ecen decades due o he changing cha -
ac e o wo k and he acknowledgemen o he wo kplace as a lea ning en i onmen
(e.g. Fulle and Unwin 2003, 2011; Ille is 2003). In he con ex o oca ional educa ion
and aining (VET), app en iceships and wo k-based lea ning ha e been p omo ed (e.g.,
Eu opean Commission 2015). The aim o his e iew is o p o ide an o e iew o guid-
ance and lea ning a he wo kplace in he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining.
In VET p og ammes, heo e ical s udies in oca ional ins i u ions and p ac ical aining
a wo kplaces should be conside ed complemen a y p o iding di e en kind o oppo -
uni ies o lea ning (Aa k og 2005). The connec i e model o Guile and G i i hs (2001)
emphasises close collabo a ion be ween oca ional ins i u ions and wo kplaces in c ea -
ing an ideal way o o ganize wo kplace lea ning o VET s uden s. The model unde lines
ha he con ex and he access p o ided o a e ac s and people in luences lea ning,
while oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in o ms o social p ac ice wi h di e en communi ies
Abs ac
This e iew p o ides an o e iew o he empi ical esea ch conce ning guidance in
he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining (VET). The s udy examines p ac ices,
p o ide s and suppo ing and hinde ing ac o s ela ed o guidance and lea ning a he
wo kplace. A e he inclusion/exclusion p ocess, he inal numbe o esea ch a icles
included in his e iew is 18. Resul s show s ong e idence o he collec i e na u e o
wo kplace guidance, wi h he en i e wo k communi y p o iding lea ne s wi h guid-
ance and assis ance. Guidance p o ided o VET s uden s a wo kplaces seems o ela e
s ongly o he ac i i ies o he membe s o communi ies o p ac ice. Guidance p o-
ided by he membe s o communi ies o p ac ice opens up oppo uni ies o lea ne s
o pa icipa e in collec i e p ac ices by g adually assuming mo e esponsibili y and
mo e demanding asks as hei skills de elop. The lea ne ’s sel - egula i e skills, such as
esponsibili y and he abili y o ake he ini ia i e and o ac i ely seek guidance, a ec
how guidance is a o ded o him/he in he wo k communi y du ing aining. Fu he -
mo e, hese skills may also de e mine he lea ne ’s p ospec s o de eloping expe ise
in u u e wo kplaces.
Keywo ds: Guidance, Wo kplace lea ning, App en iceship educa ion, Li e a u e e iew
Open Access
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REVIEW
Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
DOI 10.1186/s40461-017-0053-4
*Co espondence:
[email p o ec ed]
2 Indus ial In o ma ion
Managemen Labo a o y,
Tampe e Uni e si y
o Technology, Tampe e,
Finland
Full lis o au ho in o ma ion
is a ailable a he end o he
a icle
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
o p ac ice a e cen al o lea ning. Lea ne s equi e oppo uni ies o econ ex ualise
hei heo e ical and p ac ical knowledge in new con ex s in o de o c ea e new knowl-
edge and p ac ices (G i i hs and Guile 2003). Thus, di e en kinds o p ac ices, such
as assis ance om mo e expe ienced o he s and bounda y c ossing acili a e lea ning
wi hin and be ween he di e en con ex s o educa ion and wo k (Akke man and Bak-
ke 2011, 2012; G i i hs and Guile 2003). Resea ch has shown ha close collabo a ion
be ween s uden s, wo kplaces and oca ional ins i u ions bene i s lea ning (Sa oie-Zajc
and Dolbec 2003; Vi anen and Tynjälä 2008; Vi anen e al. 2014).
In he ield o wo kplace lea ning, sociocul u al heo ies conside lea ning as an ongo-
ing, bo h an indi idual and social p ocess o pa icipa ion shaped by social, o ganiza-
ional, cul u al and o he con ex ual ac o s (Hage 2013). Tynjälä (2013) 3-P model
o wo kplace lea ning acknowledges he sociocul u al en i onmen as a con ex ha
de ines he possibili ies and cons ain s o wo kplace lea ning. Acco ding o he model,
he e a e h ee basic componen s in he lea ning phenomenon. The p esage componen
includes bo h lea ne ac o s and lea ning con ex which ela es o wo k o ganiza ion
and i s ea u es including o ganisa ion o wo k, pa ne ships and ne wo ks. Tynjälä
(2013) poin s ou ha hese ac o s do no a ec he lea ning p ocess di ec ly bu a he
h ough he lea ne ’s in e p e a ion o he ac o s, which is in line wi h he cons uc-
i is ’s iew o lea ning. The p ocess componen encompasses he lea ning ac i i ies
h ough pa icipa ion, collabo a ion and in e ac ion, whe eas he p oduc componen
includes di e se lea ning ou comes (Tynjälä 2013). Bille (2002a, b) no es ha pa ici-
pa ion in social p ac ices is egula ed by he wo kplace a o dances and shapes bo h he
lea ning p ocess and he ou come. Howe e , e en ually an indi idual, he lea ne , can
choose whe he o no o engage in he p ocess o lea ning.
As a p ocess wo kplace lea ning is o en conside ed inciden al o in o mal, e en i i
could ins ead be seen as non- o mal wi h di e en le els o in en ion o lea n, including
implici , eac i e and delibe a e lea ning (E au 2004). Al e na i ely, one can ega d all
lea ning expe iences as in en ional because hey aim a ensu ing he con inui y o social
and wo k p ac ices (Bille 2002b). E hnog aphic ield s udies on app en iceships by La e
and Wenge (1991) sugges ha lea ning happens in e e yday in e ac ions and h ough
pa icipa ion in communi ies o p ac ice. Howe e , he heo y by La e and Wenge
(1991) has also been opposed as i neglec s guidance and o mal educa ion, and is based
on he idea ha skills, knowledges and p ac ices a e passed on o no ices. By doing his,
he heo y igno es he ecip oci y o lea ning and he con inua ion o lea ning e en a e
a ull membe ship in a communi y o p ac ice has been ob ained (Fulle e al. 2005).
Tanggaa d (2005) s a es ha s udies on app en iceship o en desc ibe app en ices g adu-
ally acqui ing g ea e esponsibili ies and widening pa icipa ion in new s ages o p o-
duc ion, bu no much is said abou how new skills a e augh o didac ically ins uc ed.
Tanggaa d con inues ha eaching a he wo kplace is loosely o ganised as a possibili y
o he app en ice o ecei e help and ge ad ice in he daily wo k si ua ions, and akes
place in connec ion wi h a ious social ela ions. Nielsen (2008) concludes ha impo -
an educa ional in e en ions and ins uc ional p ocesses a e used a wo kplaces, bu
hey a e no necessa ily ecognised as such.
The use o a ious e ms ela ed o pedagogical p ac ices o in e en ions aking place
a wo kplaces is he e ogeneous and o en imes incohe en . The concep o guidance
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
is o en used in he con ex o wo kplace lea ning (e.g. Bille 2002b, 2014). Coaching,
u o ing and men o ing a e simila ac i i ies which all ha e he unde lying in en ion o
p o iding suppo and encou aging he p o essional de elopmen and lea ning o indi-
iduals. Howe e , he lines be ween he concep s o guidance, coaching, u o ing and
men o ing a e blu ed al hough he unde lying meaning o hese concep s di e om
each o he (see Gallache 1997; Wiske e al. 2013). Coaching e e s o a p ocess which
occu s be ween pee s o colleagues and is a he s uc u ed and sys ema ic in na u e
(Gallache 1997). Coaching has a a he na ow ocus as i o en conce ns a speci ic
p oblem, and he ole o he coach is o help he coachee o de ine and o e come his
p oblem (Wiske e al. 2013). Tu o ing e e s o o e ing suppo gi en by a esponsi-
ble pe son wi hin he o ganisa ion o a pe son, usually a no ice, ela ed o mo e p ac i-
cal ma e s. Tu o s ha e a key ole in ac ing be ween he ins i u ion and he indi idual
(Wiske e al. 2013). Men o ing is abou moni o ing and assis ing an indi idual’s de el-
opmen o e a longe pe iod o ime, and men o ing can ake he o m o indi idual,
g oup o pee men o ing (Wiske e al. 2013). Men o ing is also a e m equen ly used
in highe educa ion con ex o e e o pe sonal suppo , ca ee de elopmen and in o-
duc ion o p o essional ne wo ks (Pea son and Kay ooz 2004). Ano he concep o en
adop ed in he highe educa ion con ex is supe ision, which akes place when indi idu-
als ha e a long- e m ask, i.e. a hesis o a p ojec . Simila wi h coaching and men o -
ing, supe ising aims a enabling and suppo ing indi iduals o de elop hei skills and
achie e asks. Howe e , supe ision has a b oade scope in ha i o en includes wo k-
ing alongside wi h he indi idual, as well as nego ia ion and dialogue, o enable he pe -
son o ake an ac i e ole in de eloping he skills and p ocesses. Thus, gi ing answe s
and ixed solu ions is a oided in supe ision (Wiske e al. 2013). Supe ision has adi-
ionally e e ed o a mas e -app en ice ela ionship, bu la ely he ole o he academic
communi y in supe ision has been emphasized (Mainha d e al. 2009). Fu he mo e,
good supe ision is cha ac e ised by an emphasis on he lea ning p ocesses and gene al
wo k p ocesses ins ead o he p oduc (see Pea son and B ew 2002; Veh iläinen and Lö -
s öm 2016).
In his s udy, we use he e m guidance o desc ibe he suppo ha membe s o he
wo k communi y and eache s om oca ional ins i u es p o ide o s uden s (see also
Vi anen and Tynjälä 2008). We also u ilize Bille ( 2002b) di ision o di ec and indi ec
guidance o desc ibe a ious guidance p ac ices a he wo kplace. The social and physi-
cal en i onmen o he wo kplace p o ides indi ec guidance ha is accessed in e e yday
wo k ac i i ies when he physical a angemen s assis wo kplace lea ning and p o ide
access o obse ing and lis ening mo e expe ienced cowo ke s and pee s (Bille 2002b).
As much o wha one mus lea n canno be lea n h ough ial and e o alone, in en-
ional wo kplace lea ning s a egies, such as guided lea ning, a e necessa y o assis an
indi idual in de eloping p ocedu es and concep s equi ed o sha ed p ac ice (Bille
2002b). Di ec guidance e e s o close guidance and di ec in e ac ion be ween mo e
expe ienced wo ke s and lea ne s (Bille 2002b). Bille (2002b) concludes ha wo k-
place pedagogic p ac ices comp ise h ee in e dependen planes o guided engagemen
wi h wo k ac i i ies. The i s plane includes e e yday pa icipa ion a wo k and he
o ganizing o access o knowledge h ough obse ing and lis ening, bu also by engag-
ing in asks o inc easing accoun abili y and unde s anding he goals o he equi ed
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
pe o mance. The second plane comp ises di ec guidance and in en ional lea ning
s a egies ha a e di ec ed owa ds de eloping and p omo ing alues, p ocedu es, and
unde s andings. Guided lea ning a wo k includes he use o modeling, coaching and
sca olding as well as o he echniques o de elop unde s anding and o engage lea n-
e s in lea ning o hemsel es. The hi d plane o guided lea ning ocuses on ex ending
he adap abili y o lea ne s’ knowledge o new si ua ions and ci cums ances. The use o
ques ioning, p oblem-sol ing, dialogues and g oup discussions aim a assis ing lea ne s
o assess he scope and he limi s o hei knowledge and he possibili ies o i s ans e
o new si ua ions.
This li e a u e e iew p esen s an o e iew o he empi ical esea ch on guidance and
lea ning a he wo kplace in he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining. The goal
is o p o ide a holis ic iew on how guidance ac ualizes a he wo kplace by iden i ying
p ac ices, p o ide s and suppo ing and hinde ing ac o s ela ed o guidance and lea n-
ing a he wo kplace. The esea ch ques ions a e he ollowing:
(RQ1) Wha kind o guidance p ac ices a e used a he wo kplace?
(RQ2) Who p o ides guidance a he wo kplace?
(RQ3) Which ac o s o guidance suppo o hinde lea ning a he wo kplace?
In his a icle, we will nex desc ibe ou li e a u e e iew me hod and he s udies
selec ed o his e iew. In he esul sec ion, we seek o answe ou h ee esea ch ques-
ions based on he a icles selec ed o his e iew. In he conclusions and discussion, we
will u he discuss he empi ical indings om he selec ed s udies and p o ide sugges-
ions o u u e esea ch. We will also discuss some limi a ions o his s udy.
Me hod ando e iew o  he s udies selec ed o  he e iew
The esea ch me hod o his s udy is a li e a u e e iew. The e iew ype o his s udy is
a mapping e iew (G an and Boo h 2009). A mapping e iew aims a mapping ou and
ca ego izing exis ing li e a u e on a pa icula opic. Mapping e iews cha ac e ize he
quan i y and quali y o li e a u e and aim a iden i ying gaps in esea ch li e a u e om
which o commission u he esea ch. Fo he li e a u e e iew, we collec ed da a by
sea ching elec onic da abases o iden i y ele an s udies. Sea ch e ms included guid-
ance, counselling, supe ision, men o ing, coaching, ins uc ion, sca olding, modeling,
explana ion, e lec ion and explo a ions in combina ion wi h he e ms app en iceship,
wo kplace lea ning, on- he-job lea ning, wo k-based, oca ional aining and oca ional
educa ion. In addi ion o sea ching h ough elec onic da abases, we manually sea ched
he a chi es o jou nals ocusing on wo kplace lea ning and oca ional educa ion.
In he ini ial a icle sea ch, we sea ched o pee - e iewed a icles om he ERIC
(Educa ion Resou ces In o ma ion Cen e ) and Educa ion Resea ch Comple e da a-
bases. The a icle sea ch yielded 1209 a icles om he ERIC da abase and 1136 a icles
om Educa ion Resea ch Comple e (2275 all oge he a e duplica es emo ed). We
hen s a ed o limi he numbe o a icles o hose ele an o ou s udy acco ding o
ou speci ic inclusion and exclusion c i e ia. Fi s , we only included s udies published
be ween 1995 and 2015 wi h ull- ex a ailable and he language o he publica ion being
English. This le us wi h 489 a icles. We ead he abs ac s o hese a icles, and also
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
he ull ex s in case he abs ac s didn’ p o ide enough in o ma ion o decision mak-
ing. In he p ocess, we included empi ical s udies ocusing on guidance in he con ex o
wo kplace lea ning wi hin he oca ional educa ion and aining sys em. We he e o e
excluded s udies ocusing on men o ing employees in co po a e se ings. We did include
s udies on guided lea ning a he wo kplace in app en iceship educa ion and du ing on-
he-job lea ning pe iods in oca ional educa ion, bu excluded s udies in he highe edu-
ca ion con ex . A e he i s ound o he inclusion/exclusion p ocess, we sea ched he
e e ence lis s o he a icles selec ed o he e iew o iden i y addi ional ele an s ud-
ies. The Google Schola da abase was also included in he sea ch a he end o he p o-
cess, bu no new a icles we e ound.
Al hough he sea ch yielded a decen amoun o a icles, a minimum numbe o hem
ac ually discussed guided lea ning a he wo kplace. Mos o he a icles excluded om
his e iew co e ed wo kplace lea ning (no guidance), men o ing p og ams in en e -
p ises o guidance on le els o educa ion o he han oca ional educa ion and ain-
ing (e.g. highe educa ion). A e he inclusion/exclusion p ocess, he inal numbe
o esea ch a icles included in he e iew was 18 (see Table1). Two esea che s pa -
icipa ed in bo h se ing he inclusion/exclusion c i e ia and in discussing he a icles
selec ed o he s udy. O he schola s (Nielsen 2008; Tanggaa d 2005) ha e p e iously
no ed he endency in esea ch on app en iceship educa ion o o e look issues o guid-
ance a he wo kplace. The li e a u e sea ch p ocess o his a icle u he suppo s his
inding: s udies ela ed o he guidance o VET s uden s a wo kplaces a e ew indeed.
The da a was collec ed and s udies we e assessed using a da a ex ac ion ma ix, which
included in o ma ion on sample size, s udy design and esul s ela ed o guidance and
wo kplace lea ning. The assembly o he da a was guided by he h ee esea ch ques ions
p esen ed in “Backg ound”. We a anged he collec ed da a o iden i y claims made in
he li e a u e. Two esea che s u he hema ized he claims in o b oade ca ego ies,
i s independen ly and hen oge he , by compa ing and discussing he claims un il hey
eached consensus. Based on he heo e ical backg ound and li e a u e su eyed, we
hen lis ed he ac o s o guidance ha suppo o p e en lea ning a wo kplaces in a
able. We also iden i ied p ac ices ha indi iduals and g oups a wo kplaces ypically use
o p o ide lea ne s wi h guidance. The ollowing sec ions will p esen and u he dis-
cuss he indings in g ea e de ail.
In Table1, we ha e p esen ed he 18 a icles selec ed o his s udy. The s udies co e
a ious aining p og ammes wi hin he oca ional educa ion and aining amewo k.
In nine a icles (a icles 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 13 and 14), he aining p og ammes could
be desc ibed as mo e adi ional app en iceship p og ammes wi h he majo i y o he
lea ning aking place a he wo kplace. In nine a icles (a icles 2, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16,
17 and 18), he oca ional aining p og ammes in ol ed bo h school-based and wo k-
based lea ning, wi h a ia ion in he leng h o he on- he-job lea ning pe iods.
To al numbe o pa icipan s in he 18 e iewed a icles was 3485, o which 681 pa -
icipa ed in quali a i e and 2804 in quan i a i e s udies. Quali a i e me hods domi-
na ed he sample, as hey we e applied in 10 s udies be ween 1999–2015. Th ee s udies
(2008–2014) applied quan i a i e me hods and ou mixed-me hod s udies (2000–2011)
applied bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e me hods. Pa icipa ion selec ion c i e ia was
explici in mos o he e iewed a icles (16), bu only 11 a icles desc ibed pa icipan s’

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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
Table 1 O e iew o  he s udies
S udy Sample Coun y Da a Me hod
1. Chan (2014) 90 app en ices New Zealand In e iews Quali a i e
2. Collin and Valleala
(2005)18 design and de elop-
men enginee s,
15 you h wo ke s
Finland Obse a ions
In e iews Quali a i e
3. Co ney and du Ples-
sis (2010)106 male app en ices Aus alia Ques ionnai e wi h scales:
Men o ing Rela ionship
Scale (Scandu a and
Ragins 1993), 3 subscales:
Psychosocial suppo
Ca ee de elopmen
Role modelling
Quan i a i e
4. E anciew and
Rojewski (1999)Th ee app en ices, 3
men o s Uni ed S a es
o Ame ica Obse a ions
Field no es
In e iews
Documen analysis
Quali a i e
5. Fillie az (2011) Coho o abou 40
app en ices Swi ze land Obse a ions
Audio- ideo eco dings Quali a i e
6. Fulle and Unwin
(2004)29 app en ices, 29
wo ke s UK In e iews
Lea ning logs
Su eys
Obse a ion
Mixed me hods
7. Gu ne e al. (2011) 19 app en ices Swi ze land Audio- eco dings on
mobile de ices Mixed me hods
8. Koskela and Palukka
(2011)S age 1: 9 ainees, 6
aine s
S age 2: 2 ainees, 4
aine s
Finland Obse a ions
Video eco dings Quali a i e
9. Nielsen (2008) Fou app en ices, 2 jou -
neymen, 1 mas e ,
12 app en ices ( om 3
g oup in e iews)
Denma k Obse a ions
In e iews Quali a i e
10. Onnismaa (2008) 27 s uden s Finland In e iews Quali a i e
11. Reegå d (2015) 11 app en ices, 7
manage s No way In e iews
Obse a ions Quali a i e
12. Sa oie-Zajc and
Dolbec (2003)175 s uden s, eache s,
s akeholde s Canada Th ee ques ionnai es:
Expec a ions
Lea ning
O e all app aisal
In e iews
Mixed me hods
13. Smi h (2000) 389 app en ices, 8
app en ices Aus alia Ques ionnai e Can ield
Lea ning S yles In en o y,
CSLI (Can ield 1980), 16
subscales
In e iews
Mixed me hods
14. Tanggaa d (2005) 10 male app en ices Denma k In e iews
Obse a ions Quali a i e
15. Wegene (2014) Mo e han a 100
s uden s, eache s and
supe iso s
Denma k Field obse a ions
In e iews Quali a i e
16. Win e s e al.
(2009)24 s uden s, 15 eache s,
18 men o s Ne he lands Con e sa ion Quali a i e
17. Vi anen and
Tynjälä (2008)531 oca ional s uden s Finland Ques ionnai e (Tynjälä and
Vi anen 2005; Vi anen
and Tynjälä 2006)
Quan i a i e
18. Vi anen e al.
(2014)1603 oca ional s u-
den s Finland Ques ionnai e Quan i a i e
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
demog aphic da a (e.g., age, gende , wo k expe ience). Fu he , only six a icles men-
ioned olun a y pa icipa ion. Mos common da a collec ion me hod was in e iew (10
a icles), bu also obse a ion (8 a icles) and su eys (5 a icles) we e applied. Nine o
he a icles applied indi idual le el da a collec ion (in e iews and su eys), i e applied
bo h indi idual and g oup le el da a collec ion (obse a ions and ocus g oup in e iews
o con e sa ions), and wo a icles we e based on g oup le el da a.
Resul s
(RQ1) Wha kind o guidance p ac ices a e used a  he wo kplace?
In his chap e , we look in o how guidance is ac ualized a wo kplaces and seek o iden-
i y he kinds o guidance p ac ices ypically used a he wo kplace (RQ1). The a icles
selec ed o his li e a u e e iew in oduce a a ie y o p ac ices h ough which guid-
ance is p o ided o s uden s and app en ices a wo kplaces (Table2).
In i e a icles ou o 18 (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Fillie az 2011; Koskela and
Palukka 2011; Onnismaa 2008; Tanggaa d 2005), guidance was desc ibed as a p ocess
du ing which mo e expe ienced wo ke s and no ices wo k oge he : No ices wo k
unde he su eillance o expe s, while expe s moni o he wo k o he s uden s and
p o ide help i needed. The help p o ided by expe s can in ol e o example hin s and
clues on how o success ully comple e a ask (E anciew and Rojewski 1999), p o iding
ins uc ions and making su e ha s uden s ha e unde s ood hem (Fillie az 2011), and
asking ques ions o p o iding hin s ha allow ainees o make independen assess-
men s as o wha o do nex (Koskela and Palukka 2011). Some imes he aine s can also
gi e somewha mo e di ec o de s abou which ask should be pe o med nex (Koskela
and Palukka 2011). Tanggaa d (2005) desc ibes he help p o ided by expe s as a kind o
us a ion con ol ha helps when he app en ices canno cope on hei own.
Fi e a icles desc ibed guidance as an ac i i y o explana ion (Collin and Valleala 2005;
E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Koskela and Palukka 2011; Onnismaa 2008; Tanggaa d
2005). E anciew and Rojewski (1999) s a e ha app en ices bene i om hei men o s’
desc ip ions o he ‘ icks o he ade’ and he eby gain access o in o ma ion una aila-
ble a school. The p ocess o explana ion can also be seen as in ol ing he sha ing o aci
Table 2 Guidance p ac ices mani es ed a  he wo kplace
Guidance p ac ices Numbe o a icles Re e ences
Expe s and no ices wo king oge he
(expe s moni o ing, p o iding help i
needed)
5 E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Fillie az
(2011), Koskela and Palukka (2011), Onnis-
maa (2008), Tanggaa d (2005)
Explana ions (p o iding in o ma ion, ca -
ego isa ion, ans e ing aci knowledge) 5 Collin and Valleala (2005), E anciew and
Rojewski (1999), Koskela and Palukka
(2011), Onnismaa (2008), Tanggaa d (2005)
Re lec ion (con e sa ions, discussions,
eedback) 5 Fillie az (2011), Smi h (2000), Wegene
(2014), Win e s e al. (2009), Vi anen and
Tynjälä (2008)
Sca olding and ading 4 E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Fillie az
(2011), Nielsen (2008), Tanggaa d (2005)
Obse a ion and demons a ions 3 E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Smi h (2000),
Tanggaa d (2005)
Independen wo k and expe imen a ion 3 E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Reegå d
(2015), Smi h (2000)
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
knowledge wi h newcome s a he wo kplace. The ans e o aci knowledge seems
mos e icien when mo e expe ienced p o essionals wo k oge he wi h inexpe ienced
app en ices (Koskela and Palukka 2011; Onnismaa 2008). Collin and Valleala (2005) also
desc ibe he p ocess o ca ego iza ion, which in ol es ‘unpacking’ wo k- ela ed ca ego-
ies, wi h expe ienced wo ke s who explain which opics ce ain ca ego ies co e (e.g.
con iden ial in o ma ion). Ca ego iza ion is a cen al ac i i y o socializing new wo ke s
in o he wo kplace and con ibu es o he building o mu ual unde s anding abou wo k-
ela ed ca ego ies.
O he 18 a icles, i e saw guidance as in ol ing con e sa ions and discussions wi h
o he s as well as e lec ion o one’s lea ning (Fillie az 2011; Smi h 2000; Win e s e al.
2009; Wegene 2014; Vi anen e  al. 2014). Vi anen and Tynjälä (2008) de ine sel -
assessmen as s uden s e alua ing hei own pe o mance. Discussing and assessing
lea ning, howe e , occu s mo e equen ly in he p esence o o he s. Acco ding o Vi -
anen and Tynjälä’s s udy (2008), discussions wi h o he employees a e he mos widely
used o m o guidance du ing on- he-job lea ning pe iods o VET s uden s. Smi h
(2000) epo s ha discussions wi h ellow wo ke s and supe iso s a e in equen use
a wo kplaces and help app en ices de elop hei knowledge. Fillie az (2011) desc ibes
mo e expe ienced wo ke s gi ing sys ema ic eedback o app en ices and hus in i ing
app en ices o engage in con e sa ions. Win e s e al. (2009) and Vi anen e al. (2014)
also epo on somewha mo e o mal aining discussions ha in ol e eache s om
oca ional ins i u es and ha include discussions wi h expe s abou he meaning o
s uden s’ expe iences du ing s udies. Win e s e al. (2009) howe e no es, ha du ing
he discussions in ol ing s uden s, eache s and wo kplace men o s, he po en ial o
engage s uden s in e lec ing on hei expe iences was no u ilised. Simila ly, Wegene
(2014) no es ha discussions in ol ing eache s, s uden s and supe iso s don’ neces-
sa ily s imula e e lec ion, as s uden s end o iew discussions as es si ua ions and eel
like hey need o p o ide “ igh ” answe s, ins ead o mo e eely discussing hei expe i-
ences. Ins ead o o mal si ua ions, s uden s end o ini ia e e lec ion a e e yday in e -
ac ions a he wo kplace, whe e e lec ion is no he objec pe se. Howe e , acco ding o
Wegene , educa o s ha e di icul ies ac ing on hese ini ia i es.
In ou a icles ou o 18, guidance was desc ibed as a p ocess o sca olding and ading
(E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Fillie az 2011; Nielsen 2008; Tanggaa d 2005). Nielsen
2008) de ines sca olding as “a p ocess whe eby beginne s in a p o ession a e suppo ed
by expe ienced wo ke s so as o imp o e hei basis o pa icipa ing in a social p ac ice”.
Th ough he sca olding p ocess, newcome s a e in oduced o new a eas o he p o es-
sion and e en ually in i ed o ake o e mo e esponsibili y in he p oduc ion p ocess.
Sca olding includes he g adual wi hd awal o suppo as he beginne ’s skills imp o e
( ading). The a icles co e ed in his e iew desc ibed he app en ices as assuming
inc easing esponsibili y and enjoying p og essi e ecogni ion as legi ima e and us -
wo hy membe s o he wo k communi y. Sca olding can hus be seen as suppo ing he
iden i y o ma ion o app en ices (Fillie az 2011; Nielsen 2008). Nielsen (2008) s a es
ha sca olding can also se e o communica e bodily know-how (non- e bal sca -
olding) o app en ices. A signi ican pa o wha is being lea ned in c a p oduc ion
equi es o he app en ice o de elop a bodily sense o he p oduc s. Sca old ins uc-
ion enables app en ices o obse e and ouch he p oduc , and oge he wi h he mas e
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
o e alua e i s quali y. Tanggaa d (2005) desc ibes he ypical sca olding si ua ions as
o en ep esen ing a mo e asymme ical ela ionship be ween he expe ienced and he
no so expe ienced wo ke s, which can some imes lead o he app en ice no being c i i-
cal owa ds exis ing p ac ices.
Th ee a icles desc ibe he obse a ion o demons a ions by mo e expe ienced wo k-
e s and supe iso s as cen al o guidance p ocesses a he wo kplace (E anciew and
Rojewski 1999; Smi h 2000; Tanggaa d 2005). Smi h (2000) dis inguishes be ween wo ke
obse a ions and en i onmen obse a ions. Wo ke obse a ion can be desc ibed as
“s uc u ed obse a ion o he p ocess being demons a ed by a ellow wo ke ”. Smi h a gues
ha app en ices highly app ecia e demons a ions as a me hod o lea ning. Simila ly, bo h
E anciew and Rojewski (1999) and Tanggaa d (2005) s a e ha app en ices ound obse -
ing he wo k and demons a ions by mo e expe ienced wo ke s as aluable and ben-
e icial o hei lea ning. Howe e , acco ding o, Smi h (2000) en i onmen obse a ion
(“uns uc u ed obse a ion o he wo kplace o iden i y isual cues om a e ac s, objec s,
and physical a angemen s”) was no seen as an e ec i e way o lea n by he app en ices,
no was i app ecia ed by he supe iso s, who a he saw i as a was e o ime.
Th ee a icles men ioned allowing independen wo k and encou aging s uden s o
expe imen and explo e on hei own as pa o guidance ac i i ies (E anciew and Rojew-
ski 1999; Reegå d 2015; Smi h 2000). Reegå d (2015) desc ibes he manage s quickly
in oducing app en ices o wo k and us ing hem wi h a lo o esponsibili y and au on-
omy om ea ly on. On he one hand, his was seen as a delibe a e pedagogical s a -
egy. On he o he hand, independency could be seen as a signal o poo o mal aining
awa eness and lack o esou ces a ailable o guidance. Smi h (2000) also desc ibes he
ac i i y o p ac icing as a o m o independen wo k o s uden s. Hai d esse s o exam-
ple we e expec ed o p ac ice wi h dummy heads be o e ea ing he hai o cus ome s.
E anciew and Rojewski (1999) men ion ha aine s some imes encou age app en ices
o a emp o explo e a ask on hei own be o e eques ing help om hei aine s. The
use o explo a ion, howe e , is a e. Smi h (2000) s a es ha he use o explo a ion is
highly alued by he app en ices bu o en limi ed and no encou aged by he wo kplaces
because o p oduc ion and sa e y issues. T ials and expe imen a ion ou side o es ab-
lished wo k me hods a he wo kplace is discou aged.
(RQ2) Who p o ides guidance a  he wo kplace?
In his chap e , we seek o iden i y he p o ide s o guidance a he wo kplace. We a e
in e es ed in ecognizing he people o g oups o people who a e in ol ed in he p o-
cess o p o iding guidance o s uden s. The esul s o his chap e a e summa ized in
Table3.
The esea ch iden i ies people o g oups o people as p o ide s o guidance a he
wo kplace. In e es ingly, o he 18 a icles ea u ed in his pape , only wo (Koskela and
Palukka 2011; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003) men ion designa ed wo kplace aine s as
he only ones esponsible o guiding lea ne s. O he a icles highligh he mo e collec-
i e na u e o wo kplace guidance and iden i y di e en g oups o people as p o iding
guidance o lea ne s.
O he 18 a icles, en iew wo kplace guidance om a mo e collec i e pe spec i e and
claim ha nomina ed aine s a e no he only ones p o iding lea ne s wi h guidance
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
lea ning p o ides guidance and suppo , especially i guidance is una ailable om o he
p o ide s (Tanggaa d 2005). Pee guidance is easily accessible and less isky han asking
ad ice om expe s, which explains i s signi icance, especially in he beginning o he
lea ning p ocess (Gu ne e al. 2011). Mo eo e , suppo om amily, iends, and sig-
ni ican o he s, is also conside ed impo an and a ec s lea ning a he wo kplace (Chan
2014; Co ney and du Plessis 2010).
In wo k communi ies, he app en ice mus be seen as a legi ima e a he han a ma -
ginal membe o he wo k eam. Seeing app en ices in a cen al ole also calls o he
app en ices o be able o in luence wo kplace p ac ices and o be asked o hei opinion.
Vi anen e al. (2014) claim ha he mo e app en ices see hemsel es as ac i e mem-
be s o hei wo k communi y, he mo e hey lea n. Wo kplaces also p o ide lea ne s
wi h guidance h ough suppo i e p ac ices. Fi s o all, wo kplaces p o ide suppo o
lea ne s by p o iding hem oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in a wide ange o asks, which
helps app en ices o de elop b oad expe ise. When app en ices a e o a ed h ough
di e en depa men s a he wo kplace, hey a e able o build ela ionships wi h many
wo ke s and o acqui e expe ience om a a ie y o wo k asks (Fulle and Unwin 2004;
Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003;l Vi anen e al. 2014). The esea ch shows ha placing he
lea ne in a ma ginal posi ion in wo k communi ies and no seeing him/he as a legi i-
ma e membe o he wo k eam limi s a ailable lea ning a o dances (Fillie az 2010;
Nielsen 2008; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003). The ma ginalized app en ice is o e ed
only ma ginal asks o wo k on and is con inuously placed insi ua ions ha will no
h ea en company p oduc i i y o secu i y (Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003). This denies
he app en ice he oppo uni y o wo k in impo an wo king si ua ions and hinde s he
app en ice’s lea ning o mo e complex and demanding asks ele an o he de elopmen
o expe ise (Nielsen 2008; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003). App en ices in ma ginal posi-
ions a wo kplaces also expe ience li le wo k au onomy. No aking he app en ice’s
iewpoin s in o accoun is ano he indica o o app en ice ma ginaliza ion in he wo k
communi y. Win e s e al. (2009) no e ha s uden s seldom ecei e ea men as equal
pa ne s in o mal aining con e sa ions. In con e sa ions wi h eache s and wo kplace
aine s, s uden pa icipa ion is oo o en limi ed and eal dialogue seems o be lacking,
as he eache s end o domina e he hemes and con en o such con e sa ions.
Communi ies o p ac ice also suppo app en ices’ lea ning by allowing hem au on-
omy and independen wo k. Gi ing app en ices eedom, us and esponsibili y p o-
ides hem wi h ich lea ning a o dances. Allowing app en ices o wo k independen ly
and hen p aising hem o a job well done subs an ially enhances hei sel -es eem
(Reegå d 2015). The inc ease in esponsibili y should ake place g adually, wi h app en-
ices ecei ing mo e esponsibili y and mo e demanding asks commensu a e wi h hei
skills de elopmen (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Fillie az 2011; Gu ne e al. 2011;
Nielsen 2008; Smi h 2000). Gi ing lea ne s oo much independence and esponsibili y
oo soon could endange wo kplace guidance. Gu ne e al. (2011) a gue ha ain-
ing app en ices o wo k au onomously is an impo an objec i e in many occupa ional
sec o s. Un o una ely, his objec i e o en leads o app en ices wo king alone wi hou
an expe by hei side. Too much independence and esponsibili y leads o insu icien
guidance and may hinde lea ning (Reegå d 2015).

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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
Connec i i y
The aining p og ams a ailable o app en ices should be able o in eg a e o mal and
in o mal aining, heo y and p ac ice (Onnismaa 2008; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003;
Win e s e al. 2009; Vi anen and Tynjälä 2008; Vi anen e al. 2014). In eg a ing di e -
en o ms o knowledge is essen ial o he de elopmen o oca ional compe ence and
expe ise. S uden s should be able o in eg a e heo e ical in o ma ion gained a school
wi h p ac ice a he wo kplace (Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003; Vi anen and Tynjälä
2008; Vi anen e al. 2014). Disc epancies be ween lea ning en i onmen s migh hinde
he lea ning p ocess (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003). The
in eg a ion o o mal and in o mal lea ning equi es close collabo a ion be ween a i-
ous ac o s in oca ional educa ion. Mo eo e , guidance associa ed wi h aining calls o
collabo a ion be ween eache s, s uden s and employe s, which acili a es subsequen
p o essional de elopmen . Guiding s uden s mus no be some hing ha occu s exclu-
si ely a he wo kplace, hough eache s o en su e om insu icien ime and esou ces
o guidance (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Tanggaa d 2005). Teache s om oca ional
ins i u ions should also be in ol ed in helping s uden s o se hei lea ning goals and
holding discussions wi h hem (Vi anen e al. 2014).
The ea u es o he aining p og am i sel ha e p o ed o be impo an ac o s o guid-
ance a ec ing app en ice lea ning. P e ious esea ch emphasizes he impo ance o an
explici amewo k which de ines clea oles and ules o he aining p og am (Fulle
and Unwin 2004; Onnismaa 2008; Smi h 2000). Voca ional aining p og ams should
also ake in o accoun pe sonal needs o lea ning and guidance (Fulle and Unwin 2004;
Onnismaa 2008; Smi h 2000; Vi anen e al. 2014). Onnismaa (2008) s a es ha he
pe sonalizing oca ional s udies is especially impo an o ma u e s uden s. Ha ing a
designed app en iceship p og am a he wo kplace ha has mapped he ange o asks
and skills o be co e ed will inc ease oppo uni ies o app en ices o de elop b oad
expe ise when lea ning is no haphaza d and p oduc i i y d i en (Chan 2014; Fulle
and Unwin 2004). In his way, app en ices bene i om a s uc u ed aining p og am
and clea goals (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Smi h 2000).
Conclusions
The pu pose o his e iew was o p o ide an o e iew o he empi ical esea ch con-
ce ning guidance and lea ning in he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining. The
s udy has ocused on iden i ying guidance p ac ices, p o ide s o guidance, and suppo -
ing and hinde ing ac o s ela ed o guidance and lea ning a he wo kplace.
The 18 a icles p esen ed in his s udy illus a e di e en guidance p ac ices mani-
es ed a he wo kplace. These p ac ices ep esen bo h di ec and indi ec guidance
desc ibed by Bille (2002b). Especially obse a ions o he wo k en i onmen and mo e
expe ienced wo ke s, and he allowing o independen wo k and explo a ions can be
seen as o ms o indi ec guidance. Di ec guidance on he o he hand is mani es ed as
expe s and no ices wo k closely oge he and engage in sca olding ac i i ies, as in o -
ma ion and aci knowledge is being sha ed and as expe s and no ices engage in con e -
sa ions discussing, assessing and e lec ing on lea ning. The guidance p ac ices ha all
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
in o he ca ego y o di ec guidance can u he be di ided in o (1) s a egies ha ocus
on comple ing ce ain wo k- ela ed asks (such as wo king oge he on ce ain asks,
gi ing ins uc ions and ad ice, explaining and p o iding in o ma ion) and (2) s a egies
ha ocus mo e comp ehensi ely on he lea ning p ocess i sel (such as e lec ion and
discussions abou he hings being lea n ).
The a icles p esen ed in his s udy desc ibe a a ie y o guidance p ac ices u ilized
a he wo kplace, bu also p esen some limi a ions in hei use due o lack o esou ces
o guidance awa eness a wo kplaces. I seems ha echniques ha a e mo e aine -
led and easily ca ied ou in he e e yday wo k low a e in mo e equen use, whe eas
echniques ha equi e mo e ime, ecip ocali y and ac i i y om he communi y and
lea ne see less equen use., Smi h (2000) o example, s a es ha wo kplaces do no
encou age he use o explo a ion because o he isk i will in e e e wi h he company’s
p oduc ion schedules and cause p oblems wi h wo kplace sa e y. Mo eo e , wo kplaces
may al eady ha e es ablished ce ain ways o doing hings, and any expe imen ing ou -
side hese es ablished me hods may e oke an un a o able esponse. When i comes o
e lec ion, i has been p o ed ha d o eache s o ac upon he ini ia i es o e lec ion
made by s uden s a e e yday wo k si ua ions (Wegene 2013). Fo mal aining o wo k-
place aine s may also a ec he chosen me hods o guidance. Some s udies (E anciew
and Rojewski 1999; Reegå d 2015) sugges ha aine s can p o ide guidance o lea n-
e s e icien ly wi hou any o mal aining, whe eas o he s (Fillie az 2011; Smi h 2000)
ind ha s uc u ed aining o wo kplace aine s imp o es he quali y o wo kplace
guidance. Nielsen (2008) and Reegå d (2015) no e ha he independence gi en o lea n-
e s may also some imes esul om insu icien esou ces o guidance a he han om
in en ional pedagogic s a egies.
The li e a u e shows s ong e idence o he collec i e na u e o wo kplace guidance,
wi h he en i e wo k communi y p o iding guidance and assis ance o lea ne s. Col-
lec i e guidance can also come om ellow lea ne s and be p o ided by o he VET
s uden s a wo kplaces o eache s om oca ional ins i u ions. Guidance p o ided by
membe s o he communi ies o p ac ice in i es oppo uni ies o lea ne s o pa ici-
pa e in collec i e p ac ices (Fillie az 2011) by g adually aking on mo e esponsibili y
and mo e demanding asks as hei skills de elop. The lea ne ’s sel - egula i e skills,
such as esponsibili y and he abili y o ake he ini ia i e and ac i ely seek guidance,
a ec how guidance is a o ded o him/he in he wo k communi y du ing aining. Fu -
he mo e, hese skills may also a ec he lea ne ’s p ospec s o de eloping expe ise in
u u e wo kplaces. The li e a u e co e ed in his e iew ocuses li le a en ion on he
supe iso y ela ionship be ween he lea ne and he aine . Wha seems impo an
o lea ning is no he posi ion o he pe son p o iding he lea ne wi h guidance, bu
a well- unc ioning pe sonal ela ionship be ween he aine and he lea ne as well as
a commi men om bo h o he guidance p ocess. Whe he o mally ained o no ,
he wo kplace aine mus be able o sha e his/he knowledge wi h he lea ne and o
inspi e he lea ne o ac i ely pa icipa e in he lea ning p ocess. The li e a u e also dis-
cusses condi ions ela ed o he wo k en i onmen , such as a mosphe e, equali y, legi i-
macy and au onomy ha a e conside ed impo an ac o s o lea ning.
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
Discussion
The esea ch p esen ed in his s udy desc ibes a ious ways h ough which guidance is
mani es ed a he wo kplace. S uden s and app en ices ecei e close guidance in di ec
con ac wi h mo e expe ienced wo ke s, bu also he mo e indi ec o ms o guidance,
such as obse a ions o mo e expe ienced wo ke s and ea u es o he lea ning con-
ex , a e being desc ibed (see Bille 2002). Wha seems no ewo hy is he a he high
le el o indi ec guidance desc ibed in he li e a u e (see Tables4, 5). The li e a u e
does p esen ways h ough which di ec guidance is o e ed, bu also b ings o wa d
many limi a ions and hinde ing ac o s o he guidance o VET s uden s, such as lack
o ime and esou ces se aside o guidance. This aises a ques ion abou whe he he
indi ec o ms o guidance become mo e common in case wo kplaces ail a alloca ing
adequa e esou ces o guidance. Whe he i is he esou ces, es ablished ways o wo k-
ing and lea ning o he a ailabili y o pedagogical expe ise ha shapes guidance p ac-
ices a wo kplaces, u he esea ch needs o e alua e he use ulness and alue o hese
p ac ices om a lea ne ’s poin o iew while aking in o accoun he wide a ia ion in
lea ning en i onmen s (see Fulle and Unwin 2003) and he eali ies o e e yday wo k
si ua ions.
To imp o e lea ning a wo k, guidance a wo kplaces mus be pa o a legi ima e and
es ablished p ocess ha he b oad wo k communi y is commi ed o p o iding. Mo e
a en ion needs o be ocused on wha he lea ne has o o e o he supe iso y ela ion-
ship and he skills and knowledge he/she b ings o i . E en i he mas e -no ice ela ion-
ship and, in some cases, he p o essional monopoly on expe ise emains impo an , he
school also needs o encou age i s eache s and s uden s o c oss bounda ies be ween
he school and wo kplace (Tuomi-G öhn e al. 2003). S uden s may ac as c ucial change
agen s who ca y, ansla e and help o implemen new ideas be ween he educa ional
ins i u ion and he wo kplace (Enges öm 2011). The e is a need o challenge he ole
o ac o s such as age and s a us in de ining he concep o expe (e.g.Fulle and Unwin
2004) in o de o suppo ecip ocal lea ning.
A company’s app oach o he de elopmen o indi idual expe ise is likely o be in lu-
enced by a ange o ac o s, including he p oduc ma ke in which i is loca ed, as well
as he o ganiza ion o he wo k and he dis ibu ion o skills (Fulle and Unwin 2004). I
companies ail o map he ange o skills o be co e ed, lea ning isks becoming haphaz-
a d and is mo e likely o be d i en by he need o p ese e company p oduc i i y (Chan
2014; Fulle and Unwin 2004; Smi h 2000). Guidance should be ecognized as an impo -
an ask o be ca ied ou a he wo kplace. When he p ocesses o guidance in he wo k
communi y become anspa en , bo h lea ne s and o he membe s o he wo k commu-
ni y become mo e awa e o he objec i es o VET s uden s’ wo kplace lea ning, he eby
suppo ing he alloca ion o adequa e esou ces o guidance.A s uc u ed aining p o-
g am makes he aining objec i es mo e anspa en o bo h he lea ne and he wo k
communi y.
F om a me hodological pe spec i e, e iewed a icles used in mos cases basic quali-
a i e (e.g., con en analysis) and quan i a i e (desc ip i e s a is ics) analysis me hods.
Only 11 a icles con ained bo h explana ion and jus i ica ion o selec ed me hodologi-
cal app oach and explici desc ip ion o da a analysis. In p ac ice his means ha only
hese s udies could be p ope ly eplica ed in he u u e. Only eigh a icles had a sec ion
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
abou c i ical examina ion o he me hod(s) and limi a ions o he s udy. This is qui e
su p ising, as all he e iewed a icles we e published in pee - e iewed jou nals. G oup
le el da a collec ion was applied in eigh a icles, bu we ound e y li le discussion
abou a ionale o choosing such app oach and ela ed alidi y issues (see, e.g., Chioncel
e al. 2003). Al hough quan i a i e s udies in his e iew we e based on c oss-sec ional
design, we we e deligh ed o see ha mos o he quali a i e a icles included compo-
nen s o longi udinal design (da a collec ion a ied om 1mon h o 4yea s). Only one
s udy con ained in e en ion, bu ha was non-con olled ( e ospec i e). To conclude,
u u e s udies should pay mo e a en ion o me hodological issues (clea a gumen a-
ion why a ce ain design and ela ed analysis me hods we e chosen; de ailed desc ip-
ion o pa icipan s, p ocedu e and analyses) in o de o minimise bias in esul s and
ecommenda ions.
Limi a ions
We wan o acknowledge ha , like all s udies, his s udy has ce ain limi a ions. Fi s , he
numbe o a icles ela ed o wo kplace guidance in he con ex o oca ional educa ion
u ned ou o be su p isingly small. S udies ocusing p ima ily on guidance we e a e,
and in many o he s udies selec ed o his e iew, guidance was some hing obse ed
alongside o he hings, bu was no he main ocus. Howe e , he cumula i e esul s
ne e heless sugges , ha we managed o cap u e he main hemes ela ed o wo k-
place guidance in he li e a u e. Second, because he numbe o o iginal a icles ha i
he inclusion/exclusion c i e ia was so small, we included hem all in o de o ob ain
e sa ile in o ma ion abou ou opic. Thus, i is wo h no ing ha he o iginal a icles
hemsel es ha e ce ain limi a ions. In mos s udies, he sample size was ela i ely small,
which is no unusual o quali a i e in e iews and case s udies, which many o hese
s udies ep esen . Al hough a icles in es iga ed many in e es ing aspec s o wo kplace
guidance, me hodological obus ness was no in all cases clea ly opened o a eade ; we
ound lack o de ail in pa icipan in o ma ion, me hodological choices and also how he
analyses we e conduc ed. This clea ly limi ed ou abili y o judge impo ance and alid-
i y o he esul s and p ac ical ecommenda ions. Thi d, mos o he s udies ea u ed in
his pape ailed ei he o ake in o accoun he speci ic ea u es o di e en oca ional
ields o o compa e he guidance a o ded o lea ne s in he di e en lea ning en i-
onmen s o speci ic oca ions. Gi en he di e ences no ed be ween di e en ields o
oca ional educa ion (e.g. social and heal h ca e s. echnology), gene alizing he esul s
om one ield o ano he may be ques ionable (Vi anen e al. 2014). Consequen ly, we
ecommend de o ing mo e esea ch o compa e how hese di e en ield-speci ic lea n-
ing en i onmen s a ec he guidance p o ided o lea ne s.
Au ho s’ con ibu ions
All au ho s pa icipa ed in design o he s udy and w i ing o he esea ch epo . All au ho s ead and app o ed he inal
manusc ip .
Au ho de ails
1 School o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland. 2 Indus ial In o ma ion Managemen Labo a o y,
Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology, Tampe e, Finland. 3 Ins i u e o Beha iou al Sciences, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Helsinki,
Finland.
Acknowledgemen s
None.
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Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9
Compe ing in e es s
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no compe ing in e es s.
A ailabili y o da a and ma e ials
Da a is a ailable in anonymized o m om he co esponding au ho upon eques .
Consen o publica ion
Au ho s decla e ha hey ha e app o ed manusc ip o submission, and he con en o he manusc ip has no been
published, o submi ed o publica ion elsewhe e.
Funding
Resea ch was unded by Academy o Finland (G an 303693).
Publishe ’s No e
Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Recei ed: 30 June 2016 Accep ed: 1 Ap il 2017
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