Guiding workplace learning in vocational education and training: A literature review

Guiding wo kplace lea ning in oca ional educa ion and aining: a li e a u e e iew Susanna Mikkonen1, Lau a Pyl äs1, He a Rin ala2, Pe i Nokelainen2* and Liisa Pos a e 3 Backg ound In e es in wo kplace lea ning has g own in ecen decades due o he changing cha - ac e o wo k and he acknowledgemen o he wo kplace as a lea ning en i onmen (e.g. Fulle and Unwin 2003, 2011; Ille is 2003). In he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining (VET), app en iceships and wo k-based lea ning ha e been p omo ed (e.g., Eu opean Commission 2015). The aim o his e iew is o p o ide an o e iew o guid- ance and lea ning a he wo kplace in he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining. In VET p og ammes, heo e ical s udies in oca ional ins i u ions and p ac ical aining a wo kplaces should be conside ed complemen a y p o iding di e en kind o oppo - uni ies o lea ning (Aa k og 2005). The connec i e model o Guile and G i i hs (2001) emphasises close collabo a ion be ween oca ional ins i u ions and wo kplaces in c ea - ing an ideal way o o ganize wo kplace lea ning o VET s uden s. The model unde lines ha he con ex and he access p o ided o a e ac s and people in luences lea ning, while oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in o ms o social p ac ice wi h di e en communi ies Abs ac This e iew p o ides an o e iew o he empi ical esea ch conce ning guidance in he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining (VET). The s udy examines p ac ices, p o ide s and suppo ing and hinde ing ac o s ela ed o guidance and lea ning a he wo kplace. A e he inclusion/exclusion p ocess, he inal numbe o esea ch a icles included in his e iew is 18. Resul s show s ong e idence o he collec i e na u e o wo kplace guidance, wi h he en i e wo k communi y p o iding lea ne s wi h guid- ance and assis ance. Guidance p o ided o VET s uden s a wo kplaces seems o ela e s ongly o he ac i i ies o he membe s o communi ies o p ac ice. Guidance p o- ided by he membe s o communi ies o p ac ice opens up oppo uni ies o lea ne s o pa icipa e in collec i e p ac ices by g adually assuming mo e esponsibili y and mo e demanding asks as hei skills de elop. The lea ne ’s sel - egula i e skills, such as esponsibili y and he abili y o ake he ini ia i e and o ac i ely seek guidance, a ec how guidance is a o ded o him/he in he wo k communi y du ing aining. Fu he - mo e, hese skills may also de e mine he lea ne ’s p ospec s o de eloping expe ise in u u e wo kplaces. Keywo ds: Guidance, Wo kplace lea ning, App en iceship educa ion, Li e a u e e iew Open Access © The Au ho (s) 2017. This a icle is dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons license, and indica e i changes we e made. REVIEW Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 DOI 10.1186/s40461-017-0053-4 *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] 2 Indus ial In o ma ion Managemen Labo a o y, Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology, Tampe e, Finland Full lis o au ho in o ma ion is a ailable a he end o he a icle Page 2 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 o p ac ice a e cen al o lea ning. Lea ne s equi e oppo uni ies o econ ex ualise hei heo e ical and p ac ical knowledge in new con ex s in o de o c ea e new knowl- edge and p ac ices (G i i hs and Guile 2003). Thus, di e en kinds o p ac ices, such as assis ance om mo e expe ienced o he s and bounda y c ossing acili a e lea ning wi hin and be ween he di e en con ex s o educa ion and wo k (Akke man and Bak- ke 2011, 2012; G i i hs and Guile 2003). Resea ch has shown ha close collabo a ion be ween s uden s, wo kplaces and oca ional ins i u ions bene i s lea ning (Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003; Vi anen and Tynjälä 2008; Vi anen e al. 2014). In he ield o wo kplace lea ning, sociocul u al heo ies conside lea ning as an ongo- ing, bo h an indi idual and social p ocess o pa icipa ion shaped by social, o ganiza- ional, cul u al and o he con ex ual ac o s (Hage 2013). Tynjälä (2013) 3-P model o wo kplace lea ning acknowledges he sociocul u al en i onmen as a con ex ha de ines he possibili ies and cons ain s o wo kplace lea ning. Acco ding o he model, he e a e h ee basic componen s in he lea ning phenomenon. The p esage componen includes bo h lea ne ac o s and lea ning con ex which ela es o wo k o ganiza ion and i s ea u es including o ganisa ion o wo k, pa ne ships and ne wo ks. Tynjälä (2013) poin s ou ha hese ac o s do no a ec he lea ning p ocess di ec ly bu a he h ough he lea ne ’s in e p e a ion o he ac o s, which is in line wi h he cons uc- i is ’s iew o lea ning. The p ocess componen encompasses he lea ning ac i i ies h ough pa icipa ion, collabo a ion and in e ac ion, whe eas he p oduc componen includes di e se lea ning ou comes (Tynjälä 2013). Bille (2002a, b) no es ha pa ici- pa ion in social p ac ices is egula ed by he wo kplace a o dances and shapes bo h he lea ning p ocess and he ou come. Howe e , e en ually an indi idual, he lea ne , can choose whe he o no o engage in he p ocess o lea ning. As a p ocess wo kplace lea ning is o en conside ed inciden al o in o mal, e en i i could ins ead be seen as non- o mal wi h di e en le els o in en ion o lea n, including implici , eac i e and delibe a e lea ning (E au 2004). Al e na i ely, one can ega d all lea ning expe iences as in en ional because hey aim a ensu ing he con inui y o social and wo k p ac ices (Bille 2002b). E hnog aphic ield s udies on app en iceships by La e and Wenge (1991) sugges ha lea ning happens in e e yday in e ac ions and h ough pa icipa ion in communi ies o p ac ice. Howe e , he heo y by La e and Wenge (1991) has also been opposed as i neglec s guidance and o mal educa ion, and is based on he idea ha skills, knowledges and p ac ices a e passed on o no ices. By doing his, he heo y igno es he ecip oci y o lea ning and he con inua ion o lea ning e en a e a ull membe ship in a communi y o p ac ice has been ob ained (Fulle e al. 2005). Tanggaa d (2005) s a es ha s udies on app en iceship o en desc ibe app en ices g adu- ally acqui ing g ea e esponsibili ies and widening pa icipa ion in new s ages o p o- duc ion, bu no much is said abou how new skills a e augh o didac ically ins uc ed. Tanggaa d con inues ha eaching a he wo kplace is loosely o ganised as a possibili y o he app en ice o ecei e help and ge ad ice in he daily wo k si ua ions, and akes place in connec ion wi h a ious social ela ions. Nielsen (2008) concludes ha impo - an educa ional in e en ions and ins uc ional p ocesses a e used a wo kplaces, bu hey a e no necessa ily ecognised as such. The use o a ious e ms ela ed o pedagogical p ac ices o in e en ions aking place a wo kplaces is he e ogeneous and o en imes incohe en . The concep o guidance Page 3 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 is o en used in he con ex o wo kplace lea ning (e.g. Bille 2002b, 2014). Coaching, u o ing and men o ing a e simila ac i i ies which all ha e he unde lying in en ion o p o iding suppo and encou aging he p o essional de elopmen and lea ning o indi- iduals. Howe e , he lines be ween he concep s o guidance, coaching, u o ing and men o ing a e blu ed al hough he unde lying meaning o hese concep s di e om each o he (see Gallache 1997; Wiske e al. 2013). Coaching e e s o a p ocess which occu s be ween pee s o colleagues and is a he s uc u ed and sys ema ic in na u e (Gallache 1997). Coaching has a a he na ow ocus as i o en conce ns a speci ic p oblem, and he ole o he coach is o help he coachee o de ine and o e come his p oblem (Wiske e al. 2013). Tu o ing e e s o o e ing suppo gi en by a esponsi- ble pe son wi hin he o ganisa ion o a pe son, usually a no ice, ela ed o mo e p ac i- cal ma e s. Tu o s ha e a key ole in ac ing be ween he ins i u ion and he indi idual (Wiske e al. 2013). Men o ing is abou moni o ing and assis ing an indi idual’s de el- opmen o e a longe pe iod o ime, and men o ing can ake he o m o indi idual, g oup o pee men o ing (Wiske e al. 2013). Men o ing is also a e m equen ly used in highe educa ion con ex o e e o pe sonal suppo , ca ee de elopmen and in o- duc ion o p o essional ne wo ks (Pea son and Kay ooz 2004). Ano he concep o en adop ed in he highe educa ion con ex is supe ision, which akes place when indi idu- als ha e a long- e m ask, i.e. a hesis o a p ojec . Simila wi h coaching and men o - ing, supe ising aims a enabling and suppo ing indi iduals o de elop hei skills and achie e asks. Howe e , supe ision has a b oade scope in ha i o en includes wo k- ing alongside wi h he indi idual, as well as nego ia ion and dialogue, o enable he pe - son o ake an ac i e ole in de eloping he skills and p ocesses. Thus, gi ing answe s and ixed solu ions is a oided in supe ision (Wiske e al. 2013). Supe ision has adi- ionally e e ed o a mas e -app en ice ela ionship, bu la ely he ole o he academic communi y in supe ision has been emphasized (Mainha d e al. 2009). Fu he mo e, good supe ision is cha ac e ised by an emphasis on he lea ning p ocesses and gene al wo k p ocesses ins ead o he p oduc (see Pea son and B ew 2002; Veh iläinen and Lö - s öm 2016). In his s udy, we use he e m guidance o desc ibe he suppo ha membe s o he wo k communi y and eache s om oca ional ins i u es p o ide o s uden s (see also Vi anen and Tynjälä 2008). We also u ilize Bille ( 2002b) di ision o di ec and indi ec guidance o desc ibe a ious guidance p ac ices a he wo kplace. The social and physi- cal en i onmen o he wo kplace p o ides indi ec guidance ha is accessed in e e yday wo k ac i i ies when he physical a angemen s assis wo kplace lea ning and p o ide access o obse ing and lis ening mo e expe ienced cowo ke s and pee s (Bille 2002b). As much o wha one mus lea n canno be lea n h ough ial and e o alone, in en- ional wo kplace lea ning s a egies, such as guided lea ning, a e necessa y o assis an indi idual in de eloping p ocedu es and concep s equi ed o sha ed p ac ice (Bille 2002b). Di ec guidance e e s o close guidance and di ec in e ac ion be ween mo e expe ienced wo ke s and lea ne s (Bille 2002b). Bille (2002b) concludes ha wo k- place pedagogic p ac ices comp ise h ee in e dependen planes o guided engagemen wi h wo k ac i i ies. The i s plane includes e e yday pa icipa ion a wo k and he o ganizing o access o knowledge h ough obse ing and lis ening, bu also by engag- ing in asks o inc easing accoun abili y and unde s anding he goals o he equi ed Page 4 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 pe o mance. The second plane comp ises di ec guidance and in en ional lea ning s a egies ha a e di ec ed owa ds de eloping and p omo ing alues, p ocedu es, and unde s andings. Guided lea ning a wo k includes he use o modeling, coaching and sca olding as well as o he echniques o de elop unde s anding and o engage lea n- e s in lea ning o hemsel es. The hi d plane o guided lea ning ocuses on ex ending he adap abili y o lea ne s’ knowledge o new si ua ions and ci cums ances. The use o ques ioning, p oblem-sol ing, dialogues and g oup discussions aim a assis ing lea ne s o assess he scope and he limi s o hei knowledge and he possibili ies o i s ans e o new si ua ions. This li e a u e e iew p esen s an o e iew o he empi ical esea ch on guidance and lea ning a he wo kplace in he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining. The goal is o p o ide a holis ic iew on how guidance ac ualizes a he wo kplace by iden i ying p ac ices, p o ide s and suppo ing and hinde ing ac o s ela ed o guidance and lea n- ing a he wo kplace. The esea ch ques ions a e he ollowing: (RQ1) Wha kind o guidance p ac ices a e used a he wo kplace? (RQ2) Who p o ides guidance a he wo kplace? (RQ3) Which ac o s o guidance suppo o hinde lea ning a he wo kplace? In his a icle, we will nex desc ibe ou li e a u e e iew me hod and he s udies selec ed o his e iew. In he esul sec ion, we seek o answe ou h ee esea ch ques- ions based on he a icles selec ed o his e iew. In he conclusions and discussion, we will u he discuss he empi ical indings om he selec ed s udies and p o ide sugges- ions o u u e esea ch. We will also discuss some limi a ions o his s udy. Me hod ando e iew o  he s udies selec ed o  he e iew The esea ch me hod o his s udy is a li e a u e e iew. The e iew ype o his s udy is a mapping e iew (G an and Boo h 2009). A mapping e iew aims a mapping ou and ca ego izing exis ing li e a u e on a pa icula opic. Mapping e iews cha ac e ize he quan i y and quali y o li e a u e and aim a iden i ying gaps in esea ch li e a u e om which o commission u he esea ch. Fo he li e a u e e iew, we collec ed da a by sea ching elec onic da abases o iden i y ele an s udies. Sea ch e ms included guid- ance, counselling, supe ision, men o ing, coaching, ins uc ion, sca olding, modeling, explana ion, e lec ion and explo a ions in combina ion wi h he e ms app en iceship, wo kplace lea ning, on- he-job lea ning, wo k-based, oca ional aining and oca ional educa ion. In addi ion o sea ching h ough elec onic da abases, we manually sea ched he a chi es o jou nals ocusing on wo kplace lea ning and oca ional educa ion. In he ini ial a icle sea ch, we sea ched o pee - e iewed a icles om he ERIC (Educa ion Resou ces In o ma ion Cen e ) and Educa ion Resea ch Comple e da a- bases. The a icle sea ch yielded 1209 a icles om he ERIC da abase and 1136 a icles om Educa ion Resea ch Comple e (2275 all oge he a e duplica es emo ed). We hen s a ed o limi he numbe o a icles o hose ele an o ou s udy acco ding o ou speci ic inclusion and exclusion c i e ia. Fi s , we only included s udies published be ween 1995 and 2015 wi h ull- ex a ailable and he language o he publica ion being English. This le us wi h 489 a icles. We ead he abs ac s o hese a icles, and also Page 5 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 he ull ex s in case he abs ac s didn’ p o ide enough in o ma ion o decision mak- ing. In he p ocess, we included empi ical s udies ocusing on guidance in he con ex o wo kplace lea ning wi hin he oca ional educa ion and aining sys em. We he e o e excluded s udies ocusing on men o ing employees in co po a e se ings. We did include s udies on guided lea ning a he wo kplace in app en iceship educa ion and du ing on- he-job lea ning pe iods in oca ional educa ion, bu excluded s udies in he highe edu- ca ion con ex . A e he i s ound o he inclusion/exclusion p ocess, we sea ched he e e ence lis s o he a icles selec ed o he e iew o iden i y addi ional ele an s ud- ies. The Google Schola da abase was also included in he sea ch a he end o he p o- cess, bu no new a icles we e ound. Al hough he sea ch yielded a decen amoun o a icles, a minimum numbe o hem ac ually discussed guided lea ning a he wo kplace. Mos o he a icles excluded om his e iew co e ed wo kplace lea ning (no guidance), men o ing p og ams in en e - p ises o guidance on le els o educa ion o he han oca ional educa ion and ain- ing (e.g. highe educa ion). A e he inclusion/exclusion p ocess, he inal numbe o esea ch a icles included in he e iew was 18 (see Table1). Two esea che s pa - icipa ed in bo h se ing he inclusion/exclusion c i e ia and in discussing he a icles selec ed o he s udy. O he schola s (Nielsen 2008; Tanggaa d 2005) ha e p e iously no ed he endency in esea ch on app en iceship educa ion o o e look issues o guid- ance a he wo kplace. The li e a u e sea ch p ocess o his a icle u he suppo s his inding: s udies ela ed o he guidance o VET s uden s a wo kplaces a e ew indeed. The da a was collec ed and s udies we e assessed using a da a ex ac ion ma ix, which included in o ma ion on sample size, s udy design and esul s ela ed o guidance and wo kplace lea ning. The assembly o he da a was guided by he h ee esea ch ques ions p esen ed in “Backg ound”. We a anged he collec ed da a o iden i y claims made in he li e a u e. Two esea che s u he hema ized he claims in o b oade ca ego ies, i s independen ly and hen oge he , by compa ing and discussing he claims un il hey eached consensus. Based on he heo e ical backg ound and li e a u e su eyed, we hen lis ed he ac o s o guidance ha suppo o p e en lea ning a wo kplaces in a able. We also iden i ied p ac ices ha indi iduals and g oups a wo kplaces ypically use o p o ide lea ne s wi h guidance. The ollowing sec ions will p esen and u he dis- cuss he indings in g ea e de ail. In Table1, we ha e p esen ed he 18 a icles selec ed o his s udy. The s udies co e a ious aining p og ammes wi hin he oca ional educa ion and aining amewo k. In nine a icles (a icles 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 13 and 14), he aining p og ammes could be desc ibed as mo e adi ional app en iceship p og ammes wi h he majo i y o he lea ning aking place a he wo kplace. In nine a icles (a icles 2, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17 and 18), he oca ional aining p og ammes in ol ed bo h school-based and wo k- based lea ning, wi h a ia ion in he leng h o he on- he-job lea ning pe iods. To al numbe o pa icipan s in he 18 e iewed a icles was 3485, o which 681 pa - icipa ed in quali a i e and 2804 in quan i a i e s udies. Quali a i e me hods domi- na ed he sample, as hey we e applied in 10 s udies be ween 1999–2015. Th ee s udies (2008–2014) applied quan i a i e me hods and ou mixed-me hod s udies (2000–2011) applied bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e me hods. Pa icipa ion selec ion c i e ia was explici in mos o he e iewed a icles (16), bu only 11 a icles desc ibed pa icipan s’ Page 6 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 Table 1 O e iew o  he s udies S udy Sample Coun y Da a Me hod 1. Chan (2014) 90 app en ices New Zealand In e iews Quali a i e 2. Collin and Valleala (2005)18 design and de elop- men enginee s, 15 you h wo ke s Finland Obse a ions In e iews Quali a i e 3. Co ney and du Ples- sis (2010)106 male app en ices Aus alia Ques ionnai e wi h scales: Men o ing Rela ionship Scale (Scandu a and Ragins 1993), 3 subscales: Psychosocial suppo Ca ee de elopmen Role modelling Quan i a i e 4. E anciew and Rojewski (1999)Th ee app en ices, 3 men o s Uni ed S a es o Ame ica Obse a ions Field no es In e iews Documen analysis Quali a i e 5. Fillie az (2011) Coho o abou 40 app en ices Swi ze land Obse a ions Audio- ideo eco dings Quali a i e 6. Fulle and Unwin (2004)29 app en ices, 29 wo ke s UK In e iews Lea ning logs Su eys Obse a ion Mixed me hods 7. Gu ne e al. (2011) 19 app en ices Swi ze land Audio- eco dings on mobile de ices Mixed me hods 8. Koskela and Palukka (2011)S age 1: 9 ainees, 6 aine s S age 2: 2 ainees, 4 aine s Finland Obse a ions Video eco dings Quali a i e 9. Nielsen (2008) Fou app en ices, 2 jou - neymen, 1 mas e , 12 app en ices ( om 3 g oup in e iews) Denma k Obse a ions In e iews Quali a i e 10. Onnismaa (2008) 27 s uden s Finland In e iews Quali a i e 11. Reegå d (2015) 11 app en ices, 7 manage s No way In e iews Obse a ions Quali a i e 12. Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec (2003)175 s uden s, eache s, s akeholde s Canada Th ee ques ionnai es: Expec a ions Lea ning O e all app aisal In e iews Mixed me hods 13. Smi h (2000) 389 app en ices, 8 app en ices Aus alia Ques ionnai e Can ield Lea ning S yles In en o y, CSLI (Can ield 1980), 16 subscales In e iews Mixed me hods 14. Tanggaa d (2005) 10 male app en ices Denma k In e iews Obse a ions Quali a i e 15. Wegene (2014) Mo e han a 100 s uden s, eache s and supe iso s Denma k Field obse a ions In e iews Quali a i e 16. Win e s e al. (2009)24 s uden s, 15 eache s, 18 men o s Ne he lands Con e sa ion Quali a i e 17. Vi anen and Tynjälä (2008)531 oca ional s uden s Finland Ques ionnai e (Tynjälä and Vi anen 2005; Vi anen and Tynjälä 2006) Quan i a i e 18. Vi anen e al. (2014)1603 oca ional s u- den s Finland Ques ionnai e Quan i a i e Page 7 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 demog aphic da a (e.g., age, gende , wo k expe ience). Fu he , only six a icles men- ioned olun a y pa icipa ion. Mos common da a collec ion me hod was in e iew (10 a icles), bu also obse a ion (8 a icles) and su eys (5 a icles) we e applied. Nine o he a icles applied indi idual le el da a collec ion (in e iews and su eys), i e applied bo h indi idual and g oup le el da a collec ion (obse a ions and ocus g oup in e iews o con e sa ions), and wo a icles we e based on g oup le el da a. Resul s (RQ1) Wha kind o guidance p ac ices a e used a  he wo kplace? In his chap e , we look in o how guidance is ac ualized a wo kplaces and seek o iden- i y he kinds o guidance p ac ices ypically used a he wo kplace (RQ1). The a icles selec ed o his li e a u e e iew in oduce a a ie y o p ac ices h ough which guid- ance is p o ided o s uden s and app en ices a wo kplaces (Table2). In i e a icles ou o 18 (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Fillie az 2011; Koskela and Palukka 2011; Onnismaa 2008; Tanggaa d 2005), guidance was desc ibed as a p ocess du ing which mo e expe ienced wo ke s and no ices wo k oge he : No ices wo k unde he su eillance o expe s, while expe s moni o he wo k o he s uden s and p o ide help i needed. The help p o ided by expe s can in ol e o example hin s and clues on how o success ully comple e a ask (E anciew and Rojewski 1999), p o iding ins uc ions and making su e ha s uden s ha e unde s ood hem (Fillie az 2011), and asking ques ions o p o iding hin s ha allow ainees o make independen assess- men s as o wha o do nex (Koskela and Palukka 2011). Some imes he aine s can also gi e somewha mo e di ec o de s abou which ask should be pe o med nex (Koskela and Palukka 2011). Tanggaa d (2005) desc ibes he help p o ided by expe s as a kind o us a ion con ol ha helps when he app en ices canno cope on hei own. Fi e a icles desc ibed guidance as an ac i i y o explana ion (Collin and Valleala 2005; E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Koskela and Palukka 2011; Onnismaa 2008; Tanggaa d 2005). E anciew and Rojewski (1999) s a e ha app en ices bene i om hei men o s’ desc ip ions o he ‘ icks o he ade’ and he eby gain access o in o ma ion una aila- ble a school. The p ocess o explana ion can also be seen as in ol ing he sha ing o aci Table 2 Guidance p ac ices mani es ed a  he wo kplace Guidance p ac ices Numbe o a icles Re e ences Expe s and no ices wo king oge he (expe s moni o ing, p o iding help i needed) 5 E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Fillie az (2011), Koskela and Palukka (2011), Onnis- maa (2008), Tanggaa d (2005) Explana ions (p o iding in o ma ion, ca - ego isa ion, ans e ing aci knowledge) 5 Collin and Valleala (2005), E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Koskela and Palukka (2011), Onnismaa (2008), Tanggaa d (2005) Re lec ion (con e sa ions, discussions, eedback) 5 Fillie az (2011), Smi h (2000), Wegene (2014), Win e s e al. (2009), Vi anen and Tynjälä (2008) Sca olding and ading 4 E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Fillie az (2011), Nielsen (2008), Tanggaa d (2005) Obse a ion and demons a ions 3 E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Smi h (2000), Tanggaa d (2005) Independen wo k and expe imen a ion 3 E anciew and Rojewski (1999), Reegå d (2015), Smi h (2000) Page 8 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 knowledge wi h newcome s a he wo kplace. The ans e o aci knowledge seems mos e icien when mo e expe ienced p o essionals wo k oge he wi h inexpe ienced app en ices (Koskela and Palukka 2011; Onnismaa 2008). Collin and Valleala (2005) also desc ibe he p ocess o ca ego iza ion, which in ol es ‘unpacking’ wo k- ela ed ca ego- ies, wi h expe ienced wo ke s who explain which opics ce ain ca ego ies co e (e.g. con iden ial in o ma ion). Ca ego iza ion is a cen al ac i i y o socializing new wo ke s in o he wo kplace and con ibu es o he building o mu ual unde s anding abou wo k- ela ed ca ego ies. O he 18 a icles, i e saw guidance as in ol ing con e sa ions and discussions wi h o he s as well as e lec ion o one’s lea ning (Fillie az 2011; Smi h 2000; Win e s e al. 2009; Wegene 2014; Vi anen e  al. 2014). Vi anen and Tynjälä (2008) de ine sel - assessmen as s uden s e alua ing hei own pe o mance. Discussing and assessing lea ning, howe e , occu s mo e equen ly in he p esence o o he s. Acco ding o Vi - anen and Tynjälä’s s udy (2008), discussions wi h o he employees a e he mos widely used o m o guidance du ing on- he-job lea ning pe iods o VET s uden s. Smi h (2000) epo s ha discussions wi h ellow wo ke s and supe iso s a e in equen use a wo kplaces and help app en ices de elop hei knowledge. Fillie az (2011) desc ibes mo e expe ienced wo ke s gi ing sys ema ic eedback o app en ices and hus in i ing app en ices o engage in con e sa ions. Win e s e al. (2009) and Vi anen e al. (2014) also epo on somewha mo e o mal aining discussions ha in ol e eache s om oca ional ins i u es and ha include discussions wi h expe s abou he meaning o s uden s’ expe iences du ing s udies. Win e s e al. (2009) howe e no es, ha du ing he discussions in ol ing s uden s, eache s and wo kplace men o s, he po en ial o engage s uden s in e lec ing on hei expe iences was no u ilised. Simila ly, Wegene (2014) no es ha discussions in ol ing eache s, s uden s and supe iso s don’ neces- sa ily s imula e e lec ion, as s uden s end o iew discussions as es si ua ions and eel like hey need o p o ide “ igh ” answe s, ins ead o mo e eely discussing hei expe i- ences. Ins ead o o mal si ua ions, s uden s end o ini ia e e lec ion a e e yday in e - ac ions a he wo kplace, whe e e lec ion is no he objec pe se. Howe e , acco ding o Wegene , educa o s ha e di icul ies ac ing on hese ini ia i es. In ou a icles ou o 18, guidance was desc ibed as a p ocess o sca olding and ading (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Fillie az 2011; Nielsen 2008; Tanggaa d 2005). Nielsen 2008) de ines sca olding as “a p ocess whe eby beginne s in a p o ession a e suppo ed by expe ienced wo ke s so as o imp o e hei basis o pa icipa ing in a social p ac ice”. Th ough he sca olding p ocess, newcome s a e in oduced o new a eas o he p o es- sion and e en ually in i ed o ake o e mo e esponsibili y in he p oduc ion p ocess. Sca olding includes he g adual wi hd awal o suppo as he beginne ’s skills imp o e ( ading). The a icles co e ed in his e iew desc ibed he app en ices as assuming inc easing esponsibili y and enjoying p og essi e ecogni ion as legi ima e and us - wo hy membe s o he wo k communi y. Sca olding can hus be seen as suppo ing he iden i y o ma ion o app en ices (Fillie az 2011; Nielsen 2008). Nielsen (2008) s a es ha sca olding can also se e o communica e bodily know-how (non- e bal sca - olding) o app en ices. A signi ican pa o wha is being lea ned in c a p oduc ion equi es o he app en ice o de elop a bodily sense o he p oduc s. Sca old ins uc- ion enables app en ices o obse e and ouch he p oduc , and oge he wi h he mas e Page 9 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 o e alua e i s quali y. Tanggaa d (2005) desc ibes he ypical sca olding si ua ions as o en ep esen ing a mo e asymme ical ela ionship be ween he expe ienced and he no so expe ienced wo ke s, which can some imes lead o he app en ice no being c i i- cal owa ds exis ing p ac ices. Th ee a icles desc ibe he obse a ion o demons a ions by mo e expe ienced wo k- e s and supe iso s as cen al o guidance p ocesses a he wo kplace (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Smi h 2000; Tanggaa d 2005). Smi h (2000) dis inguishes be ween wo ke obse a ions and en i onmen obse a ions. Wo ke obse a ion can be desc ibed as “s uc u ed obse a ion o he p ocess being demons a ed by a ellow wo ke ”. Smi h a gues ha app en ices highly app ecia e demons a ions as a me hod o lea ning. Simila ly, bo h E anciew and Rojewski (1999) and Tanggaa d (2005) s a e ha app en ices ound obse - ing he wo k and demons a ions by mo e expe ienced wo ke s as aluable and ben- e icial o hei lea ning. Howe e , acco ding o, Smi h (2000) en i onmen obse a ion (“uns uc u ed obse a ion o he wo kplace o iden i y isual cues om a e ac s, objec s, and physical a angemen s”) was no seen as an e ec i e way o lea n by he app en ices, no was i app ecia ed by he supe iso s, who a he saw i as a was e o ime. Th ee a icles men ioned allowing independen wo k and encou aging s uden s o expe imen and explo e on hei own as pa o guidance ac i i ies (E anciew and Rojew- ski 1999; Reegå d 2015; Smi h 2000). Reegå d (2015) desc ibes he manage s quickly in oducing app en ices o wo k and us ing hem wi h a lo o esponsibili y and au on- omy om ea ly on. On he one hand, his was seen as a delibe a e pedagogical s a - egy. On he o he hand, independency could be seen as a signal o poo o mal aining awa eness and lack o esou ces a ailable o guidance. Smi h (2000) also desc ibes he ac i i y o p ac icing as a o m o independen wo k o s uden s. Hai d esse s o exam- ple we e expec ed o p ac ice wi h dummy heads be o e ea ing he hai o cus ome s. E anciew and Rojewski (1999) men ion ha aine s some imes encou age app en ices o a emp o explo e a ask on hei own be o e eques ing help om hei aine s. The use o explo a ion, howe e , is a e. Smi h (2000) s a es ha he use o explo a ion is highly alued by he app en ices bu o en limi ed and no encou aged by he wo kplaces because o p oduc ion and sa e y issues. T ials and expe imen a ion ou side o es ab- lished wo k me hods a he wo kplace is discou aged. (RQ2) Who p o ides guidance a  he wo kplace? In his chap e , we seek o iden i y he p o ide s o guidance a he wo kplace. We a e in e es ed in ecognizing he people o g oups o people who a e in ol ed in he p o- cess o p o iding guidance o s uden s. The esul s o his chap e a e summa ized in Table3. The esea ch iden i ies people o g oups o people as p o ide s o guidance a he wo kplace. In e es ingly, o he 18 a icles ea u ed in his pape , only wo (Koskela and Palukka 2011; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003) men ion designa ed wo kplace aine s as he only ones esponsible o guiding lea ne s. O he a icles highligh he mo e collec- i e na u e o wo kplace guidance and iden i y di e en g oups o people as p o iding guidance o lea ne s. O he 18 a icles, en iew wo kplace guidance om a mo e collec i e pe spec i e and claim ha nomina ed aine s a e no he only ones p o iding lea ne s wi h guidance Page 16 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 lea ning p o ides guidance and suppo , especially i guidance is una ailable om o he p o ide s (Tanggaa d 2005). Pee guidance is easily accessible and less isky han asking ad ice om expe s, which explains i s signi icance, especially in he beginning o he lea ning p ocess (Gu ne e al. 2011). Mo eo e , suppo om amily, iends, and sig- ni ican o he s, is also conside ed impo an and a ec s lea ning a he wo kplace (Chan 2014; Co ney and du Plessis 2010). In wo k communi ies, he app en ice mus be seen as a legi ima e a he han a ma - ginal membe o he wo k eam. Seeing app en ices in a cen al ole also calls o he app en ices o be able o in luence wo kplace p ac ices and o be asked o hei opinion. Vi anen e al. (2014) claim ha he mo e app en ices see hemsel es as ac i e mem- be s o hei wo k communi y, he mo e hey lea n. Wo kplaces also p o ide lea ne s wi h guidance h ough suppo i e p ac ices. Fi s o all, wo kplaces p o ide suppo o lea ne s by p o iding hem oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in a wide ange o asks, which helps app en ices o de elop b oad expe ise. When app en ices a e o a ed h ough di e en depa men s a he wo kplace, hey a e able o build ela ionships wi h many wo ke s and o acqui e expe ience om a a ie y o wo k asks (Fulle and Unwin 2004; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003;l Vi anen e al. 2014). The esea ch shows ha placing he lea ne in a ma ginal posi ion in wo k communi ies and no seeing him/he as a legi i- ma e membe o he wo k eam limi s a ailable lea ning a o dances (Fillie az 2010; Nielsen 2008; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003). The ma ginalized app en ice is o e ed only ma ginal asks o wo k on and is con inuously placed insi ua ions ha will no h ea en company p oduc i i y o secu i y (Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003). This denies he app en ice he oppo uni y o wo k in impo an wo king si ua ions and hinde s he app en ice’s lea ning o mo e complex and demanding asks ele an o he de elopmen o expe ise (Nielsen 2008; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003). App en ices in ma ginal posi- ions a wo kplaces also expe ience li le wo k au onomy. No aking he app en ice’s iewpoin s in o accoun is ano he indica o o app en ice ma ginaliza ion in he wo k communi y. Win e s e al. (2009) no e ha s uden s seldom ecei e ea men as equal pa ne s in o mal aining con e sa ions. In con e sa ions wi h eache s and wo kplace aine s, s uden pa icipa ion is oo o en limi ed and eal dialogue seems o be lacking, as he eache s end o domina e he hemes and con en o such con e sa ions. Communi ies o p ac ice also suppo app en ices’ lea ning by allowing hem au on- omy and independen wo k. Gi ing app en ices eedom, us and esponsibili y p o- ides hem wi h ich lea ning a o dances. Allowing app en ices o wo k independen ly and hen p aising hem o a job well done subs an ially enhances hei sel -es eem (Reegå d 2015). The inc ease in esponsibili y should ake place g adually, wi h app en- ices ecei ing mo e esponsibili y and mo e demanding asks commensu a e wi h hei skills de elopmen (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Fillie az 2011; Gu ne e al. 2011; Nielsen 2008; Smi h 2000). Gi ing lea ne s oo much independence and esponsibili y oo soon could endange wo kplace guidance. Gu ne e al. (2011) a gue ha ain- ing app en ices o wo k au onomously is an impo an objec i e in many occupa ional sec o s. Un o una ely, his objec i e o en leads o app en ices wo king alone wi hou an expe by hei side. Too much independence and esponsibili y leads o insu icien guidance and may hinde lea ning (Reegå d 2015). Page 17 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 Connec i i y The aining p og ams a ailable o app en ices should be able o in eg a e o mal and in o mal aining, heo y and p ac ice (Onnismaa 2008; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003; Win e s e al. 2009; Vi anen and Tynjälä 2008; Vi anen e al. 2014). In eg a ing di e - en o ms o knowledge is essen ial o he de elopmen o oca ional compe ence and expe ise. S uden s should be able o in eg a e heo e ical in o ma ion gained a school wi h p ac ice a he wo kplace (Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003; Vi anen and Tynjälä 2008; Vi anen e al. 2014). Disc epancies be ween lea ning en i onmen s migh hinde he lea ning p ocess (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Sa oie-Zajc and Dolbec 2003). The in eg a ion o o mal and in o mal lea ning equi es close collabo a ion be ween a i- ous ac o s in oca ional educa ion. Mo eo e , guidance associa ed wi h aining calls o collabo a ion be ween eache s, s uden s and employe s, which acili a es subsequen p o essional de elopmen . Guiding s uden s mus no be some hing ha occu s exclu- si ely a he wo kplace, hough eache s o en su e om insu icien ime and esou ces o guidance (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Tanggaa d 2005). Teache s om oca ional ins i u ions should also be in ol ed in helping s uden s o se hei lea ning goals and holding discussions wi h hem (Vi anen e al. 2014). The ea u es o he aining p og am i sel ha e p o ed o be impo an ac o s o guid- ance a ec ing app en ice lea ning. P e ious esea ch emphasizes he impo ance o an explici amewo k which de ines clea oles and ules o he aining p og am (Fulle and Unwin 2004; Onnismaa 2008; Smi h 2000). Voca ional aining p og ams should also ake in o accoun pe sonal needs o lea ning and guidance (Fulle and Unwin 2004; Onnismaa 2008; Smi h 2000; Vi anen e al. 2014). Onnismaa (2008) s a es ha he pe sonalizing oca ional s udies is especially impo an o ma u e s uden s. Ha ing a designed app en iceship p og am a he wo kplace ha has mapped he ange o asks and skills o be co e ed will inc ease oppo uni ies o app en ices o de elop b oad expe ise when lea ning is no haphaza d and p oduc i i y d i en (Chan 2014; Fulle and Unwin 2004). In his way, app en ices bene i om a s uc u ed aining p og am and clea goals (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Smi h 2000). Conclusions The pu pose o his e iew was o p o ide an o e iew o he empi ical esea ch con- ce ning guidance and lea ning in he con ex o oca ional educa ion and aining. The s udy has ocused on iden i ying guidance p ac ices, p o ide s o guidance, and suppo - ing and hinde ing ac o s ela ed o guidance and lea ning a he wo kplace. The 18 a icles p esen ed in his s udy illus a e di e en guidance p ac ices mani- es ed a he wo kplace. These p ac ices ep esen bo h di ec and indi ec guidance desc ibed by Bille (2002b). Especially obse a ions o he wo k en i onmen and mo e expe ienced wo ke s, and he allowing o independen wo k and explo a ions can be seen as o ms o indi ec guidance. Di ec guidance on he o he hand is mani es ed as expe s and no ices wo k closely oge he and engage in sca olding ac i i ies, as in o - ma ion and aci knowledge is being sha ed and as expe s and no ices engage in con e - sa ions discussing, assessing and e lec ing on lea ning. The guidance p ac ices ha all Page 18 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 in o he ca ego y o di ec guidance can u he be di ided in o (1) s a egies ha ocus on comple ing ce ain wo k- ela ed asks (such as wo king oge he on ce ain asks, gi ing ins uc ions and ad ice, explaining and p o iding in o ma ion) and (2) s a egies ha ocus mo e comp ehensi ely on he lea ning p ocess i sel (such as e lec ion and discussions abou he hings being lea n ). The a icles p esen ed in his s udy desc ibe a a ie y o guidance p ac ices u ilized a he wo kplace, bu also p esen some limi a ions in hei use due o lack o esou ces o guidance awa eness a wo kplaces. I seems ha echniques ha a e mo e aine - led and easily ca ied ou in he e e yday wo k low a e in mo e equen use, whe eas echniques ha equi e mo e ime, ecip ocali y and ac i i y om he communi y and lea ne see less equen use., Smi h (2000) o example, s a es ha wo kplaces do no encou age he use o explo a ion because o he isk i will in e e e wi h he company’s p oduc ion schedules and cause p oblems wi h wo kplace sa e y. Mo eo e , wo kplaces may al eady ha e es ablished ce ain ways o doing hings, and any expe imen ing ou - side hese es ablished me hods may e oke an un a o able esponse. When i comes o e lec ion, i has been p o ed ha d o eache s o ac upon he ini ia i es o e lec ion made by s uden s a e e yday wo k si ua ions (Wegene 2013). Fo mal aining o wo k- place aine s may also a ec he chosen me hods o guidance. Some s udies (E anciew and Rojewski 1999; Reegå d 2015) sugges ha aine s can p o ide guidance o lea n- e s e icien ly wi hou any o mal aining, whe eas o he s (Fillie az 2011; Smi h 2000) ind ha s uc u ed aining o wo kplace aine s imp o es he quali y o wo kplace guidance. Nielsen (2008) and Reegå d (2015) no e ha he independence gi en o lea n- e s may also some imes esul om insu icien esou ces o guidance a he han om in en ional pedagogic s a egies. The li e a u e shows s ong e idence o he collec i e na u e o wo kplace guidance, wi h he en i e wo k communi y p o iding guidance and assis ance o lea ne s. Col- lec i e guidance can also come om ellow lea ne s and be p o ided by o he VET s uden s a wo kplaces o eache s om oca ional ins i u ions. Guidance p o ided by membe s o he communi ies o p ac ice in i es oppo uni ies o lea ne s o pa ici- pa e in collec i e p ac ices (Fillie az 2011) by g adually aking on mo e esponsibili y and mo e demanding asks as hei skills de elop. The lea ne ’s sel - egula i e skills, such as esponsibili y and he abili y o ake he ini ia i e and ac i ely seek guidance, a ec how guidance is a o ded o him/he in he wo k communi y du ing aining. Fu - he mo e, hese skills may also a ec he lea ne ’s p ospec s o de eloping expe ise in u u e wo kplaces. The li e a u e co e ed in his e iew ocuses li le a en ion on he supe iso y ela ionship be ween he lea ne and he aine . Wha seems impo an o lea ning is no he posi ion o he pe son p o iding he lea ne wi h guidance, bu a well- unc ioning pe sonal ela ionship be ween he aine and he lea ne as well as a commi men om bo h o he guidance p ocess. Whe he o mally ained o no , he wo kplace aine mus be able o sha e his/he knowledge wi h he lea ne and o inspi e he lea ne o ac i ely pa icipa e in he lea ning p ocess. The li e a u e also dis- cusses condi ions ela ed o he wo k en i onmen , such as a mosphe e, equali y, legi i- macy and au onomy ha a e conside ed impo an ac o s o lea ning. Page 19 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 Discussion The esea ch p esen ed in his s udy desc ibes a ious ways h ough which guidance is mani es ed a he wo kplace. S uden s and app en ices ecei e close guidance in di ec con ac wi h mo e expe ienced wo ke s, bu also he mo e indi ec o ms o guidance, such as obse a ions o mo e expe ienced wo ke s and ea u es o he lea ning con- ex , a e being desc ibed (see Bille 2002). Wha seems no ewo hy is he a he high le el o indi ec guidance desc ibed in he li e a u e (see Tables4, 5). The li e a u e does p esen ways h ough which di ec guidance is o e ed, bu also b ings o wa d many limi a ions and hinde ing ac o s o he guidance o VET s uden s, such as lack o ime and esou ces se aside o guidance. This aises a ques ion abou whe he he indi ec o ms o guidance become mo e common in case wo kplaces ail a alloca ing adequa e esou ces o guidance. Whe he i is he esou ces, es ablished ways o wo k- ing and lea ning o he a ailabili y o pedagogical expe ise ha shapes guidance p ac- ices a wo kplaces, u he esea ch needs o e alua e he use ulness and alue o hese p ac ices om a lea ne ’s poin o iew while aking in o accoun he wide a ia ion in lea ning en i onmen s (see Fulle and Unwin 2003) and he eali ies o e e yday wo k si ua ions. To imp o e lea ning a wo k, guidance a wo kplaces mus be pa o a legi ima e and es ablished p ocess ha he b oad wo k communi y is commi ed o p o iding. Mo e a en ion needs o be ocused on wha he lea ne has o o e o he supe iso y ela ion- ship and he skills and knowledge he/she b ings o i . E en i he mas e -no ice ela ion- ship and, in some cases, he p o essional monopoly on expe ise emains impo an , he school also needs o encou age i s eache s and s uden s o c oss bounda ies be ween he school and wo kplace (Tuomi-G öhn e al. 2003). S uden s may ac as c ucial change agen s who ca y, ansla e and help o implemen new ideas be ween he educa ional ins i u ion and he wo kplace (Enges öm 2011). The e is a need o challenge he ole o ac o s such as age and s a us in de ining he concep o expe (e.g.Fulle and Unwin 2004) in o de o suppo ecip ocal lea ning. A company’s app oach o he de elopmen o indi idual expe ise is likely o be in lu- enced by a ange o ac o s, including he p oduc ma ke in which i is loca ed, as well as he o ganiza ion o he wo k and he dis ibu ion o skills (Fulle and Unwin 2004). I companies ail o map he ange o skills o be co e ed, lea ning isks becoming haphaz- a d and is mo e likely o be d i en by he need o p ese e company p oduc i i y (Chan 2014; Fulle and Unwin 2004; Smi h 2000). Guidance should be ecognized as an impo - an ask o be ca ied ou a he wo kplace. When he p ocesses o guidance in he wo k communi y become anspa en , bo h lea ne s and o he membe s o he wo k commu- ni y become mo e awa e o he objec i es o VET s uden s’ wo kplace lea ning, he eby suppo ing he alloca ion o adequa e esou ces o guidance.A s uc u ed aining p o- g am makes he aining objec i es mo e anspa en o bo h he lea ne and he wo k communi y. F om a me hodological pe spec i e, e iewed a icles used in mos cases basic quali- a i e (e.g., con en analysis) and quan i a i e (desc ip i e s a is ics) analysis me hods. Only 11 a icles con ained bo h explana ion and jus i ica ion o selec ed me hodologi- cal app oach and explici desc ip ion o da a analysis. In p ac ice his means ha only hese s udies could be p ope ly eplica ed in he u u e. Only eigh a icles had a sec ion Page 20 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 abou c i ical examina ion o he me hod(s) and limi a ions o he s udy. This is qui e su p ising, as all he e iewed a icles we e published in pee - e iewed jou nals. G oup le el da a collec ion was applied in eigh a icles, bu we ound e y li le discussion abou a ionale o choosing such app oach and ela ed alidi y issues (see, e.g., Chioncel e al. 2003). Al hough quan i a i e s udies in his e iew we e based on c oss-sec ional design, we we e deligh ed o see ha mos o he quali a i e a icles included compo- nen s o longi udinal design (da a collec ion a ied om 1mon h o 4yea s). Only one s udy con ained in e en ion, bu ha was non-con olled ( e ospec i e). To conclude, u u e s udies should pay mo e a en ion o me hodological issues (clea a gumen a- ion why a ce ain design and ela ed analysis me hods we e chosen; de ailed desc ip- ion o pa icipan s, p ocedu e and analyses) in o de o minimise bias in esul s and ecommenda ions. Limi a ions We wan o acknowledge ha , like all s udies, his s udy has ce ain limi a ions. Fi s , he numbe o a icles ela ed o wo kplace guidance in he con ex o oca ional educa ion u ned ou o be su p isingly small. S udies ocusing p ima ily on guidance we e a e, and in many o he s udies selec ed o his e iew, guidance was some hing obse ed alongside o he hings, bu was no he main ocus. Howe e , he cumula i e esul s ne e heless sugges , ha we managed o cap u e he main hemes ela ed o wo k- place guidance in he li e a u e. Second, because he numbe o o iginal a icles ha i he inclusion/exclusion c i e ia was so small, we included hem all in o de o ob ain e sa ile in o ma ion abou ou opic. Thus, i is wo h no ing ha he o iginal a icles hemsel es ha e ce ain limi a ions. In mos s udies, he sample size was ela i ely small, which is no unusual o quali a i e in e iews and case s udies, which many o hese s udies ep esen . Al hough a icles in es iga ed many in e es ing aspec s o wo kplace guidance, me hodological obus ness was no in all cases clea ly opened o a eade ; we ound lack o de ail in pa icipan in o ma ion, me hodological choices and also how he analyses we e conduc ed. This clea ly limi ed ou abili y o judge impo ance and alid- i y o he esul s and p ac ical ecommenda ions. Thi d, mos o he s udies ea u ed in his pape ailed ei he o ake in o accoun he speci ic ea u es o di e en oca ional ields o o compa e he guidance a o ded o lea ne s in he di e en lea ning en i- onmen s o speci ic oca ions. Gi en he di e ences no ed be ween di e en ields o oca ional educa ion (e.g. social and heal h ca e s. echnology), gene alizing he esul s om one ield o ano he may be ques ionable (Vi anen e al. 2014). Consequen ly, we ecommend de o ing mo e esea ch o compa e how hese di e en ield-speci ic lea n- ing en i onmen s a ec he guidance p o ided o lea ne s. Au ho s’ con ibu ions All au ho s pa icipa ed in design o he s udy and w i ing o he esea ch epo . All au ho s ead and app o ed he inal manusc ip . Au ho de ails 1 School o Educa ion, Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland. 2 Indus ial In o ma ion Managemen Labo a o y, Tampe e Uni e si y o Technology, Tampe e, Finland. 3 Ins i u e o Beha iou al Sciences, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. Acknowledgemen s None. Page 21 o 22 Mikkonen e al. Empi ical Res Voc Ed T ain (2017) 9:9 Compe ing in e es s The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no compe ing in e es s. 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