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Social Media + Socie y
Janua y-Ma ch 2017: 1 –12
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A icle
The In e ne plays a cen al ole in he li es o young people
h ough i s p o ision o a ious me hods o ela ional main-
enance and in e ac i e access. The social li es o hese use s
is inc easingly media ed by social ne wo king si es (SNS)
(Völlink, Bolman, Dehue, & Jacobs, 2013) h ough ools
p o ided in ha se ing, allowing o a highe deg ee o sel -
ne wo king (Da idson & Ma ellozzo, 2013; Lehdon i a &
Räsänen, 2011). SNS use is a widesp ead phenomenon,
accoun ing o app oxima ely 25% o ime spen online, wi h
80% o In e ne use s epo ing egula SNS use (Panek,
Na dis, & Kon a h, 2013). No ably, young people con inue
o be he mos signi ican consume s o he In e ne in i s
ela ional o ms h ough SNS (Chew, LaRose, S ein ield, &
Velasquez, 2011). In his se ing, he scope o po en ial new
ela ional pa ne s inc eases due o he g owing popula i y o
SNS use and ease o access o hose use s (Hol z & Appel,
2011; Jones, Mi chell, & Finkelho , 2011).
Howe e , he enhancemen s o online in e ac ion
h ough SNS use can be applied o bo h posi i e and nega-
i e beha io s as he ease o access o o he s online can be
aken ad an age o in bo h bene icial and ha m ul ways.
Inc eased oppo uni ies b ing wi h hem inc eased isks
(Li ings one & B ake, 2010), and hose isks, such as dam-
aging e ec s h ough online ha assmen o abuse
(Li ings one, Haddon, Gö zig, & Óla sson, 2011), a e ais-
ing conce ns (Li ings one & Gö zig, 2014; Li ings one &
Helspe , 2010). In pa icula , he complex social se ing o
SNS b ings wi h i he abili y o con ol he dep h o in e -
ac ion in e ms o us , in imacy, and iden i iabili y (Panek
e al., 2013). This en i onmen al complexi y ansla es o
young people ope a ing wi h a nuanced classi ica ion o
“ iends” in he SNS se ing, wi h some social ies kep
s onge han o he s (Li ings one, 2008). Howe e ,
al hough in e ac ing pa ne s can be e ec i ely managed,
690013SMSXXX10.1177/2056305117690013Social Media + Socie yKeipi e al.
esea ch-a icle2017
1Uni e si y o Tu ku, Finland
2Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland
Co esponding Au ho :
Teo Keipi, Depa men o Social Resea ch, Uni e si y o Tu ku, 20014
Tu ku, Finland.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Social Tie S eng h and Online
Vic imiza ion: An Analysis o Young
People Aged 15–30 Yea s in Fou Na ions
Teo Keipi1, Ma kus Kaakinen2, A e Oksanen2,
and Pekka Räsänen1
Abs ac
Online in e ac ion h ough he use o social ne wo king si es (SNS) con inues o be a signi ican componen o he socializa ion
o young people oday, ye li le esea ch exis s owa d linking a ious ela ional o ms o p e alen and much-s udied online
isks c oss-na ionally. This a icle p o ides a link be ween ela ional dynamics and online isks iden i ied in p e ious esea ch
owa d a new pe spec i e on how social ie s eng h is ela ed o expe iences o ha e ic imiza ion and ha assmen online. The
analysis is based on su ey da a o Finnish (n = 555), Ame ican (n = 1033), Ge man (n = 978), and B i ish (n = 999) young people
aged 15–30 yea s. Va iables, including age, gende , main ac i i y, SNS use, quan i y, and ex en o online and o line social
ne wo ks including social ie s eng h and online communi y iden i ica ion, we e analyzed owa d inding hei associa ions
wi h online ha e ic imiza ion and ha assmen . Resul s showed ha expe iences o ha e ic imiza ion and ha assmen we e
simila c oss-na ionally and ha hose who we e pe sonally ha assed online also epo ed high SNS ac i i y. Fu he mo e, no
associa ion was ound be ween social ne wo k size and nega i e expe iences. No able c oss-na ional di e ences we e also
de ec ed in he esul s. Findings emphasize he impo ance o unde s anding a iables os e ing online isks o young people
while p o iding a new pe spec i e on wha aspec s o social li e may help nega e nega i e e ec s online.
Keywo ds
In e ne , young people, social ne wo king, ic imiza ion, social ies
2 Social Media + Socie y
isks o ic imiza ion h ough ha assmen o bullying
emain p e alen (By ne & Lee, 2011).
No ably, he s udy o he ela ionship be ween social ie
s eng h and ic imiza ion online is qui e new. The e exis s a
s ong base o esea ch o he a ious o ms and e ec s o
ic imiza ion in e ms o ha assmen and bullying among
young people online oday (e.g., Aboujaoude, Sa age,
S a ce ic, & Salame, 2015; Näsi e al., 2014; Seile &
Na a o, 2014; Wal a e & Hei man, 2011). Howe e , he
c oss-na ional s udy o how hose nega i e expe iences a e
ela ed o o ms o social ie s eng h a ailable h ough SNS
and he o line se ing and in e ms o a ge ed ha e ic im-
iza ion emains sca ce. As such, his s udy analyzes he asso-
cia ion be ween social ie s eng h and expe iences o
ic imiza ion in wo p ima y o ms in a c oss-na ional con-
ex , namely, bo h ha assmen and ha e ic imiza ion.
Fu he mo e, de ini ions o wha cons i u es online ha e
ic imiza ion and ha assmen ha e no been s anda dized,
and as such, he e exis s oom o al e na i e in e p e a ions.
On one hand, online ha e is gene ally de ined as ma e ial
ha deg ades o h ea ens speci ic social g oups o indi idu-
als in a acis o xenophobic manne (Council o Eu ope,
2015; Foxman & Wol , 2013; Gaglia done, Gal, Al es, &
Ma inez, 2015; Näsi e al., 2014; Oksanen, Hawdon,
Holke i, Näsi, & Räsänen, 2014; Williams & Bu nap, 2016).
He e, ha e ic imiza ion e e s o expe iences o being
pe sonally a ge ed by such con en online. Ha assmen ic-
imiza ion, on he o he hand, e e s o expe iences o being
di ec ly a ge ed online by b oade social abuse o mis ep e-
sen a ion which esemble o ms o o line pee ic imiza ion,
such as bullying, ha can be mo i a ed by ac o s o he han
acism o xenophobia (Jones, Mi chell, & Finkelho , 2013;
Näsi e al., 2014; P iebe & S edin, 2012; Yba a & Mi chell,
2004).
The e a e bo h di e ences and simila i ies in he scope o
online ha e and ha assmen ic imiza ion, wi h ha e ic im-
iza ion being a mo e speci ic o m o ic imiza ion mo i a-
ion compa ed o he mo i a ions ha can d i e ha assmen .
When s udied oge he , hese wo o e be e analy ical ools
o examining online ic imiza ion due o encompassing
bo h gene al and speci ic o ms o ic imiza ion used in pas
esea ch. Howe e , we belie e ha he di e ences be ween
he wo concep s (e.g., he xenophobic elemen o he online
ha e ic imiza ion) can only be p ope ly add essed when
hey a e examined as sepa a e measu es in empi ical analy-
sis. Thus, we aim o s eng hen pas wo k by compa ing
exposu e o each sepa a ely. We measu e hese wo o ms o
ic imiza ion using i ems on pe sonal exposu e o online
ha e and pe sonal expe iences o online ha assmen .
Resea ch has ecen ly been ca ied ou conce ning he
ela ionship be ween cybe bullying and he s eng h o social
ies h ough analyses o social ne wo ks (Fes l & Quand ,
2013; Wegge, Vandebosch, & Egge mon , 2014; Wegge,
Vandebosch, Egge mon , & Wal a e, 2015). This pas
esea ch has been aluable in i s social ne wo k analysis
app oach, whe e links ha e been disco e ed be ween how
ela ional ecip oci y and closeness a e ela ed o he likeli-
hood o ha assmen ic imiza ion online (DeSme e al.,
2014). He e, we con inue he use o he heo e ical ame-
wo k o social ies (Be kowi z, 1982; G ano e e , 1973) in
o de o de i e a po en ially signi ican pe spec i e in a
c oss-na ional con ex while also including he a iable o
ha e ic imiza ion. The s eng h o social ies he e is based
on an assessmen o he s eng h o iden i ica ion wi h bo h
online communi ies and o line iends in addi ion o he
scale o pe sonal social ne wo ks online and o line. As such,
social ies a e used o desc ibe he da a owa d a deepe look
in o links be ween ela ional dynamics and ic imiza ion. We
will add ess he assump ions based on he social ies app oach
by u ilizing compa able c oss-sec ional da a om he Uni ed
S a es, Finland, Ge many, and Uni ed Kingdom. The analy-
sis will also include con ol a iables o age, gende , main
ac i i y in e ms o economic ac i i y, li ing si ua ion, o line
iendships, and le el o SNS ac i i y.
This s udy will add a new compa a i e pe spec i e o he
signi ican a ea o online ic imiza ion h ough a discussion o
how he ela ional aspec s o one’s social ies a ec he likeli-
hood o nega i e expe iences on he In e ne in e ms o bo h
ha assmen and ha e ic imiza ion. Fu he mo e, as in o ma-
ion and communica ion echnology (ICT) use has become
inc easingly global among young people, a seconda y goal
he e is o assess associa ed a iables h ough c oss-na ional
compa ison in o de o highligh a eas o simila i y and di e -
ence, owa d a di ec iden i ica ion o wide-scale online isk
phenomena om mo e localized e ec s. No ably, p e ious
signi ican s udies on young people’s In e ne use ha e ocused
p ima ily on child en and adolescen s (e.g., Li ings one e al.,
2011) unde he age o 16. This s udy ocuses on la e adoles-
cen s (15–18) and eme ging adul s (up o age 30) as hese wo
age phases we e a ge ed in he da a collec ion. This use
g oup ep esen s he highes use demog aphic o In e ne con-
sump ion (Chew e al., 2011; Panek e al., 2013) along wi h a
di e se se o expe iences om which o ex ac da a. Du ing
his pe iod, young people ace apid li e e en s and ins abili y
(A ne , 2000) and he incidence o ic imiza ion bo h online
and o line inc eases (Hinduja & Pa chin, 2010; Sou ande
e al., 2010).
Social Ne wo king and Vic imiza ion
Expe iences Online
The desi e o e ec i e communica ion and socializa ion is
a cen al d i ing o ce in he popula i y o SNS use among
young people oday, as he au onomy b ough abou by he
enhanced capaci y o social ne wo k c ea ion empowe s
new o ms o sel -de e mina ion (Hol z & Appel, 2011;
Jones e al., 2011; Wang & S e anone, 2013). No ably,
young people aged 15–30 a e he mos p o icien use s o
hese social ools online ac oss Eu ope (Lehdon i a &
Räsänen, 2011). Pe sonal exp ession and access o ideal
Keipi e al. 3
con ac s inc ease he appeal o SNS use o young people
(Me chan , 2012), as alida ion, social suppo , o simply
en e ainmen is sough o some deg ee (Li ings one, 2008).
Fu he mo e, he ease o access o o he SNS use s allows
o he c ea ion o cus omized social ne wo ks made up
o bo h in ima e and dis an ela ionships (Da idson &
Ma ellozzo, 2013).
A signi ican componen o he online socializa ion o
young people ela ed o SNS use is ha o online g oup iden-
i ica ion, whe e ela ionships a e o med a ound common
in e es s o sha ed iden i y cha ac e is ics. Young people a e
d awn o a ious o ms o online communi y by hei p o i-
sion o ein o cing mechanisms ela ed o iden i y and
exp essional s eng hening (Lehdon i a & Räsänen, 2011).
Tied o his is he desi e o pee con i ma ion among young
use s, whe e he online g oup can p o ide aluable encou -
agemen owa d de elopmen al goals (Panek e al., 2013).
Those use s who a e mo e au onomous end o be less depen-
den upon he bene i s o online g oup iden i ica ion, a ind-
ing e lec ed in he o line se ing as well (Me chan , 2012).
Fu he mo e, hose p e e ing a ela i e eedom om social
cons ain s ela ed o ace- o- ace in e ac ion a e mo e likely
o seek ou he bene i s o online communi ies, enhancing
iden i ica ion h ough he ools exclusi ely a ailable on he
In e ne (Keipi e al., 2014). He e, he online en i onmen
can acili a e in e ac ion and social ie o ma ion ha migh
no o he wise occu due o mechanisms in ol ing modi ica-
ion o he ex en o sel -p esen a ion, iden i iabili y, and is-
ibili y. Fo some, a deg ee o anonymi y can be a socially
encou aging ool.
Despi e hese bene i s o SNS, In e ne use can also
in ol e a ious isks. Pas esea ch has ocused on hese
isks in he a eas o ic imiza ion o ha assmen and ha e
(Näsi e al., 2014; Oksanen e al., 2014; Sou ande e al.,
2010). As young people a e mos ac i e in he ela ional
componen s o he In e ne , hey na u ally ace po en ial isk
in pu suing he ul illmen o social needs online (Lam,
Cheng, & Liu, 2013; Landoll, La G eca, & Lai, 2013;
Schneide , O’Donnell, S ue e, & Coul e , 2012). As such,
he con inual use o In e ne -based in e ac ion is ela ed o an
inc ease in he likelihood o expe iencing a ious o ms o
unwan ed and po en ially damaging expe iences (Helweg-
La sen, Schu i, & La sen, 2012), especially among younge
and mo e inexpe ienced use s (Keipi & Oksanen, 2014;
Oksanen & Keipi, 2013). The damaging aspec o SNS use in
ocus he e is online in e ac i e abuse made up o h ea s and
o he o ms o nega i e beha io ca ied ou in a compu e -
media ed ashion whe e he agg esso seeks o ha m a use
who is a a de ensi e disad an age (By ne & Lee, 2011; Lam
e al., 2013).
Vic imiza ion online ca ies unique cha ac e is ics due o
sepa a ion in e ms o physical p esence and sha ed loca ion.
Elec onic communica ion also allows o agg esso s o
main ain dis ance om he ic im h ough a ious o ms o
anonymi y in addi ion o p o iding ools owa d accessing a
wide audience han would o he wise be a ailable o line
(Keipi & Oksanen, 2014; Tokunaga, 2010). In addi ion, he
isk o online ic imiza ion is dependen on an indi idual’s
online ac i i ies and in e ac ions (Reyns, Henson, & Fishe ,
2011). The a ious o ms o online agg ession ha e been
linked o signi ican psychological ha m in ic ims h ough
inc eases in emo ional dis ess, anxie y, insecu i y, and
dep ession (Bake & Tan ikulu, 2010; Ho & Mi chell,
2009; Ju onen & G oss, 2008; Tynes & Giang, 2009). As
such, online ic imiza ion ca ies equi alen e ec s com-
pa ed o o line cases (Sou ande e al., 2010).
Online In e ac ion as Ca ego ized by
Social Tie Theo y
As he ela ional aspec s ele an o a discussion o isks and
bene i s o SNS use in ol e a complex se o in e ac ional
modes and le els o in imacy and expec a ion (Keipi &
Oksanen, 2014; Li ings one, 2008), i becomes use ul o ca -
ego ize social ies in o de o mo e e ec i ely app oach he
assessmen o a ious e ec s he ein. Fu he mo e, as he
ela ionship be ween he s eng h o social ies and online
ic imiza ion is cen al he e, a ela ional delinea ion becomes
necessa y. The ela ionship-based amewo k o s ong and
weak social ies (G ano e e , 1973; Sp oull & Kiesle , 1991;
Wellman e al., 1996) p o ides a bene icial pe spec i e om
which o app oach SNS use among young people in addi ion
o he social sphe e exis ing o line.
He e, a social ie is de ined as he ela ionship exis ing
be ween wo o mo e in e ac ing pa ne s whose ela ionship
in ol es some sha ing o exchanging o esou ces ha ing o
do wi h in o ma ion o social suppo (Sub ahmanyam &
Lin, 2007). The deg ee o ecip oci y, du a ion o he ela-
ionship, le el o in imacy, and equency o con ac all con-
ibu e o he de e mina ion o he s eng h o a social ie
(Be kowi z, 1982; G ano e e , 1973). Young people na i-
ga e online wi h a combina ion o bo h s ong and weak ies
con inually, h ough a ious o ms o in e ac ion and in i-
macy (Ahn, 2012)
The de e mina ion o a social ie as s ong o weak is
dependen on a numbe o cha ac e is ics. Na ow ocus,
supe iciali y, and in equen con ac a e cha ac e is ics o
weak ies, which do no p o ide any signi ican social sup-
po p esen in ela ionships buil upon some le el o in i-
macy (Wellman e al., 1996). These weak ies a e
ins umen al, in ha in e ac ing pa ne s a e iewed as a
means o need ul illmen a he han some de e minan
based on ecip oci y (G ano e e , 1973). On he con a y,
s ong ies a e made up o mu ual in e es and equen in e -
ac ion on a long- e m imeline (Ga on, Hay ho n hwai e, &
Wellman, 1997). As such, he In e ne can os e bo h o ms
o social ies h ough enhancemen s o communica ion and
access o o he s (Panek e al., 2013). He e, young people use
social ools online o main ain bo h s ong ies al eady exis -
ing o line and hose c ea ed online in addi ion o aking
4 Social Media + Socie y
ad an age o he scope o SNS pa ne s o de elop new
weak ies on a desi ed scale (Da idson & Ma ellozzo,
2013; Keipi & Oksanen, 2014). As such, hese online ies
can be gene alized in o ou ca ego ies, namely, o line
s ong ies main ained online, s ong ies c ea ed and main-
ained online, o line weak ies main ained online, and weak
ies c ea ed and main ained online.
Recen esea ch has explo ed he ela ionship be ween
ha assmen ic imiza ion and he s eng h o social ies h ough
social ne wo k analysis. He e, social ies we e cen al in he
ca ego iza ion o he likelihood o ha assmen ic imiza ion
wi hin he social hie a chy o school social ne wo ks; o pa -
icula impo ance we e popula i y and he balance be ween
indi idual commi men s o a ela ionship. (Fes l & Quand ,
2013; Wegge e al., 2014, 2015). I was ound ha ela ional
ecip oci y and closeness a e ela ed o he likelihood o
ic imiza ion h ough ha assmen online. Fu he mo e, pas
esea ch has shown ha s ong ies a e ela ed o lessened
ic imiza ion expe ience bo h online and o line (Adams,
Bukowski, & Bagwell, 2005; Bollme , Milich, Ha is, &
Ma as, 2005; DeSme e al., 2014). Finally, in e ms o ins u-
men al ies, hose indi iduals ha ing a la ge ne wo k o weak
social ies ha e been shown o be mo e likely o expe ience
ha assmen ic imiza ion online (Bas iaensens e al., 2014;
Wegge e al., 2014).
Valuable esea ch has been ca ied ou conce ning he
s udy o social ne wo ks’ social ie s eng h and ha assmen
ic imiza ion. Howe e , hose s udies we e ocused on pa -
icipan s who we e known o one ano he bo h online and
o line, wi h clea ca ego iza ions o social hie a chy and
popula i y, o example. Fu he mo e, he a iable o ha e ic-
imiza ion has no been linked o social ie e ec s. As such,
his s udy p o ides a new poin o social ie s eng h compa i-
son be ween hose online and o line and hei associa ions
wi h bo h ha assmen and ha e ic imiza ion. In addi ion, his
s udy p o ides a wide con ex wi h which o es hese p e i-
ous indings ca ied ou in a localized se ing.
In e ms o he in e na ional se ing o he s udy, he
na ions in ol ed in his s udy a e global leade s in ICT use,
wi h In e ne use pene a ion a es anging om 84% in
Ge many o 91.5% in Finland (In e ne Wo ld S a s, 2015).
While a ious online isks aced by young people ha e
been s udied c oss-na ionally (e.g., Du kee e al., 2012;
Li ings one e al., 2011; O ega e al., 2012), a compa ison
o how online and o line ie s eng hs associa e wi h hose
isks emains unexplo ed. Thus, he c oss-na ional compa i-
son he e allows o a no el look in o how young people in
na ions leading in ICT use compa e o one ano he in e ms
o social ie s eng h and ic imiza ion in addi ion o wha
isks a e mos widely expe ienced.
Resea ch Ques ions and Hypo heses
Bo h he a ious indings o SNS use among young people
and he amewo k o s ong and weak social ies p esen ed
p o ide a baseline om which o app oach he answe ing o
he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
1. How does social ie s eng h online and o line asso-
cia e wi h expe iences o ha e ic imiza ion and
ha assmen online in he Uni ed S a es, Finland,
Ge many, and Uni ed Kingdom?
2. Do socio-demog aphic ac o s o age, gende , main
ac i i y, le el o SNS ac i i y, and numbe o online
and o line iends associa e wi h ha e ic imiza ion
and ha assmen online?
3. How do de e mined associa ions wi h ha e ic imiza-
ion compa e o hose o ha assmen expe iences?
Gi en p e ious esea ch o SNS use among young people
and he links be ween la ge weak social ie ne wo ks and ic-
imiza ion (Bas iaensens e al., 2014; Wegge e al., 2014), we
hypo hesize ha inc easing ela ional oppo uni ies will
inc ease isks. Namely, we expec ha ha ing a la ge ne -
wo k o iends online will be posi i ely ela ed o ha ing
expe ienced ic imiza ion. Fu he mo e, based on p e ious
indings on he links be ween indi iduals who ha e expe i-
enced ic imiza ion and being pa icula ly ac i e in seeking
alida ion h ough In e ne -based g oups (e.g., Hol z &
Appel, 2011; Li ings one e al., 2011), we expec ha hose
use s who s ongly iden i y wi h online communi ies will be
mo e likely o ha e expe ienced ha e ic imiza ion o ha ass-
men as well. Howe e , his inding may be coun e ac ed by
he p o ec i e e ec o s ong ies agains online ha assmen
de e mined by pas esea ch (DeSme e al., 2014). We also
an icipa e ha esponden age will be nega i ely ela ed o
expe iences o ic imiza ion due o p e ious indings on he
posi i e ela ionship be ween isk and use nai e é.
Me hod
Pa icipan s
This s udy is based on wo da ase s o online su ey esponses
om ou coun ies. Finnish (n = 555) and Ame ican (n = 1,033)
samples we e collec ed in sp ing 2013, while da a om he
Uni ed Kingdom (n = 999) and Ge many (n = 978) we e col-
lec ed in sp ing 2014. All esponden s we e young people aged
15–30. Su ey Sample In e na ional (SSI) ec ui ed he panel
membe s h ough andom digi dialing, banne ads, and o he
pe mission-based echniques. Email in i a ions we e sen o a
sample o panel membe s s a i ied o mi o he Finnish and
US popula ion aged 15–30 on age, gende , oca ion, and li -
ing si ua ion. Ou sample quo a was na ionally ep esen a i e
on se e al impo an demog aphic ac o s, including age, gen-
de , and egion in all ou coun ies (see Näsi, Räsänen,
Hawdon, Holke i, & Oksanen, 2015). The su ey layou was
op imized o bo h compu e s and mobile de ices and included
socio-demog aphic a iables in addi ion o ques ions conce n-
ing online ac i i y and a ious isks.
Keipi e al. 5
Measu es
Pa icipan s we e asked abou hei expe iences o ic imiza-
ion o online ha e and online ha assmen . Independen a i-
ables included deg ee o iden i ica ion wi h online and
o line communi ies, size o bo h online and o line social
ne wo ks, le el o SNS ac i i y, age, gende , economic ac i -
i y, esidence, and li ing si ua ion. Desc ip i e s a is ics o
all dependen and independen a iables by coun y a e gi en
in Table 1.
Vic imiza ion o online ha e was measu ed wi h he
ques ion, “I ha e pe sonally been he a ge o ha e ul o
deg ading ma e ial online,” wi h esponse op ions “yes” and
“no.” To measu e ic imiza ion o online ha assmen , espon-
den s we e asked, “In you opinion, ha e you been a a ge o
ha assmen online, o example, whe e people ha e sp ead
p i a e o g oundless in o ma ion abou you o sha ed pic-
u es o you wi hou you pe mission?” Also his a iable
had wo esponse op ions (“yes” and “no”). Bo h o he ques-
ions we e o mula ed acco ding o p e ious s udies on
online ha e (Douglas, 2007) and online ha assmen (Bossle ,
Hol , & May, 2012; Jones e al., 2011). As such, hese wo
ques ions oge he measu e di e en aspec s o online ic-
imiza ion ha ha e been analyzed in p e ious esea ch. In
ou samples, he e was only a mode a e co ela ion be ween
hese wo a iables (Spea man’s co ela ion coe icien s
anging om .15 o .55 in di e en coun ies) indica ing di -
e en dimensions o online ic imiza ion.
The p ima y independen a iables included measu es con-
ce ning pe cei ed s eng h o social ies. Iden i ica ions wi h
online and o line g oups we e measu ed wi h he ques ion,
“How close do you eel o he ollowing g oups?” ollowed by
a lis o di e en g oups and op ions anging om 1 (no a all)
o 5 ( e y). Online iden i ica ion was measu ed wi h a single
i em (“some online communi y?”). O line iden i ica ion was
measu ed by combining h ee di e en i ems conce ning
esponden s’ iden i ica ion o amily, iends, and school o
wo k communi ies. The h ee-i em composi e a iable had an
accep able in e nal consis ency (α = .69). As such, esponden s
assessed he s eng h o hei ies o bo h ca ego ies.
The size o o line social ne wo ks was add essed wi h he
ques ion, “How many iends do you ha e wi h whom you
can discuss in ima e and pe sonal ma e s ace o ace?” This
measu e was dicho omized in o 0–19 and 20 o mo e (indi-
ca ing s ong o line ies). Simila ly, we also asked abou he
size o esponden s’ online ne wo ks wi h he ques ion, “How
many iends do you ha e on Facebook?” This measu e was
ca ego ized in o 0–499 and 500 o mo e (see Table 1). The
dicho omiza ion o bo h o line iends and Facebook iends
was done in o de o c ea e a compa ison o o line and
online ne wo ks along wi h he added ocus o explo ing
social ie s eng h in bo h social en i onmen s.
Table 1. Desc ip i e S a is ics by Coun y.
Disc e e a iables To al Finland Uni ed S a es Ge many Uni ed
Kingdom
n(%) n(%) n(%) n(%) n(%)
Vic imiza ion o online ha e No 3183 89.5 496 89.5 868 84.2 936 96.2 883 88.4
Yes 374 10.5 58 10.5 163 15.8 37 3.8 116 11.6
Vic imiza ion o online
ha assmen
No 2897 82.7 431 80.9 831 83.1 786 80.8 849 85.0
Yes 608 17.4 102 19.1 169 16.9 187 19.2 150 15.0
Sex Male 1782 50.1 277 50.0 512 49.7 484 49.7 509 51.0
Female 1775 49.9 277 50.0 519 50.3 489 50.23 490 49.1
Residence Ci y 1846 52.0 282 51.4 570 55.3 456 46.9 538 53.9
O he 1706 48.0 267 48.6 461 44.7 517 53.1 461 46.2
Li ing wi h pa en s No 2128 59.8 379 68.4 598 58.0 602 61.9 549 55.0
Yes 1429 40.2 175 31.6 433 42.0 371 38.1 450 45.1
Economic ac i i y Employed o
s uden
2882 81.0 426 76.9 819 79.4 814 83.7 823 82.4
O he 675 19.0 128 23.1 212 20.6 159 16.3 176 17.6
F iends o line 0–19 2759 78.6 456 85.6 747 74.4 777 79.9 779 78.0
Mo e 750 21.4 77 14.5 257 25.6 196 20.1 220 22.0
F iends in Facebook 0–499 2952 84.1 483 90.5 789 78.6 881 90.5 799 80.0
Mo e 558 15.9 51 9.6 215 21.4 92 9.5 200 20.0
Con inuous a iables Scale M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Age 15–30 23.07 4.08 22.59 4.21 23.09 4.04 23.21 3.97 23.18 4.14
O line iden i ica ion 1–5 3.64 0.91 3.60 0.94 3.73 0.92 3.72 0.85 3.50 0.91
Online iden i ica ion 1–5 2.42 1.17 2.74 1.16 2.50 1.20 2.32 1.08 2.26 1.20
SNS ac i i y 0–21 6.05 3.01 6.22 2.77 6.22 3.14 5.55 2.79 6.27 3.15
SD: s anda d de ia ion; SNS: social ne wo king si e.

6 Social Media + Socie y
SNS ac i i y o he esponden s was con olled o in he
analysis. The esponden s we e gi en a lis o he 21 mos
equen ly used online pla o ms and se ices (e.g., Facebook,
YouTube, Twi e , Tumbl , Ins ag am, blogs, discussion
o ums) and we e asked abou which online se ices hey
ha e used. A composi e a iable measu ing SNS ac i i y was
c ea ed by summing up he numbe o se ices, he e u ilized
as a con inuous a iable in he analysis.
Along wi h age and sex, esidence (be ween ci y and
o he ), li ing si ua ion, and economic ac i i y we e used as
socio-demog aphic a iables con olling o aspec s o social
con ex . The a iable indica ing whe he he esponden
li ed in a ci y o ou side a ci y was cons uc ed on he basis
o a su ey i em in which esponden s we e asked o desc ibe
he a ea hey we e cu en ly li ing in om a lis o op ions
( anging om less densely popula ed coun yside o capi al
a ea). The a iable was dicho omized o indica e whe he
esponden s li ed in a ci y (mo e han 100,000 esiden s) o
no . Li ing si ua ion o he esponden was con olled o by
elying on in o ma ion conce ning whe he he esponden
li ed a home wi h pa en s o no (li ing wi h pa en was
coded as 1 and o he a angemen s as 0). Economic ac i i y
was based on a su ey i em inqui ing abou esponden s’
main economic ac i i y, which was con olled o by an indi-
ca ion o employed, ull- ime s uden o o he . In he analy-
sis, we ea his a iable as dicho omous (be ween employed/
s uden o o he ).
Analy ical Techniques
The explana o y analyses a e based on bina y logi models,
which we un sepa a ely o each coun y sample in o de o
p o ide c oss-na ional poin s o compa ison. Ou esul s a e
epo ed using ma ginal e ec s coe icien s (wi h s anda d
e o s) o each independen a iable in he models. The ma -
ginal e ec s illus a e how much he dependen a iable, in
ou case he p obabili y o being in he ca ego y epo ing
ha e ic imiza ion/ha assmen , is expec ed o inc ease o
dec ease o a uni change in he explana o y a iables.
Gi en ha he e ec size will di e ac oss all independen
a iables in he models, we choose o epo a e age ma -
ginal e ec s (AMEs). Gene ally, AMEs eliably summa ize
he e ec size ac oss obse a ions in he sample (Mo gan &
Winship, 2014). In addi ion, we also epo model i (log-
likelihoods) o each model.
Resul s
The esul s o ou desc ip i e analysis, p esen ed in Table 1,
show ha he e is subs an ial c oss-na ional a ia ion in he
case o bo h online ha e and online ha assmen ic imiza ion
expe iences. The Uni ed S a es showed he highes p opo -
ion o online ha e ic imiza ion, wi h 15.8% o esponden s
ha ing had such expe iences. Ge many showed he lowes
wi h only 3.8% ha ing been a ge ed by ha e ul ma e ial
online, wi h Finland (10.5%) and he Uni ed Kingdom
(11.6%) alling in be ween. On he con a y, Ge many
(19.2%) oge he wi h Finland (19.1%) had he highes p o-
po ion o online ha assmen expe iences ollowed by he
Uni ed S a es (16.9%) and he Uni ed Kingdom (15.0%).
Expe iences o online ha assmen we e mo e common han
ic imiza ion h ough online ha e in all samples.
In addi ion o ic imiza ion expe iences, he e a e c oss-
na ional di e ences p esen in he case o ou measu es o
social ie s eng h and size o social ne wo ks. The mean o
o line g oup iden i ica ion was highes in he Uni ed S a es
(mean = 3.73) ollowed by Ge many (mean = 3.72), Finland
(mean = 3.6), and he Uni ed Kingdom (mean = 3.5). In he
case o online g oup iden i ica ion, he coun y a e age was
highes in Finland (mean = 2.74) ollowed by he Uni ed
S a es (mean = 2.50), Ge many (mean = 2.32), and he Uni ed
Kingdom (mean = 2.26). In gene al, he measu es o iden i i-
ca ion wi h o line g oups we e highe han hose wi h online
g oups. The p opo ion o esponden s ha ing a leas 20
good iends (indica ing o line s ong ies) was 25.6% in he
Uni ed S a es and 14.5% in Finland, wi h he Uni ed
Kingdom (22%) and Ge many (20.1%) alling in be ween.
Acco dingly, he Uni ed S a es had had he highes p opo -
ion (21.4%) o esponden s ha ing a leas 500 Facebook
iends ollowed by he Uni ed Kingdom (20%) and hen
Finland (9.6%) and Ge many (9.5%).
In all o ou samples, hal o he esponden s we e emale
and he a e age age was 23 yea s. B i ish esponden s we e
he mos ac i e SNS use s ollowed by he Ame icans, Finns,
and inally Ge mans. Mo e han hal o he esponden s li ed
in a capi al o big ci y a ea in he Uni ed S a es, Uni ed
Kingdom, and Finland, while in Ge many he p opo ion was
a ound 47%. In he Uni ed Kingdom, 45.1% o esponden s
we e li ing wi h hei pa en (s) when he p opo ion was
42.0% in he Uni ed S a es, 38.1% in Ge many, and 31.6% in
Finland. The p opo ion o esponden s no pa icipa ing in
educa ion o employmen was highes in Finland (23.1%)
and lowes in Ge many (16.3%), he Uni ed S a es (20.6%)
and Uni ed Kingdom (17.6%) alling in be ween.
The aim o he explana o y analysis was o examine
whe he social ie measu es and o he beha io al and socio-
demog aphic con ol a iables a e associa ed wi h ha e-
ma e ial exposu e simila ly in each coun y. Ou analysis
s a ed om ic imiza ion o online ha e. Table 2 shows he
indings om he explana o y logi models o he Uni ed
S a es, Ge many, Uni ed Kingdom, and Finland. The iden-
i ica ion o o line g oups had a signi ican nega i e asso-
cia ion wi h online ha e ic imiza ion in all o ou samples.
The e ec o o line iden i ica ion was s onges in he
Uni ed S a es whe e, acco ding o ou AME es ima es, a one-
uni inc ease in iden i ica ion dec eases he isk o online
ha e ic imiza ion by 4.6%. The e ec is weakes , ye s ill
s a is ically signi ican , in Ge many whe e a uni inc ease in
iden i ica ion o o line g oups dec eases he p obabili y o
online ha e ic imiza ion by 1.9%. Finland and Uni ed
Keipi e al. 7
Kingdom all in be ween wi h AME coe icien s o −.038
and −.023, espec i ely. Online g oup iden i ica ion was sig-
ni ican ly associa ed wi h online ha e ic imiza ion in he
Uni ed Kingdom and Uni ed S a es, bu unlike he case o
o line iden i ica ion, his associa ion was posi i e. In o he
wo ds, a one-poin inc ease in online communi y iden i ica-
ion inc eased he isk o online ha e ic imiza ion by 3.9%
in he Uni ed Kingdom and 3.6% in he Uni ed S a es. The
size o o line o online ne wo ks was no signi ican ly asso-
cia ed wi h online ha e ic imiza ion in any o ou samples.
O ou con ol a iables, only SNS ac i i y was signi i-
can ly associa ed wi h online ha e ic imiza ion in all sam-
ples. The associa ion was posi i e and i was s onges in he
case o he Uni ed S a es (AME coe icien = .018) and weak-
es in he case o Ge many (AME coe icien = .004). Age
had a signi ican nega i e associa ion wi h online ha e ic-
imiza ion in he Uni ed S a es and Uni ed Kingdom. In he
case o he Uni ed Kingdom, li ing wi h pa en (s) and li ing
in a less densely popula ed a ea we e also signi ican ly nega-
i ely associa ed wi h online ha e ic imiza ion. Responden s’
main ac i i y was no signi ican ly associa ed wi h online
ha e ic imiza ion in any o ou samples.
Iden i ica ion wi h o line g oups was nega i ely associ-
a ed wi h he isk o online ha assmen , and ha associa ion
was s a is ically signi ican in he case o he Uni ed S a es,
Ge many, and Finland. The e ec on o line iden i ica ion
was s onges in Finland, whe e a one-uni inc ease in o line
iden i ica ion dec eased he p obabili y o online ha assmen
ic imiza ion by 6.3% (in Ge many and he Uni ed S a es,
AME coe icien s we e −.058 and −.036, espec i ely).
Fu he mo e, like in he case o online ha e ic imiza ion,
online communi y iden i ica ion had a signi ican posi i e
associa ion wi h online ha assmen in he Uni ed S a es and
Uni ed Kingdom. A uni inc ease in online communi y iden-
i ica ion inc eased he isk o online ha assmen by 3.6%, on
a e age, in he Uni ed Kingdom, while he e ec was 3.3%
in he Uni ed S a es. He e again, he size o o line o
online social ne wo ks did no ha e a signi ican associa ion
wi h he online ha assmen expe iences in any o ou
popula ions.
SNS usage had a signi ican posi i e associa ion wi h
online ha assmen in he Uni ed S a es, Ge many, and Uni ed
Kingdom, which had AME coe icien s o .012, .011, and
.007, espec i ely. Age was nega i ely associa ed wi h online
ha assmen in he Uni ed S a es, Ge many, and Uni ed
Kingdom. Li ing wi h pa en (s) dec eased he p obabili y o
online ha assmen in he Uni ed S a es and Ge many, while
in he Uni ed Kingdom, li ing in a less densely popula ed
a ea had an equi alen e ec . Finland was he only coun y
whe e gende was signi ican ly associa ed wi h he isk o
online ha assmen , emales being 9.8% mo e likely o be ic-
ims o online ha assmen . Main ac i i y was no signi i-
can ly associa ed wi h online ha assmen in any o he
coun ies (Table 3).
Discussion
The explo a ion o ela ional aspec s a ailable in he online
se ing h ough bo h enhanced communica ion and access o
o he s b ings bo h posi i e and nega i e e ec s o he li es o
young people. Con inual exposu e o he online se ing has
been shown o inc ease bo h bene i s and cos s in he li es o
young people. Fu he mo e, he associa ions be ween a i-
ous dimensions o social ies bo h online and o line and
expe iences o ha assmen ic imiza ion online ha e been
s udied in a localized se ing. Cen al he e is he b oadening
o he scope o he popula ion o a c oss-na ional se ing
while also including he a iable o ha e ic imiza ion.
This s udy pu s o h a new pe spec i e in e ms o how
a ious use cha ac e is ics and social ie s eng hs a e ela ed
o expe iences o bo h ha assmen and ha e ic imiza ion
online h ough a su ey o Finnish, Ame ican, Ge man, and
Table 2. Vic imiza ion o Online Ha e.
Finland Uni ed S a es Ge many Uni ed Kingdom
AME SE pAME SE pAME SE pAME SE p
Sex ( emale) .013 .026 .620 −.018 .024 .450 .005 .013 .710 −.005 .021 .793
Age −.003 .004 .484 −.010 .003 .002 .001 .002 .469 −.008 .003 .006
Residence −.039 .026 .136 .005 .023 .839 −.007 .012 .594 −.049 .020 .013
Li ing wi h pa en s −.008 .034 .810 −.024 .027 .359 −.019 .014 .188 −.054 .023 .018
Economic ac i i y .056 .037 .137 .014 .031 .654 .004 .017 .828 −.041 .025 .102
O line iden i ica ion −.038 .015 .010 −.046 .012 .001 −.019 .007 .006 −.023 .011 .044
Online iden i ica ion .011 .12 .360 .036 .010 .001 .009 .006 .125 .039 .008 .000
F iends o line .063 .051 .221 .052 .028 .062 −.002 .015 .886 .031 .025 .216
F iends in Facebook −.025 .038 .503 −.010 .026 .696 .033 .029 .242 .030 .025 .239
SNS ac i i y .016 .004 .001 .018 .003 .001 .004 .002 .031 .008 .003 .003
Log-likelihood −160.270 −407.310 −146.191 −322.863
SNS: social ne wo king si e.
Logis ic eg ession (a e age ma ginal e ec s [AMEs] wi h s anda d e o s [SEs], p- alues [signi ican es ima es on 95% con idence le el bolded]).
8 Social Media + Socie y
B i ish young people be ween he age o 15 and 30 yea s. A
a ie y o use a iables we e conside ed in he de e mina-
ion o associa ions be ween hem and nega i e use expe i-
ences. As such, new linkages be ween p e iously s udied
aspec s o online in e ac ion we e c ea ed, p o iding new
insigh in o online isks and oppo uni ies p e alen in he
li es o young people.
The analysis showed a posi i e associa ion be ween
s ong iden i ica ion wi h online communi ies and expe i-
ences o bo h ha e ic imiza ion and ha assmen in he
Uni ed S a es and Uni ed Kingdom, a con i ma ion o
ou hypo hesis in e ms o he link be ween ic imiza ion
and use s who ac i ely spend ime in es ing in online
social ies. In e es ingly, his inding also goes agains p e-
ious wo k whe e s ong ies online ha e been ound o
p o ec agains expe iences o ic imiza ion (DeSme e al.,
2014). This may poin o di e ences be ween s ong ies
c ea ed online and o line s ong ies main ained online.
As no ed in p e ious wo k, o line popula i y and s ong
ies a e bo h linked o lessened ic imiza ion online (Adams
e al., 2005; Bollme e al., 2005; DeSme e al., 2014;
Wegge e al., 2014). This may poin o ei he he di icul y
o g oup p o ec ion en o cemen o s ong ie membe s
online o , pe haps mo e likely, a misin e p e a ion o one’s
social s anding and social ie s a us wi hin an online
communi y.
Fu he mo e, highe SNS ac i i y was linked o expe i-
ences o ha e ic imiza ion in all coun ies. SNS use was also
posi i ely associa ed wi h expe iences o ha assmen in he
Uni ed S a es, Uni ed Kingdom, and Ge many. This ep e-
sen s a pa ial con i ma ion o ou hypo hesis conce ning
isks and oppo uni ies. Responden s in he Uni ed S a es and
Uni ed Kingdom displayed a high numbe o bo h online and
o line iends, highes SNS use, and signi ican ly highe le -
els o ha e ic imiza ion in addi ion o a posi i e associa ion
be ween younge age and ha e ic imiza ion. These indings
a e in line wi h p e ious indings on he posi i e ela ionship
be ween ela ional oppo uni ies and isks online (O ega
e al., 2012; Li ings one & Helspe , 2010).
Howe e , indings on s ong ie associa ions add nuance
o his pa ial con i ma ion o ou hypo hesis. Namely, he
size o SNS and o line social ne wo ks was no associa ed
wi h nega i e expe iences online. This inding comes as a bi
o a su p ise, gi en pas esea ch on he dange s o SNS de i-
ance and agg esso use o ha social ins umen owa d ak-
ing ad an age o ha m ul oppo uni ies mo e eadily
a ailable han in he o line se ing (Keipi & Oksanen, 2014;
Me chan , 2012), and nega es ou hypo hesis. This also con-
adic s p e ious indings conce ning weak ie ne wo ks,
whe e use s ha ing many weak ies online we e mo e likely
o expe ience ha assmen ic imiza ion (Bas iaensens e al.,
2014; Wegge e al., 2014). Pa o he explana ion he e may
be he age ange o he s udy, as pas wo k has ocused on
localized and younge popula ions. Use s de elop na iga-
ional p owess wi h age, wi h younge use s being mo e
likely o expe ience ic imiza ion (Keipi & Oksanen, 2014;
Li ings one e al., 2011; Oksanen & Keipi, 2013). I is pos-
sible ha ou inclusion o olde age g oups o se s he dam-
aging e ec s o la ge weak ie ne wo ks. Fu he mo e, i was
ound ha he quali y o use s’ bonds, especially o line
s ong ies, migh help o lessen suscep ibili y o nega i e
online expe iences. He e, s ong ie iden i ica ion o line was
nega i ely associa ed wi h expe iences o online ha e ic im-
iza ion in all cases.
The indings o ou s udy b ing o ligh an in e es ing
dynamic. Namely, s ong online ies a e linked o expe i-
ences o bo h ha e and ha assmen ic imiza ion, ye s ong
o line ies a e linked o lowe ha e ic imiza ion. Cen al
he e may be he sou ce o indi idual alida ion. O line,
g oup dynamics may be mo e conc e e in e ms o inclusion
and exclusion, whe eas online use s ha e easie access o
social communi ies wi hou necessa ily ha ing been accep ed
Table 3. Vic imiza ion o Online Ha assmen .
Finland Uni ed S a es Ge many Uni ed Kingdom
AME SE pAME SE pAME SE pAME SE p
Sex ( emale) .098 .035 .005 −.014 .025 .587 −.009 .026 .725 .013 .024 .585
Age .000 .005 .974 −.014 .004 .001 −.012 .004 .002 −.007 .003 .033
Residence −.052 .034 .130 .004 .024 .861 .012 .025 .644 −.045 .022 .043
Li ing wi h pa en s −.013 .046 .772 −.063 .027 .019 −.116 .029 .000 −.014 .026 .580
Economic ac i i y .022 .043 .599 .027 .033 .408 .057 .036 .114 −.014 .031 .649
O line iden i ica ion −.063 .019 .001 −.036 .013 .005 −.058 .014 .000 −.006 .013 .638
Online iden i ica ion .027 .016 .096 .033 .010 .001 .020 .012 .097 .036 .009 .000
F iends o line .061 .060 .307 .050 .028 .081 −.040 .030 .180 .037 .028 .191
F iends in Facebook .006 .058 .920 −.023 .026 .387 .024 .044 .585 .052 .030 .078
SNS ac i i y .010 .006 .098 .012 .003 .001 .011 .004 .008 .007 .003 .038
Log-likelihood −246.070 −428.897 −451.866 −398.841
SNS: social ne wo king si e.
Logis ic eg ession (a e age ma ginal e ec s [AMEs] wi h s anda d e o s [SEs], p- alues [signi ican es ima es on 95% con idence le el bolded]).
Keipi e al. 9
as s ong ies despi e holding ha assump ion. In he online
se ing, codes o conduc , conc e e signals o accep ance o
alida ion, and assu ances o he s eng h o a social ie can
di e compa ed o hose in he o line se ing due o a le el
o diminished physical in e ac ion. Indeed, a ele an
dynamic he e may be he lessened social p esence, o deg ee
o which use s a e expe ienced physically, o he online se -
ing combined wi h heigh ened accessibili y. These can bo h
wo k o blu mo e adi ional social ie bounda ies and de e -
minan s ha can in u n a ec ic imiza ion expe iences.
Fu he mo e, p o ec i e o line s ong ies canno a ec
he way in which po en ially dange ous o he s espond o he
pa icula use online, bu he alida ion o e ed o line migh
a ec he social se ings sough by ha use online. Howe e ,
i should also be no ed ha he s eng h o he o line social
ie migh no de e mine he likelihood o ic imiza ion expe-
iences, as s ong ies can also be sou ces o ha assmen , o
example.
As such, SNS use was linked o isks, ye he size o SNS
ne wo ks was no . He e, i seems isks in he se ing may also
be mo e inciden al, acciden al, o imposed om ou side
sou ces a he han oo ed in al eady-es ablished social ies.
This may poin o young people’s compe ence in c ea ing
social ne wo ks whe e isky in e ac ions a e minimized.
No ably, despi e ha assmen and ha e no being linked o he
size o use s’ social sphe es, agg esso in en h ough o he
channels had a signi ican e ec , gi en he quan i y o nega-
i e use expe ience c oss-na ionally. Thus, he e seems o be
a balance be ween use -gene a ed isk beha io and isk c e-
a ed by agg esso s a ge ing o he s wi h ha assmen o ha e.
In he case o he Uni ed S a es and Uni ed Kingdom,
s onge online communi y iden i ica ion ies we e linked o
highe ins ances o ha e ic imiza ion, which migh poin
owa d p e ious indings whe e ela i ely ma ginalized use s
seek social suppo online om like-minded in e es g oups.
In hese cases, ic imiza ion can seem less likely due o some
le el o a ailable anonymi y bu which o en occu s due o
he ins umen al na u e o he ela ionships he ein (Keipi &
Oksanen, 2014; Keipi e al., 2014; Mehdizadeh, 2010). This
would ep esen a second e ec o lessened social p esence
in addi ion o he possibili y o misin e p e ing he s eng h
o ies men ioned ea lie . Gi en he opposi e associa ion
be ween o line g oup iden i ica ion and nega i e online
expe ience, i seems easonable o posi ha he in e ac i e
condi ions o he online se ing, namely, po en ially lessened
isibili y o iden i iabili y, may sel -selec o pa icipan s
who ha e ei he been hu o a e likely o hu o he s. Ou
indings p o ide a po en ial poin o depa u e o u he
esea ch in his a ea.
Fu he mo e, he c oss-na ional na u e o he s udy
b ough ou no el poin s o compa ison in e ms o key simi-
la i ies and di e ences be ween pa icipan g oups. The
Uni ed S a es and Uni ed Kingdom, o en linked oge he in
e ms o cul u al con ex , also sha ed simila i ies he e ha
we e no ound in Finnish and Ge man samples. Fi s , hey
we e simila in age-associa ed isk o ha e ic imiza ion and
high numbe s o bo h online and o line iends. Fu he mo e,
he wo popula ions sha ed he signi ican associa ion o
online g oup iden i ica ion being linked o ha assmen expe-
iences in addi ion o high a es o online ha e ic imiza ion.
Finns and Ge mans ended o ha e a smalle online ne -
wo ks wi h lowe le els o SNS use. Whe eas he Uni ed
S a es and Uni ed Kingdom led in ha e ic imiza ion, Finnish
and Ge man samples showed a p opensi y owa d ha ass-
men ic imiza ion. Ge mans showed a pa icula ly low a e
o ha e ic imiza ion compa ed o o he s. These indings
may be associa ed wi h mo e gene al cha ac e is ics o social
media use pa e ns be ween coun ies. The cul u al sensibili-
ies o en a ibu ed o Finns we e e lec ed in he indings as
well. They exhibi ed ew online and o line social ies ye
held a high le el o o line g oup and online g oup iden i ica-
ion. This seems o indica e an emphasis on ew bu alued
social ies in bo h a enas. Fu he mo e, he posi i e e ec o
o line ie s eng h inc ease on lessening he likelihood o
ha assmen was g ea es in he Finnish sample— his, despi e
Finns being mos p one o ha assmen expe iences online.
Finally, and su p isingly conside ing Finland’s le el o soci-
e al equali y no ed in many compa a i e s udies (e.g., Fla in,
Pacek, & Radcli , 2011; Kou o & Räsänen, 2015), he
Finnish sample was he only one whe e gende was associ-
a ed wi h ha assmen , despi e leading in egali a ianism cul-
u ally. He e, gi ls we e mo e likely o expe ience ha assmen
online. This inding is somewha su p ising, as i goes agains
he gene al no ions o gende equali y o en associa ed wi h
No dic coun ies.
Despi e he linkages o p e ious wo k and he new pe -
spec i es made possible by he da a, ou s udy consis s o
some limi a ions. Al hough he c oss-na ional compa ison
yielded esul s, we a e unable o in e p e all o he di e -
ences e ec i ely due o he lack o p eceding esea ch on
possible mac o-le el impac s o he hemes cen al he e.
Also, he heo e ical amewo k used o ca ego ize he social
ies eme ging om he da a was de eloped be o e he wide-
scale use o SNS and as such was mean o he o line se -
ing. Howe e , despi e i s de elopmen o a di e en
en i onmen , i was desc ip i ely e ec i e in app oaching
he a ious ela ional o ms p e alen among young people,
om s ong o line iendships o weak SNS ies and s ong
online communi y iden i ica ion links. No ably, ou indings
a e made up o associa ions, and as such, a low o causa ion
canno be de e mined be ween key a iables. This opens he
doo o u u e esea ch in o how s eng hened o line ies
may alle ia e nega i e expe iences online and why s ong
online g oup iden i ica ion is linked o highe le els o ha e
ic imiza ion and ha assmen .
The ela ionship be ween s ong ies and ic imiza ion
expe iences is an impo an a ea equi ing u he esea ch in
assessing ic imiza ion ha has i s sou ce in well-es ablished
s ong ies. Finally, ha e ic imiza ion and ha assmen expe-
ience ques ions we e le ela i ely open o in e p e a ion.