Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social
(in)equali y: cases o A gen ina and Finland
1
.
Polí icas de educación supe io y la cues ión de la
(des)igualdad social: casos de A gen ina y Finlandia.
Cecilia Blanco
Resea che a Cen o de In es igaciones Ju ídicas y Sociales (CIJS)
Unidad Ejecu o a CONICET, Facul ad de De echo
Uni e sidad Nacional de Có doba.
E-mail: be [email protected]
E iikka Oinonen
Adjunc p o esso in Sociology. Facul y o Social Sciences.
Tampe e Uni e si y. E-mail: e iikka.oinonen@ uni. i
Resumen: Es e a ículo analiza la mane a en que las polí icas públicas de Educación
Supe io (ES) de A gen ina y Finlandia con ibuyen o no a educi las desigualdades
sociales en sus espec i os sis emas uni e si a ios. Realizamos un análisis genealógico de
documen os y un análisis in e p e a i o de las polí icas pa a encon a simili udes y
di e encias, desa ollamos in e p e aciones plausibles ubicándolas en su con ex o social e
his ó ico. Compa amos las ca ac e ís icas de los sis emas sociales y las endencias de las
polí icas implemen adas en las ins i uciones de ES en A gen ina y Finlandia, mos ando su
ce canía o lejanía espec o de los p incipios o igina iamen e es a uidos en o no a la ES en
cada país. Es udiamos los casos de A gen ina y Finlandia, median e el análisis de las
polí icas de ES en la e a democ á ica pa a conoce si las polí icas con ibuyen a educi las
desigualdades sociales en la ES. Concluimos que las polí icas educa i as cuan o más se
basan en la lógica del me cado, las desigualdades en la ES ienden a inc emen a se, incluso,
en el país nó dico con es ado de bienes a .
Palab as cla e: Educación supe io ; (des)igualdades sociales; A gen ina; Finlandia;
polí icas educa i as.
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This a icle was elabo a ed in he con ex o INCASI Ne wo k, a Eu opean p ojec ha has ecei ed unding
om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og amme unde he Ma ie Skłodowska-
Cu ie GA No 691004 and coo dina ed by D . Ped o López-Roldán. This a icle e lec s only he au ho 's iew
and he Agency is no esponsible o any use ha may be made o he in o ma ion i con ains.
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CECILIA BLANCO; ERIIKKA OINONEN. Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social (in)equali y: cases o A gen ina
and Finland
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Abs ac : This a icle s udies he de elopmen o highe educa ion (HE) policies in
A gen ina and Finland and examines wha a e he p inciples behind HE laws and policies,
and whe he he policies p omo e o p e en social equali y. We apply genealogical
documen analysis and in e p e i e policy analysis o look o di e ences and simila i ies,
and o place hem in socie al and his o ical con ex in o de o make plausible
in e p e a ions. We con as p ope ies o social sys ems and pa e ns o policy p ac ices
ha desc ibe he cha ac e o HE ins i u ions in A gen ina and Finland. By c ea ing coun y
cases, we, analyze he HE policies o he democ a ic e a in A gen ina and Finland o ind
ou whe he and how he policies aim a educing social inequali ies in HE. We conclude
ha along wi h ma ke logic in educa ion policies, inequali ies in HE end o inc ease e en
in a No dic wel a e s a e like Finland.
Key wo ds: Highe educa ion; social (in)equali ies; A gen ina; Finland; educa ional
policies
Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social (in)equali y: cases o
A gen ina and Finland.
Polí icas de educación supe io y la cues ión de la (des)igualdad social: casos de A gen ina
y Finlandia.
1. In oduc ion
Educa ion in all i s le els and highe educa ion (HE) in pa icula a e ega ded as a base o
mode n, democ a ic socie ies. Educa ion aims a indi idual and socie al gain in e ms o
symbolic and ma e ial esou ces, and a secu ing social peace and balance as well as
economic p ospe i y o a socie y.
In his a icle, we ocus on HE and he uni e si y ins i u ion as a p o ide o HE. We
examine HE as a social phenomenon. In u n, uni e si y, as a p o ide o HE, is seen as a
social ins i u ion. I ans e s knowledge, unde s anding and ways o hinking as well as
alues and no ms o he socie y o new gene a ions. Uni e si y is also a poli ical ins i u ion
because wi hin uni e si ies lie an oppo uni y o bo h main ain and e o m socie ies.
The e o e, he ela ionship be ween uni e si y and uling powe s has always been ull o
ensions. (Välimaa, 2018:11-12.)
This a icle s udies he de elopmen o HE policies in A gen ina and Finland and examines
wha a e he p inciples behind HE laws and policies, and whe he he policies p omo e o
p e en social equali y. We s udy p ope ies o social sys ems and pa e ns o policy
CECILIA BLANCO; ERIIKKA OINONEN. Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social (in)equali y: cases o A gen ina
and Finland
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p ac ices ha desc ibe he cha ac e o HE ins i u ions in A gen ina and Finland. We do
his by analyzing HE policies and legisla ion du ing he democ a ic pe iods in he espec i e
coun ies in o de o c ea e wo coun y cases. To make he cases unde s andable we p o ide
a sho his o ical backg ound o he de elopmen o uni e si y and HE sys ems in he wo
coun ies om he 17 h cen u y un il p esen day.
2. Aim
Ou objec i e is o s udy whe he and how he ideal p inciple o social equali y has been
implemen ed in HE policies in A gen ina and Finland. We ask, how HE policies ha e
e ol ed in A gen ina and Finland? How alue o social equali y shows in he policies and
policy implemen a ions? And, how he HE policies ha e deal wi h social inequali ies?
Ou da a is composed o HE policy documen s, laws/ac s on HE, and o ele an esea ch
epo s and his o ical epo s on de elopmen o A gen inian and Finnish uni e si ies and
HE sys ems. The e sa ile da a allows us, i s , o iden i y he ele an and essen ial poin s
o e olu ion o uni e si y ins i u ion and HE sys em, and, second, o iden i y connec ions
o HE policies wi h na ional poli ics and p e ailing social ci cums ances. De ailed analysis
o ou da a, allows us o cons uc coun y cases and o depic he cu en s a e o he
A gen inian and Finnish HE and uni e si y sys em and he way hey deal wi h he issue o
social (in)equali y.
We apply genealogical documen analysis and in e p e i e policy analysis o look o
di e ences and simila i ies, and o place he di e ences and simila i ies in socie al and
his o ical con ex in o de o make plausible in e p e a ions (see e.g. Wagenaa 2011). We
con as HE ins i u ions in wo coun ies, o mo e speci ically p ope ies o social sys ems
and pa e ns o policy p ac ices ha desc ibe he cha ac e o HE ins i u ions in A gen ina
and Finland. In ou compa ison, we ollow Man ed Nießen’s (1982) p inciple acco ding
o which he co e o compa a i e esea ch is no o ca alogue di e ences and simila i ies
be ween he cases bu o analyze he phenomenon o in e es in ela ion o i s his o ical and
spa ial con ex .
3. Social (in)equali y
“Equali y is one o he undamen al alues on which so many coun ies a ound he wo ld
ha e chosen o build hei socie ies”, s a es OECD in Educa ion a Glance 2018 epo . Bu
wha is equali y and wha is i in ela ion o educa ion? Ou unde s anding o equali y
ollows Ama ya Sen’s (1992) de ini ion acco ding o which equali y is capabili y o
unc ion ully as a human being. Such capabili y en ails eedom and knowledge
(educa ion) o choose one’s li e-pa h, and esou ces o pu sue i .
CECILIA BLANCO; ERIIKKA OINONEN. Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social (in)equali y: cases o A gen ina
and Finland
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Co espondingly, we adop Gö an The bo n’s (2013) de ini ion o inequali y and
unde s and i as a socio-cul u al o de , which educes ou capabili ies o unc ion as human
beings, as well as ou esou ces o ac and pa icipa e in he socie y. The bo n (2013: 48-9)
dis inguishes h ee kinds o inequali y: 1) Vi al inequali y, e e ing o socially cons uc ed
unequal li e-chances o human beings; 2) Exis en ial inequali y, e e ing o unequal
alloca ion o au onomy, digni y, deg ees o eedom, and igh s o espec and sel -
de elopmen ; and 3) Resou ce inequali y, p o iding human ac o s wi h unequal esou ces
o ac . Resou ces do no e e only o economic ecou ses bu also o social and cul u al
esou ces such as access o educa ion. In his a icle, we ouch upon esou ce inequali y.
Educa ion sys em, including HE is ega ded as he key equalizing ac o in mode n,
democ a ic socie ies. F om indi idual’s poin o iew, educa ion is seen as he way o social
mobili y, o access o be e income, s anda d o li ing, heal h, well-being and social
posi ion. F om socie y’s pe spec i e, well educa ed ci izens a e seen as he mos impo an
asse s in mode niza ion and egene a ion o he socie y, and in global (economic)
compe i ion. This commonly sha ed unde s anding is e lec ed in he agendas and
ecommenda ions ha sup ana ional o ganiza ions such as he OECD, he UNESCO, he
CEPAL and he EU gi e o i s membe s a es. These agendas and ecommenda ions wi h
he s ong belie in he equalizing p ope ies o educa ion in luence in na ional (highe )
educa ion policies. I is in e es ing and impo an o see how he alue o social equali y is
aken in o he na ional (highe ) educa ion policies, and whe he and how i is implemen ed
in p ac ice in di e en mode n and democ a ic socie ies.
4. The A gen inian case
In 1613, he ounding o he i s uni e si y in he e i o y ha was la e o become
A gen ina, Na ional Uni e si y o Co doba, unde papal u elage, ep esen ed a miles one
in he his o y o his coun y’s uni e si y sys em. The uni e si y was he esul o a
bu eauc a ic deal and a unila e al ans e on he pa o Spain, de i ed om he
de elopmen o Eu opean ade, he eme ging disciplina ian bou geois o de , and he
missiona y spi i o he Jesui s. In ac , he uni e si y had ha dly any oo s in he local
eali y and became a edoub o selec ion o he uling eli es in bo h ci y and coun y
(Vázquez Ce u i, 2003; Chi oleau, 2014; 2018a; 2018c; Buchbinde , 2005).
CECILIA BLANCO; ERIIKKA OINONEN. Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social (in)equali y: cases o A gen ina
and Finland
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Meanwhile, he di e en immig a ion policies implemen ed by he successi e Conse a i e
go e nmen s be ween 1855 and 1891 b ough abou changes in he demog aphic
composi ion o he coun y. In 1914, acco ding o he INDEC Su ey (in Chi oleau, 2018a;
2018c), hose bo n ou side A gen ina ep esen ed 30% o he popula ion. Soon a e wa ds,
a social sec o ela ed o he immig a ion p ocess began o claim access o HE. The
eluc ance o he uni e si y eache s, holding pos s and doc o al deg ees, o gi e up hei
p i ileges, led o a s uden s’ e ol ha ended in he in e na ionally enowned 1918 Re o m.
The e o me s demanded a widening o he uni e si y’s social bases, by assigning g an s o
he you h coming om he lowe s a a and p oposing ee a endance o classes and nigh ly
schedules o hose who wo ked. Al hough one o he mo emen ’s banne s was ee s udies,
his claim couldn´ each consensus and he comp omise wi h he poo es popula ion was
se led in acco dance wi h he “ideal” o a Uni e si y in ol ed wi h i s socie y (Buchbinde ,
2005; Chi oleau, 2018a; 2018c).
In eali y, he ela ion be ween Uni e si y and Socie y has ne e been di ec bu always
media ed by a ense, uns able and i egula ela ion be ween uni e si y and s a e. The
pe iods o ep ession, b ough along a social closing o he uni e si y due o educa ional
policies implemen ing he paymen o ees, highly es ic i e en ance examina ions and an
inc ease in he numbe o ins i u ions no due o os e g ea e egis a ion bu o p e en
he concen a ion o a c i ical mass in la ge ci ies. In democ a ic pe iods, on he o he hand,
he e we e g ea e possibili ies o he less a o ed sec o s o en e he uni e si y sys em,
in acco dance wi h policies ending o hei inclusion (Vázquez Ce u i, 2003; González,
2012; Buchbinde , 2005). Al hough, om he e y beginning o he i s democ a ic
go e nmen , he ees cha ged o s uden s a public uni e si ies we e elimina ed, he measu e
did no imply he disappea ance o social inequali ies he HE sys em. F om Al onsin’s
go e nmen , and i ’s i s measu es o expand he social bases o he HE sys em, i became
e iden ha no all social s a a had he same chances o ha ing access and emain in he
sys em, as well as o de eloping a comple e educa ional ajec o y.
Nowadays, acco ding o Chi oleau (2014; 2018a; 2018b; 2018c), he p inciple o widening
he social basis o he uni e si y, unde s ood as he expansion o oppo uni ies a uni e si y
le el has been ede ined as he aim o uni e salizing HE Habi ually, his aim has been
exp essed, in he educa ional policies, as he democ a iza ion o HE. Chi oleau (2014;
2018a; 2018b; 2018c) unde s ands ha democ a iza ion can be unde s ood in wo dis inc
senses. In a wide sense, i can be de ined as an ex ension o he igh o access o some good
o a la ge popula ion. In his sense, o example, he inc ease in he numbe o uni e si ies
could be in e p e ed as he ex ension o he igh o ha e access o HE. Howe e , we ag ee
wi h Chi oleau ha no all social g oups ha e he same p obabili ies o en e uni e si y and

CECILIA BLANCO; ERIIKKA OINONEN. Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social (in)equali y: cases o A gen ina
and Finland
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ob ain simila esul s. Tha is, he ise in he numbe o uni e si ies is no he only ac o a
play.
Ins ead, in a na owe sense, democ a iza ion in HE implies e ec i ely educing social
inequali ies. In his a icle, we in end o analyze he policies o social inclusion ollowed
by he democ a ic go e nmen s o he pe iod 1983-2015, unde P esiden s R. Al onsín, C.S.
Menem, N. Ki chne and C. Fe nández de Ki chne , aking in o conside a ion his na owe
sense o democ a iza ion in HE. Tha is why we conside some aspec s ha ha e been pa
o he public educa ional policies such us he inc ease o he numbe o uni e si ies and o
he g an s o e ed o people om o he lowe social s a a.
Educa ional sys em and he ep oduc ion o social inequali ies
Un o una ely, o A gen ina, educa ional policies did no ollow a long- e m s a e planning
bu , a he , economic policies imposed by he Economic Minis ies o go e nmen s wi h
di e en poli ical, economic and ideological p ojec s (Mollis, 2008). This explains he ac
ha , o example in 2014, A gen ina has a uni e si y sys em cha ac e ized by i s hype
agmen a ion and he e ogeneous academic o e , wi h a o al numbe o 122 HE
ins i u ions in 2014, 46,7% we e s a e- un (Fachelli and López Roldán, 2017:13). The se
o ins i u ions d aws up a complex, di e se and he e ogeneous map whe e uni e si ies play
a mul iplici y o unc ions o he han eaching and doing esea ch (Mollis, 2008).
On he o he hand, wi h ega ds o educa ional le el o he majo i y o he popula ion, in
2010, ou o a o al 36.894.572 a gen ine inhabi an s, only 10.46% pu sued uni e si y
s udies (INDEC, 2010). When asked i hey had inished hei ca ee s by ha yea , only
45% o hem answe ed a i ma i ely.
In gene al e ms, A gen ina main ains a concen a ion o egis a ion on he public ( ee)
uni e si y (Mollis, 2008). In 2015, public uni e si ies concen a ed 51% o he en olmen
and p i a e uni e si ies, 48%. Howe e , by 2014, s a e ins i u ions p o ided academic o e
and aining o 78% o unde g adua e and g adua e s uden s ac oss he coun y (1,468,072)
while p i a e ins i u ions o only 22% (403,373). The p opo ions a e simila wi h ega ds
o pos g adua e ca ee s: 77% o he g adua es choose a public ins i u ion (110,417) and
22% a p i a e one. Only 1% decide on an in e na ional / o eign uni e si y. The abo e
means ha 8 ou o 10 s uden s a end hei ca ee s a public uni e si ies (A enea y Fedún,
2017). All along he 20 h cen u y, he e olu ion o egis a ion shows a ising endency, wi h
an a e age g ow h a e o 6.7% pe yea (Ga cía de Fanelli, 2014:7). This sus ained a e o
expansion o he egis a ion had been pe iodically al e ed by he coun y’s poli ical
uphea als.
CECILIA BLANCO; ERIIKKA OINONEN. Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social (in)equali y: cases o A gen ina
and Finland
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In he i s decade o he 21s cen u y, he s uc u al ac o s con ibu ed o slow down he
g ow h o egis a ion o an a e age 3.1% pe yea . This is mainly due o he dec ease and
s agna ion in g adua ion a he le el o seconda y school. The ne a e o highe schooling
in he poo es quin ile o he popula ion is a ec ed by he lowe p obabili y o hese you hs
o inish seconda y school. A his la e le el 69% o he 15- 19- and 41% o he 20-24-
yea old people, who in he 2010 Na ional Popula ion Su ey, decla ed ha ing a ended
seconda y school le i be o e ob aining a deg ee. This means ha he p oblem o inequali y
o esul s a he seconda y school le el con ibu es, di ec ly, o he small pa icipa ion o
he quin ile o lowe income o he popula ion in highe educa ion sys em (Ga cía de
Fanelli, 2014:7).
Fu he mo e, be ween 2000 and 2011, he a e age annual g ow h a e o s uden s en e ing
na ional uni e si ies was only 0,5%, much below he a e age annual g ow h a e o he
popula ion unde 18 in he same pe iod (o 1,5%) (INDEC, 2010-2011 in Ga cía de Fanelli,
2014). As Ga cía de Fanelli (2014:11-12) has s a ed, he pa icipa ion o he young in HE
depends on he socioeconomic le el o he home hey come om. Fo ins ance, in 2010,
meanwhile he a e o pa icipa ion in uni e si y educa ion o he quin ile o homes wi h
he highes income was 58%, he a e co esponding o quin ile o he lowes income homes
was 33%.
In addi ion, Fachelli, De eano & To ens (2013) ha e demons a ed ha in he A gen inian
uni e si y sys em, he pa en s’ educa ional le el, a he han hei occupa ional le el, has a
g ea e bea ing on he possibili ies o hose in e es ed in a uni e si y deg ee. In addi ion, i
hei possibili y o en ance is conside ed, he subjec s whose pa en s ha e uni e si y
deg ees ha e g ea e access, bu hose whose pa en s a e a he lowes occupa ional le el
a e he mos se iously ha med. Se e al esea che s such as To ado (2011), Mollis (2008),
Chi oleau (2009), Ga cía de Fanelli (2015), Panaia (2015: 2017), ha e come o he same
conclusion. The indi idual p obabili y o ha e access o comple e he di e en educa ional
le els, depends on one’s belonging o pa icula social s a a. Sel - ec ui ing phenomenon
and he social inequali ies ep oduc ion mani es s i sel in he wide access o p o essionals’
sons/daugh e s, who, a he same ime, ha e g ea e possibili ies o g adua ing.
CECILIA BLANCO; ERIIKKA OINONEN. Highe educa ion policies and ques ion o social (in)equali y: cases o A gen ina
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A b ie analysis o he educa ional policies in he democ a ic pe iod Al onsin
adminis a ion
Upon he e u n o democ acy, in Decembe 1983, he Al onsin adminis a ion se abou
pulling down he ba ie s o uni e si y en ance o each equali y o oppo uni ies, based on
he s uden ’s “me i ”, a oiding disc imina ion by asc ibed cha ac e is ics such as gende ,
socioeconomic s a us o e hnic g oup. A e a no malizing in e en ion, a law was passed
o es ablish he economic and inancial sys em o uni e si ies, he aboli ion o ees and
elimina o y en ance cou ses ( hough le eling cou ses emained). A he same ime, he
numbe o uni e si ies was inc eased (Ga cía de Fanelli, 2014).
Un o una ely, he objec i es se led by he democ a ic go e nmen we e no achie ed as
expec ed. The s uden s who would be able o choose a uni e si y deg ee we e
he e ogeneous. In he seconda y le el o schooling, he g ea a ie y o ins i u ions, public
and p i a e, o e a a ied quali y o educa ional aining. No mally, he young en e one
school o ano he depending on hei pa en s’ educa ional, occupa ional and economic
s a us. Paid (p i a e) schools, which gene ally include a double daily schedule, end o o e
a highe quali y educa ion han public ones. This means ha ou o hose who ac ually inish
seconda y school, no e e yone has he same p obabili y o en e uni e si y, since no
e e yone possesses he same amoun o he necessa y educa ional, cul u al, symbolic,
social and economic capi al. Mo eo e , among hose who do manage o egis e in
uni e si y, no all pass he inal examina ion o he le eling cou se, on accoun o a poo
legi ima e cul u al capi al (Ga cía de Fanelli, 2014).
Menemis adminis a ion
F om 1990 onwa ds, he in e na ional agenda o mode niza ion o he highe educa ion
sys em, p omo ed by he Wo ld Bank and he In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank, imposed
he educ ion o S a e suppo o educa ion and science, he selec i e S a e con ol o he
dis ibu ion o inancial esou ces, and he encou agemen o he expansion o p i a e
ins i u ions and egis a ion. A gen ina, in acco dance wi h his endency was one o he
La in Ame ican coun ies wi h he lowes in es men in HE. Compa a i ely, he a e age o
in es men in ela ion o he G oss Na ional P oduc (GNP) is lowe han ha in o he
coun ies wi h lowe income pe capi a, like Chile, B azil, Venezuela and Mexico. While
he gene al a e age o he sample is 1.3% o he GNP, in A gen ina i is only 0.95% (Mollis,
2008: 510).
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The Wo ld Bank held ha he c isis in he educa ion sec o had an economic cha ac e . Fo
his ins i u ion, he uni e si y budge s we e w ongly spen , and he eal unding o he
sys em came om he popula sec o s who paid Added Value Tax. In u n, he ones who
a ended uni e si y we e om he middle class. Fo he Mone a y Fund analys s, HE
s ongly depended on S a e and he uni e si ies should sea ch o sou ces o unding o he
han he S a e, h ough he cha ging o ees and/o he sale o se ices (Vázquez Ce u i,
2003; Mollis, 2008).
In acco dance o hese manage ial guidelines, he Minis y o Educa ion issued, in 1995,
he Law o Highe Educa ion N° 24521 (Mollis, 2008; Vázquez Ce u i, 2003; González,
2012; Chi oleau, 2018a; 2018b; 2018c; E chichu y, 2010). As a esul o an educa ional
policy based on he neolibe al economic p ojec o he Minis y o Economics, he Law
enabled uni e si ies o gene a e addi ional esou ces such as en ance ees ( hus iola ing
he igh o ee na u e o public uni e si ies g an ed by he Na ional Cons i u ion) and o
o e se ices. The Law also es ablished ha he inancial esou ces ob ained om he ees
had o be di ec ed o g an s, in pa icula o hose who we e no able o begin o con inue
uni e si y deg ees because o economic easons, as long as hey showed enough ap i ude
and me all he ins i u ion’s academic equi emen s. In his way, supposedly, no one would
be le ou o such s udies (E chichu y, 2010; González, 2012; Ruiz de la To e and Rueda
López, 2016).
In acco dance wi h hese s a emen s, he Na ional Uni e si y Schola ships P og am
(PNBU) was implemen ed in 1996. Ano he p og am de eloped was o ien ed o young
people wi h asc ibed cha ac e is ics (indigenous and disabled). Howe e , a ha ime, he
annual amoun o he schola ship was 3,000 A gen ine pesos, a de iso y amoun , equi alen
o app oxima ely US$ 3000 pe yea a he o icial exchange a e in he pe iod 1996-1998
(Banco Cen al de la República A gen ina, 2018). In addi ion, o example, in a public
uni e si y sys em, wi h an en olmen o 945.790 s uden s in 1998, a o al o 13202 people applied
o he ellowships o e ed by he PNBU bu only 2192 o hem ob ained he g an s. F om his o al,
only 1194 bene i ed o he i s ime (Anua io de Es adís icas Uni e si a ias, 1998). In he end,
he numbe o g an s we e insu icien , he annual s ipend was small, and i was pe cei ed
i egula ly (Ga cía de Fanelli, 2014; Chi oleau, 2018b:10).
On he o he hand, be ween 1989 and 1999, du ing he Menem adminis a ion, 42
uni e si ies we e c ea ed, bu only 13 o hem we e public and 29 p i a es.
Ki chne is adminis a ion
In he a e ma h o he 2001 economic c isis, N. Ki chne became P esiden in 2003, and
upon his dea h in 2010, his wi e C. Fe nández assumed o ice o wo consecu i e pe iods
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The cu en line o de elopmen is abou o con inue and g ow deepe . Acco ding o he
Vison o highe educa ion and esea ch in 2030, Finland con inues o alue educa ion and
lea ning as well as science and knowledge (OKM, 2018a). HE communi ies a e ega ded
key asse s o Finland in he global (economic) compe i ion (see Oinonen and Te onen-
Gonçal es, 2018). The ision clea ly indica es ha in he name o e iciency, he end
owa ds ewe and bigge HE ins i u ions will con inue. Fu he mo e, in es men in
esea ch and de elopmen (R&D) will be aised o 4 % o GDP and, a leas , 50% o young
adul s aged 25-34 will ha e a HE deg ee ei he om he uni e si y o om he uni e si y
o applied sciences by 2030 (OKM 2018a). Fo he sake o compa ison, in 2017, ca. 41%
o 25-34 yea -olds had a HE deg ee (OECD 2018) and, in 2016, he in es men in R&D
was 2.8% o GDP, highe han in he o he OECD and EU coun ies on a e age ega dless
o he ecen e enchmen s (S a is ics Finland, 2017a).
E olu ion o educa ional oppo uni ies
The e is a cen u ies old Finnish p o e b “Oppia ikä kaikki” (All li e is lea ning) which
e lec s he p inciple and alue ha knowledge belongs o e e ybody and i is a pe son’s
du y o cul i a e onesel (see also An ikainen, 2006). The base o his p inciple lies in he
P o es an wo k e hic and he Lu he an P o es an idea ha e e ybody should ha e a chance
and means o o m hei own opinion and unde s anding whe he i is abou God’s wo d o
mundane ma e s. Lu he an P o es an alues and p inciples ha e p o ided he g ound o
he de elopmen o No dic wel a e s a e and educa ion sys em (See Sø ensen and S å h,
1997). The apid de elopmen o No dic wel a e s a es and educa ion sys em alls in he
pe iod o “Golden Age”, he 25 yea s a e he WW2, when occupa ional s uc u e changed
d ama ically, u baniza ion accele a ed and occupa ions ha equi ed seconda y and
uni e si y educa ion inc eased (Hobsbawm, 1994).
Al hough, uni e si y has main ained he social di isions o class socie y, and, un il he 20 h
cen u y, mos s uden s a uni e si y we e sons o he cle gy and uppe -class amilies,
uni e si y s udies was one o he a e exis ing ou es o social mobili y (Välimaa,
2018:129). The p opo ion o s uden s om middle-class, wo king class and peasan
backg ounds inc eased owa ds he u n o he 20 h cen u y. One ypical Finnish ea u e has
been a s ong belie in educa ion among all social classes and ha is why he lowe classes
ha e been e y eage o educa e hemsel es. In he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, Finland
was he leading coun y in educa ion in Eu ope when we look a he p opo ion o seconda y
school g adua es o he numbe o inhabi an s. Also, he p opo ion o uni e si y s uden s
among age g oup 20-24 (1,2%) was qui e simila o, o example, he Ne he lands (1,1%)
and England (1,3%) (Välimaa, 2018:189).

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The o he ypical Finnish ea u e is he long adi ion o women a ending HE. Since 1885,
women we e able o en e he uni e si y and hei numbe s inc eased quickly. In 1907, 21%
o all s uden s we e women. Compa ed o o he Eu opean and No dic coun ies, he
p opo ion o emale seconda y school g adua es and uni e si y s uden s was high in
Finland al eady in he end o he 19 h cen u y. By he beginning o 1930s, one hi d o all
uni e si y s uden s we e women (Välimaa, 2018:175-76, 243). A e he WW2, numbe o
women bo h in HE and in he labou ma ke g ew subs an ially (Oinonen, 2008). Today, 54
% o all s uden s in HE a e women. Women also g adua e quicke han men (Vainio, 2014).
In ac , nowadays, Finnish women a e be e educa ed han men Ye , gende seg ega ion
exis s bo h in disciplines s udied and in he labou ma ke . Women a e o e ep esen ed in
humani ies and a s, social sciences, educa ion sciences and in heal h and wel a e whe eas
majo i y o he s uden s in echnical sciences and in o ma ion and communica ion
echnology (ICT) a e men. In he labou ma ke , he gende seg ega ion shows in wage
di e ences and ca ee de elopmen (S a is ics Finland, 2017b).
The expansion o HE has been as es in Finland compa ed o o he No dic coun ies. I
we compa e he amoun s o s uden s in 1910 and 2010, he g ow h has been housand old.
A he same ime-pe iod, he popula ion g ow h has been only wo old (Välimaa,
2018:310). This illus a es ha en ance in o HE has become open o p ac ically all, and
equal oppo uni ies in educa ion has inc eased pa icula ly a e he WW2 (Ka hunen and
Uusi alo, 2017).
Along wi h ui ion ee educa ion, inancial aid o s uden s has been one impo an ac o
equalizing he educa ional oppo uni ies and p omo ing social equali y in he Finnish
socie y. Go e nmen -gua an eed s uden loans ha e been a ailable since 1969 bu he
cu en o m o inancial aid o s uden s was in oduced in 1972, ini ially composed o
s udy g an and s uden loan. Today, HE s uden inancial aid is p o ided in o ms o s udy
g an , housing supplemen and go e nmen gua an ee o a s uden loan and in e es
assis ance, meaning ha Kela (The Social Insu ance Ins i u ion o Finland) pays he in e es
on a go e nmen -gua an eed s uden loan o hose wi h low income. HE s uden s who ha e
g adua ed wi hin he a ge ime a e also eligible o s uden loan compensa ion ha may
be e en one hi d o he o al amoun o he loan. In addi ion, meal subsidy, which is paid
o s uden es au an s, means ha HE s uden s can by meals a a discoun ed p ice. S uden
inancial aid is g an ed o ull- ime s uden s who a e Finnish ci izens o o eigne s who
eside pe manen ly in Finland. The basic amoun o s udy g an s o an 18-yea -old HE
s uden li ing alone o wi h a pa ne is 250 €/mon h and i she/he is a p o ide o a mino
child he amoun is 325 €. The mon hly amoun o go e nmen -gua an eed s uden loan is
650 € o hose s udying in Finland and 800€ o hose s udying ab oad. Incomes a ec he
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amoun o inancial aid. A s uden may ea n 667€/mon h du ing he mon hs he/she ecei es
s uden aid and 1990€/mon h du ing hose mon hs he/she does no ecei e aid (usually
summe mon hs). How long s uden s can ecei e s uden inancial aid depends on he a ge
ime se o a aining he deg ee. In HE, one academic yea which co esponds o 60 ECTS
en i le o 9 mon hs o s uden inancial aid. As an example, a mon hly s uden aid o a low-
income s uden may be composed o 250 € s udy g an , 650 € s uden loan and 275-404 €
o housing supplemen depending on he dis ic o esidence. (OKM, 2018b; Kela, 2018.)
Amendmen s o s uden inancial aid in 2017 educed he amoun o s udy g an and
inc eased he mon hly amoun o s uden loan which aised much c i icism om s uden
o ganiza ions.
Finland has done qui e well in e ms o equalizing social di e ences. Today, child en o
highly educa ed pa en s a e only 1.5 imes mo e likely o ge access o HE han child en o
pa en s wi hou HE deg ee. This is he bes a io among he wes e n democ acies bu does
no ell he whole u h. The ac is ha mo e s uden s a he uni e si ies ha e a leas one
pa en who has HE deg ee (39%) han s uden s a uni e si ies o applied sciences (22%)
(Välimaa, 2018:311-13). E en hough, in he long- un, a endance o di e en social g oups
in HE has equalized, selec ion based on social backg ound has no disappea ed (No i,
2011:225). Acco ding o Ka hunen and Uusi alo (2017), equali y o educa ional
oppo uni ies has no e ol ed since he 1970s in Finland. I seems ha he e ec o pa en s’
social backg ound on hei child en’s pa icipa ion in uni e si y educa ion pa icula ly has
become s onge as we come o he 2010s compa ed o he 1970s.
6. Social (in)equali y and highe educa ion in A gen ina and Finland
In he beginning o he 20 h, uni e si y ins i u ions in A gen ina and Finland we e eli e
ins i u ion ha ep oduced social s a i ica ion and socie al and cul u al powe posi ions o
he ew. In A gen ina, along wi h he 1918 highe educa ion e o m a he Uni e si y o
Có doba, he demand o equal educa ional oppo uni ies o all eme ged. Howe e , e o m
and idea o ee educa ion emained as an ideal. In Finland, eme gence o The School o
Social Sciences (1930) which expanded in o he Uni e si y o Tampe e in 1966, was he
i s sign o change in he ou look on pu pose and ole o highe educa ion in he Finnish
socie y. The mission was o p omo e democ a iza ion o he socie y by cul i a ing no only
he eli e bu also he ‘o dina y’ people in socie al ma e s by means o social scien i ic
educa ion. The new ou look was linked wi h he gained independence (1917) and na ion
building p ocess, and wi h he eme ging ideas o he mode n No dic wel a e s a e.
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Educa ion is ega ded as one o he co ne s ones o he mode n wel a e s a e and he No dic
wel a e s a e in pa icula (Esping-Ande sen, 1996). In Finland, like in he o he No dic
coun ies, s ong Labou pa ies and hei policies we e b oadly suppo ed du ing he
in e wa pe iod and a e he WW2 wi h solida i y, communi y and equali y as he
undamen al alues (A ensen and Lundahl, 2006). The de elopmen o he wel a e s a e
picked up s eam in he 1960s and 70s. This e lec ed in he educa ion policies. The e o m
o comp ehensi e school in he 1960s was he ac o ha swep away he emains o he
class socie y and oo ed he idea and alue o social equali y in he Finnish educa ion sys em
and socie y, a la ge. Idea ha nei he gende no social, economic, e hnic o eligious
backg ound o place o esidence should a ec indi idual’s chances o educa ion, pe sonal
de elopmen and social mobili y, and ha i is he s a e, no he amily ha suppo s
indi idual in his/he aspi a ions and aims in li e, was consolida ed. This iew is e lec ed
e.g. in how inancial aid o s uden s is implemen ed. Since he 1960s, he uni e si y o
eli es has u ned in o he uni e si y o masses as he uni e si y sec o g ew in numbe s o
s uden s, s a and ins i u ions (A ensen and Lundahl, 2006).
In A gen ina, ins abili y cha ac e izes he ela ionship be ween uni e si y and socie y.
Pe iods o ep ession b ough along social closing o he uni e si y while democ a ic pe iod
opened he doo s o uni e si y o wide popula ion. In gene al, du ing democ a ic pe iod,
educa ional policies de eloped in acco dance wi h economic policies o di e en
go e nmen s. Democ a iza ion o highe educa ion has ca ied ou by inc easing he
numbe o HE ins i u ions and implemen ing na ional uni e si y schola ship p og ammes.
Howe e , hese e o ma ions ha e no educed social inequali ies. Inc easing he numbe
o uni e si ies may be in e p e ed as he ex ension o he igh o en e HE, bu all social
g oups do no ha e an equal possibili y o do so. Fu he mo e, he na ional schola ship
sys em does no o e enough g an s o he majo i y o young people om lowe income
amilies. Besides, he g an s do no co e he eal li ing cos s o s uden s.
In Finland, since he WW2, he social democ a ic educa ion policy pa adigm has been
cha ac e ized by emphasis on indi idual de elopmen wi hin he amewo k o social
communi y, solida i y and social esponsibili y (A ensen and Lundahl, 2006:295). F om
1980s onwa ds, howe e , alues o indi idual igh s and choice ha e compe ed wi h he
collec i e alues. Nowadays, indi idualiza ion gains a s onge oo hold in all sec o s o
socie y, educa ion included. Educa ion is inc easingly ega ded as a p i a e a he han a
public good. Acco dingly, educa ion p o ides indi iduals oppo uni ies o de elop hei
pe sonal ai s and use hem o hei own bene i (A ensen and Lundahl, 2006). In he las
decades, due o he neo-libe al wa e, bo h educa ion and wel a e policies ha e inc easingly
been in luenced by ma ke logic. Financial cu s and e o ms in he Finnish a ena o (highe )
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educa ion aim a inc eased eedom o choice, compe i i eness and e ec i eness. This is a
common No dic line o de elopmen and i is ques ioned whe he he g ounds o speak o
a dis inc No dic wel a e and educa ion model s ill exis s (A ensen and Lundahl, 2006:286).
Al hough, equali y o educa ional oppo uni ies has ceased o e ol e in Finland, and he
e ec o pa en s’ social backg ound on hei child en’s a endance in uni e si y educa ion
has become s onge in he las decades, he alue o social equali y and equal oppo uni ies
is s ill he bed ock o (highe ) educa ion. High quali y educa ion o all is ega ded as key
asse o Finland also in he u u e (OKM, 2018a). In A gen ina, pa icipa ion o he young
in HE depends on he socio-economic le el o hei amilies. Pa en s’ educa ional le el
a he han hei occupa ional le el has a g ea bea ing on he possibili ies o hei child en
o a end o uni e si y.
Based on ou analysis, i appea s ha when educa ion policies a e inc easingly mixed wi h
economic policies, social inequali y in educa ion ends o inc ease. Finland is a case in
poin . Wi h he en ance o ma ke logic in educa ion policies, equali y o educa ional
oppo uni ies has ceased o e ol e. In A gen ina, he educa ion policies ha e, o long, been
di ec ed by economic policies. Pa en ’s educa ional le el in luences in hei child en’s
a endance pa icula ly in uni e si y le el educa ion in bo h coun ies. Howe e , he
in luence is g ea e in A gen ina han in Finland. Fi s , A gen inian he e ogeneous p ima y
and seconda y educa ion sys em does no p o ide equal in ellec ual basis o all child en.
Besides, owing o g ea class di e ences in A gen ina, no all young people ha e he same
possibili ies o end seconda y school and o pu sue success ul academic ca ee . In Finland,
howe e , class dis inc ion is no as p onounced as i is in A gen ina, and he educa ion
sys em is comp ehensi e p o iding mo e equal basis o child en’s u he educa ion ca ee
ega dless o hei social and cul u al backg ound.
(Highe ) educa ion policies ha e no succeeded o p omo e social equali y in A gen inian
educa ion sys em. E en hough, in p inciple, hey y o insu e ee access o uni e si y o
all, in p ac ice hey do no p o ide equal oppo uni ies o he young coming om lowe
income homes. To p omo e equali y in educa ional oppo uni ies in HE, he educa ion
sys em should p o ide in e media e aining be ween uppe seconda y school and
uni e si y and con inuously in es in he schola ship sys em wi h su icien g an s. In
Finland, educa ion policies ha e succeeded be e o p omo e social equali y. The winne s
ha e been ‘o dina y’ people and women, especially.
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