Re iew a icle
Wa ching Eyes e ec s: When o he s mee he sel
Lau ence Con y
a,
⇑
, Na halie Geo ge
c,d,e,
, Ja i K. Hie anen
b
a
Labo a o y CHART-UPON (EA 4004), Uni e si y o Pa is Oues -Nan e e-La Dé ense, F ance
b
Human In o ma ion P ocessing Labo a o y, School o Social Sciences and Humani ies/Psychology, Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland
c
Ins i u du Ce eau e de la Moelle épiniè e (ICM), Social and A ec i e Neu oscience Labo a o y and Cen e MEG-EEG, Pa is, F ance
d
So bonne Uni e si és, UPMC Uni Pa is 06, UMR_S 1127, Pa is, F ance
e
CNRS, UMR 7225, Pa is, F ance
Inse m, U 1127, Pa is, F ance
a icle in o
A icle his o y:
Recei ed 21 Sep embe 2015
Re ised 6 June 2016
Accep ed 22 Augus 2016
A ailable online 14 Sep embe 2016
Keywo ds:
Di ec gaze
Wa ching Eyes e ec s
Eye con ac
Sel - e e en ial p ocessing
Men alizing
abs ac
The pe cep ion o di ec gaze— ha is, o ano he indi idual’s gaze di ec ed a he
obse e —is known o in luence a wide ange o cogni i e p ocesses and beha io s. We
p esen a new heo e ical p oposal o p o ide a uni ied accoun o hese e ec s. We a gue
ha di ec gaze i s cap u es he beholde ’s a en ion and hen igge s sel - e e en ial
p ocessing, i.e., a heigh ened p ocessing o s imuli in ela ion wi h he sel .
Sel - e e en ial p ocessing modula es incoming in o ma ion p ocessing and leads o he
Wa ching Eyes e ec s, which we classi y in o ou main ca ego ies: he enhancemen o
sel -awa eness, memo y e ec s, he ac i a ion o p o-social beha io , and posi i e
app aisals o o he s. We ad ance ha he belie o be he objec o ano he ’s a en ion is
embedded in di ec gaze pe cep ion and gi es di ec gaze i s sel - e e en ial powe .
Finally, we s ess ha he Wa ching Eyes e ec s e lec a posi i e impac on human
cogni ion; he e o e, hey may ha e a he apeu ic po en ial, which u u e esea ch should
delinea e.
Ó2016 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie Inc. This is an open accessa icle unde he CCBY-
NC-ND license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Con en s
1. In oduc ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................................... 185
2. The i e ypes o di ec gaze e ec s on human cogni ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................... 185
2.1. E ec s o a en ion cap u e by di ec gaze . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................. 185
2.2. Enhancemen o sel -awa eness . . ..................................................................... 186
2.3. Memo y e ec s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................... 186
2.4. Ac i a ion o p o-social beha io s ..................................................................... 186
2.5. Posi i e app aisals o o he s . . . . . ..................................................................... 187
3. P e ious p oposals on di ec gaze e ec s . . . . . . . . . ............................................................ 187
4. The sel - e e en ial accoun o di ec gaze pe cep ion: main p oposal. . . . . ......................................... 187
5. The sel - e e en ial accoun o he W.E. e ec s . . . . ............................................................ 189
5.1. Enhancemen o sel -awa eness . . ..................................................................... 189
5.2. Memo y e ec s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................................... 189
5.3. Ac i a ion o p o-social beha io s ..................................................................... 189
5.4. Posi i e app aisals o o he s . . . . . ..................................................................... 189
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.concog.2016.08.016
1053-8100/Ó2016 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie Inc.
This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
⇑
Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (L. Con y).
Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Consciousness and Cogni ion
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/concog
6. The sel - e e en ial accoun o di ec gaze pe cep ion: u he p oposals . . . . . . . . . . . ................................ 190
6.1. The ole o men alizing p ocesses . . . . . . . . . ............................................................ 190
6.2. The ole o au onomic a ousal . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................................................ 192
6.3. The ole o consciousness ............................................................................ 192
7. Open ques ions. ......................................................................................... 193
7.1. Do W.E. e ec s ha e a he apeu ic po en ial?............................................................ 193
7.2. Can W.E. e ec s be ep oduced in o he modali ies o social con ac ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 193
7.3. Wha is he ole o he indi idual cha ac e is ics o he pe cei e ? . ......................................... 193
8. Conclusion . . . . ......................................................................................... 194
Acknowledgemen s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................................................... 194
Re e ences . . . . ......................................................................................... 194
1. In oduc ion
Di ec gaze (i.e., ano he indi idual’s gaze di ec ed a he sel ) p o ides a ounda ion o communica ion and social capa-
bili ies in humans (see Ba on-Cohen, 1994 o a e iew; Csib a & Ge gely, 2009). Unde s anding he p ocesses in ol ed in
di ec gaze pe cep ion is o pa amoun impo ance o unde s anding he basis and he de elopmen o social cogni ion
and o cha ac e izing he psychia ic and neu obiological diso de s whe e social unc ioning is a ec ed, such as social anx-
ie y (Ho ley, Williams, Gonsal ez, & Go don, 2003), schizoph enia (Tso, Mui, Taylo , & Deldin, 2012), and au ism (Jones &
Klin, 2013). In e es ingly, he e is a g owing body o e idence om di e en lines o esea ch showing ha di ec gaze pe -
cep ion has di e se e ec s on cogni ion in adul s. Howe e , hese e ec s ha e ne e been ully delinea ed wi hin a cohesi e
amewo k.
He e, we p esen he i s o e iew o he pe asi e e ec s o di ec gaze on human cogni ion. We iden i y i e ypes o
e ec s: a en ion cap u e (Senju & Hasegawa, 2005), enhancemen o sel -awa eness (e.g. Bal aza e al., 2014; Pönkänen,
Pel ola, & Hie anen, 2011), enhancemen o memo y o sel - ele an in o ma ion (e.g. Con y & G ezes, 2012; Mason,
Hood, & Mac ae, 2004), p omo ion o p o-social beha io s (e.g. Baillon, Selim, & an Dolde , 2013; Wang, Newpo , &
Hamil on, 2011), and, inally, posi i e app aisals o o he s ( o a e iew, see Kleinke, 1986). The o e iew o hese e ec s
e eals ha he mechanisms ha ha e been p e iously p oposed o unde lie he di ec gaze e ec s do no p o ide an
exhaus i e accoun o hese e ec s. In complemen o hese models, we demons a e ha sel - e e en ial p ocessing can p o-
ide he missing piece in unde s anding he di e se e ec s o di ec gaze on human cogni ion. We p opose a wo-s age
model o gaze p ocessing by which di ec gaze i s cap u es he beholde ’s a en ion and hen igge s sel - e e en ial p o-
cessing, i.e., a heigh ened p ocessing o s imuli in ela ion wi h he sel , which leads o he so-called Wa ching Eyes (W.E.)
e ec s.
2. The i e ypes o di ec gaze e ec s on human cogni ion
2.1. E ec s o a en ion cap u e by di ec gaze
The mo phology o he eyes has changed h ough he cou se o e olu ion so ha he human eye egion, wi h he la ge
exposed whi e scle a con as ing wi h he da k i is, o ms a majo sou ce o in o ma ion in he human ace (Kobayashi &
Kohshima, 1997). This con e ges wi h he obus empi ical indings ha , du ing in e ac ion, he eyes a e he i s and he
mos explo ed egion o he ace (Pelph ey e al., 2002; Spezio, Adolphs, Hu ley, & Pi en, 2007; Ya bus, 1967). Some esea ch-
e s a gue ha he human b ain has e ol ed in pa allel o be equipped wi h inna e mechanisms de o ed o de ec ing eyes in
he en i onmen , wi h a pa icula sensi i i y o sel -di ec ed gaze o ien a ion (Ba on-Cohen, 1994; Pe e & Eme y, 1994).
In pa icula , se e al lines o e idence ha e led o he iew ha di ec gaze cap u es a en ion and ecei es p io i ized isual
p ocessing. Newbo n babies ha e a isual p e e ence o aces wi h di ec gaze as compa ed o aces wi h o he gaze di ec-
ions (Fa oni, Csib a, Simion, & Johnson, 2002) sugges ing ha a en ion cap u e by di ec gaze may be inna e. Di ec gaze
induces au oma ic a en ion o ien ing owa ds aces (Aya, 2012; Doi, Ueda, & Shinoha a, 2009; Senju & Hasegawa, 2005; Von
G ünau & Ans on, 1995) and esul s in enhanced hea a e decele a ion esponse du ing he ew seconds ollowing he s im-
ulus onse (Akechi e al., 2013), an index o a en ion o ien ing o ex e nal s imuli (G aham & Cli on, 1966). A en ion cap-
u e by di ec gaze does no equi e ocused a en ion (Yokoyama, Sakai, Noguchi, & Ki a, 2014) and he e is e idence ha
a en ion cap u e may e en occu be o e conscious gaze pe cep ion, subsequen ly a o ing he access o aces wi h di ec
gaze o consciousness (S ein, Senju, Peelen, & S e ze , 2011; Yokoyama, Noguchi, & Ki a, 2013). Mo eo e , di ec gaze seems
o cap u e and hold a en ion on o he ace o 500 ms–900 ms a e onse o di ec gaze exposu e (Senju & Hasegawa, 2005;
Böckle , an de Wel, & Welsh, 2014).
A he beha io al le el, he a en ion cap u e and hold elici ed by di ec gaze is ypically e ealed h ough wo ypes o
e ec s. Fi s , seeing a ace wi h di ec gaze inc eases pe o mance in asks equi ing a en ional ocus on o he ace. Fo
example, iden i ica ion o a isual a ge is acili a ed when appea ing a he loca ion o di ec as compa ed o a e ed gaze
(Böckle e al., 2014). Di ec gaze is ca ego ized as e han a e ed gaze (Con y, Dezecache, Hugue ille, & G ezes, 2012;
L. Con y e al. / Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197 185
Con y, N’Diaye, Tijus, & Geo ge, 2007), and i acili a es ace-ca ego iza ion asks such as gende ca ego iza ion (Mac ae,
Hood, Milne, Rowe, & Mason, 2002). Second, de ec ion o pe iphe al a ge s is delayed when p eceded by a cen al ace dis-
playing di ec gaze as compa ed o a e ed gaze o closed eyes (Senju & Hasegawa, 2005) and seeing a ace wi h di ec gaze
delays esponses in a concomi an ask equi ing a en ional ocus on o he s imuli han he ace (Con y, Gimmig, Belle ie ,
Geo ge, & Hugue , 2010; Senju & Hasegawa, 2005). The a en ion cap u e and hold induced by di ec gaze hus esul in acil-
i a ion in ace- ocused p ocessing, bu in e e ence in o he concu en cogni i e asks.
2.2. Enhancemen o sel -awa eness
Di ec gaze indica es in he i s place ha we a e he objec o ano he pe son’s a en ion. S a ing om his obse a ion,
se e al au ho s heo ized ha a undamen al e ec o eye con ac should be o induce sel -awa eness (A gyle, 1974; Reddy,
2003). Sel -awa eness is p esumed o inc ease whene e a pe son con on s a s imulus ha eminds him/he o him/he sel
(Ca e & Scheie , 1978). Since hese p oposals, he sel -awa eness e ec o di ec gaze has been con i med expe imen ally in
adul pa icipan s. In a se o pionee ing s udies, Hie anen and colleagues (Hie anen, Leppänen, Pel ola, Linna-aho, &
Ruuhiala, 2008; Pönkänen, Pel ola, e al., 2011) in es iga ed subjec i e e alua ions o sel -awa eness. The li e p esen a ion
o a pe son displaying di ec gaze—as compa ed o a e ed gaze— esul ed in enhanced public sel -awa eness a ings by he
pa icipan s (e.g., ‘‘Righ now, I am conce ned abou he way I p esen mysel ”). Mo eo e , in a ecen s udy, Bal aza e al.
(2014) demons a ed ha pa icipan s e alua ed mo e accu a ely he in ensi y o hei bodily esponse—as assessed by
physiological a ousal (skin conduc ance esponse)— o emo ional pic u es when p imed wi h di ec gaze as compa ed o
a e ed gaze o a simple ixa ion c oss. This e ec was no a ibu able o enhanced a ousal induced by di ec gaze. This
s udy demons a ed ha di ec gaze pe cep ion also inc eases sel -awa eness ega ding one’s own physiological s a e.
The e o e, di ec gaze pe cep ion induces g ea e sensi i i y no only o aspec s o he sel eadily pe cei ed by o he s bu
also o p i a e aspec s o he sel (see also Oda, Niwa, Honma, & Hi aishi, 2011), such as bodily sel -awa eness.
2.3. Memo y e ec s
Following he exposu e o me e pho og aphs, di ec gaze has been epo ed o inc ease memo y o ace iden i y in adul s
(Con y & G ezes, 2012; Hood, Mac ae, Cole-Da ies, & Dias, 2003; Mac ae e al., 2002; Vuilleumie , Geo ge, Lis e , A mony, &
D i e , 2005) and in in an s om 6 o 11 yea s o age (Smi h, Hood, & Hec o , 2006). Di ec gaze also allows babies om 4 o
8 mon hs o age o disc imina e amilia om no el aces (Fa oni, Massaccesi, Menon, & Johnson, 2007; Yamashi a,
Kanazawa, Yamaguchi, & Kakigi, 2012). The a en ion cap u e induced by di ec gaze—leading o mo e a en ional esou ces
being de o ed o he ace—may pa ly accoun o his e ec and may explain he ecen e idence o a memo y ad an age
o aces wi h di ec gaze in newbo ns (Guellai & S e i, 2011; Riga o, Menon, Johnson, Fa aguna, & Fa oni, 2010).
Howe e , i is likely ha an addi ional mechanism ein o cing he memo y ad an age o aces wi h di ec gaze is imple-
men ed du ing de elopmen , and his mechanism seems o ex end he memo y ad an age o concomi an ly seen objec s.
Indeed, he magni ude o he di ec gaze e ec on memo y o ace iden i y inc eases o e he pe iod o de elopmen om
6 o 11 yea s (Smi h e al., 2006). Mo eo e , he use o eye con ac du ing in e ac ion has been demons a ed o imp o e
memo y no only o aces bu also o concomi an e bal in o ma ion in p ima y school child en and in adul s (F y &
Smi h, 1975; Fullwood & Dohe y-Sneddon, 2005; O eson & O eson, 1980). Eye con ac has also been sugges ed o mo i a e
9-mon h-old in an s o de o e hei memo y esou ces o he encoding o he iden i y ( a he han ha o he loca ion) o
no el objec s eached by he gaze (Csib a & Ge gely, 2009; Yoon, Johnson, & Csib a, 2008).
2.4. Ac i a ion o p o-social beha io s
Se e al ecen s udies suppo he iew ha di ec gaze pe cep ion ac i a es p o-social beha io s. Measu emen s o
hemisphe ic asymme y in elec oencephalog aphic (EEG) ac i i y ha e shown ha di ec gaze pe cep ion elici s an asym-
me ic, le -sided on al EEG ac i a ion, indica ing a mo i a ional endency o app oach, whe eas a e ed gaze elici s a
igh -sided asymme y (indica i e o a oidance) (Hie anen e al., 2008; Pönkänen, Pel ola, e al., 2011). Di ec gaze has also
been demons a ed o a o mimic y (Wang e al., 2011), ha is, he unconscious imi a ion o o he ’s acial exp ession, pos-
u e, o ac ions, which has been sugges ed o acili a e social in e ac ion by e lec ing a ilia ion in en (Cha and & Ba gh,
1999). Mo eo e , some ecen s udies showed ha he me e p esence o an image o di ec gaze can induce al uis ic beha -
io s. The lis o examples is long, bu among o he s, when images o wa ching eyes a e displayed (as compa ed o con ol
images), people a e mo e eluc an o ake an a ailable esou ce o hemsel es (Baillon e al., 2013; Oda e al., 2011), mo e
likely o dona e hei own esou ces (Ba eson, Ne le, & Robe s, 2006; Haley & Fessle , 2005; Ne le, Ha pe , Kidson, S one, &
Pen on-Voak, 2012; Powell, Robe s, & Ne le, 2012; Rigdon, Ishii, Wa abe, & Ki ayama, 2009), less likely o s eal (Ne le,
No , & Ba eson, 2012) o o li e (E nes -Jones, Ne le, & Ba eson, 2011; F ancey & Be gmulle , 2012), and mo e ca e ul
a ollowing ecycling ules (F ancey & Be gmulle , 2012).
These p o-social e ec s o di ec gaze ha e been emphasized o be independen o local no ms (Ba eson, Callow, Holmes,
Redmond Roche, & Ne le, 2012), o be absen in o he g ea apes (Ne le, C onin, & Ba eson, 2013), o occu e en when con-
on ed wi h non- ealis ic pai s o eyes (e.g. Bu nham & Ha e, 2007; Powell e al., 2012; Rigdon e al., 2009), and o be
obse ed e en when people do no epo no icing he p esence o he eyes (F ancey & Be gmulle , 2012; Ne le, No ,
186 L. Con y e al. / Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197
e al., 2012; Oda e al., 2011). This has led o he iew ha humans possess po en and au oma ed mechanisms ha selec
app op ia e beha io aiming o p ese e he sel om social consequences when wa ched by conspeci ics (Bu nham & Ha e,
2007; Ne le e al., 2013).
2.5. Posi i e app aisals o o he s
The e is a long adi ion o esea ch in social psychology indica ing ha eye con ac induces many ypes o a o able e al-
ua ions o o he s. Indi iduals a e judged o be mo e likable, c edible, and imbued o sel -es eem when exhibi ing high le els
compa ed o low le els o eye con ac ( o an ex ensi e e iew Kleinke, 1986). These e ec s ha e been ound in s udies in
which pa icipan s a e in e ac ing wi h o he people as well as in s udies in which pa icipan s a e e alua ing people appea -
ing on ideos o s ill pic u es.
Fo example, models displaying high amoun s o eye con ac in 1-min ideo apes we e judged o be mo e po en , a ac-
i e, and ma u e han models displaying low amoun o eye con ac (Knacks ed & Kleinke, 1990). Mo e ecen ly, i has been
shown ha eye con ac e en wi h an anima ed ace can lead o enhanced posi i e e alua ions. In one s udy, di ec gaze dis-
played by anima ed aces wi h di e en gaze du a ions (i.e., 1, 2.5 o 4 s) was compa ed wi h a e ed gaze, and he esul s
showed highe likeabili y a ings o aces wi h di ec han a e ed gaze. Mo eo e , he likeabili y a ings inc eased linea ly
wi h inc easing di ec gaze du a ion (Kuzmano ic e al., 2009). Ano he s udy epo ed ha a 2-min pe iod o di ec ela i e
o a e ed gaze wi h ilmed ac o s led pa icipan s o in e mo e posi i e pe sonali y ai s o he ac o s (Wi h, Sacco,
Hugenbe g, & Williams, 2010).
3. P e ious p oposals on di ec gaze e ec s
P e ious lines o explana ions o he di ec gaze e ec s ha e sugges ed ha di ec gaze belongs o a ca ego y o basic,
salien isual s imuli whose p ocessing is au oma ically enhanced a se e al s ages o he senso y and cogni i e sys ems.
This claim is based on long-es ablished e idence ha di ec gaze induces heigh ened a ousal (Gale, Sp a , Chapman, &
Smallbone, 1975; Helminen, Kaasinen, & Hie anen, 2011; Kleinke & Pohlen, 1971; Nichols & Champness, 1971; Williams
& Kleinke, 1993).
Heigh ened a ousal p edic s e y gene al e ec s on cogni ion and beha io . The e o e i s ands in con as wi h he ac
ha while di ec gaze pe cep ion has di e se e ec s on human cogni ion, i does no always modula e pe o mance in a cog-
ni i e ask (e.g. Con y, Russo, e al., 2010). Mo eo e , ecen esul s ha e shown ha physiological a ousal is inc eased only
when di ec gaze is seen in a con ex o li e in e ac ion (Hie anen e al., 2008; Pönkänen, Pel ola, e al., 2011), whe eas mos
o he di ec gaze e ec s ha e been epo ed using me e images o aces o e en schema ic pai s o eyes. Finally, he e ec s o
di ec gaze on bodily sel -awa eness and on memo y o discou ses ha e ecen ly been p o en o be independen o a ousal
(Bal aza e al., 2014; Helminen, Pasanen, & Hie anen, 2016). The e o e, an al e na i e accoun o di ec gaze e ec s is
needed.
Mo e ecen ly, Senju and Johnson (2009) p esen ed he as - ack modula o model o ‘‘eye con ac e ec s”, in which he
e ec s o di ec gaze o eye con ac a e p oposed o be media ed by a subco ical pa hway, in ol ing he supe io colliculus,
he pul ina , and he amygdala, specialized in de ec ing di ec gaze-like s imuli. Acco ding o he au ho s, his pa hway hen
modula es he ac i a ion o key s uc u es o he social b ain ne wo k, including he usi o m gy us (in ol ed in ace p ocess-
ing), he an e io and pos e io pa s o he supe io empo al sulcus (in ol ed in he p ocessing o gaze di ec ion, acial
exp essions, and biological mo ion), and he medial p e on al and o bi o on al co ices (in ol ed in men alizing). These a -
ge egions a e addi ionally subjec ed o op-down modula ions om he do sola e al p e on al co ex, which media es con-
ex ual in luences by ask demands and social con ex . The eye con ac e ec s would esul om his double in luence on
a ge egions o he social b ain ne wo k. As i is based on he co e media ion by a subco ical pa hway, his model p o ides
a neu al-le el accoun speci ying he ele an b ain s uc u es ha enable he in luence o di ec gaze pe cep ion on co ical
p ocessing, and o e s a good explana ion o why a pai o simple, schema ic eyes can esul in di ec gaze e ec s. Howe e ,
his model does no o e a sa is ac o y explana ion o he di e se e ec s o di ec gaze on human cogni ion. While he
model explici ly men ions he di ec gaze e ec s ela ed o a en ion and memo y, i does no p edic o explain why di ec
gaze would enhance sel -awa eness, ac i a e p o-social beha io , o inc ease posi i e e alua ions o o he s. He e, we p o-
pose a heo e ical accoun ha aims a illing his gap.
4. The sel - e e en ial accoun o di ec gaze pe cep ion: main p oposal
We do no in end o ejec he p e ious accoun s, bu a he o combine and ex end hem in such a way ha he di e en
phenomena pe aining o di ec gaze e ec s can be explained comp ehensi ely. Ou p oposal builds on he concep ual con-
en ion ha di ec gaze has a sel - e e en ial powe , namely he powe o enhance he expe ience ha he p esen con ex ual
in o ma ion is s ongly ela ed o one’s own pe son (No ho e al., 2006). P ocessing s imuli in ela ion o onesel ( a he
han o o he s o o he en i onmen ) would ac as an associa i e ‘glue’ o pe cep ion, memo y, and decision making
(Sui & Humph eys, 2015) and i is expec ed o au oma ically modula e cu en in o ma ion p ocessing and ela ed decisions
(e.g. Johnson e al., 2005; No ho & Be mpohl, 2004; No ho e al., 2006). A g ea deal o e idence indica es ha memo y
L. Con y e al. / Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197 187
pe o mance is enhanced when people ca ego ize s imuli in ela ion o hemsel es a he han in ela ion o o he s. Mo e-
o e , sel - e e encing has also been di ec ly o indi ec ly linked o an inc ease o sel -awa eness (Sui & Humph eys, 2015), o
p osocial e ec s (Cika a, Jenkins, Du ou , & Saxe, 2014), and o posi i e a i udes owa d he ela ed objec s (Lea y, 2007).
Sel - e e encing and di ec gaze e ec s would hus o e lap.
In pa allel, o e he yea s o gaze esea ch, di ec gaze has been sugges ed o con ey sel -in ol ing signals, such as com-
munica i e in en ion owa d he sel (Csib a & Ge gely, 2009; Kampe, F i h, & F i h, 2003), app oach- ela ed mo i a ion
(Adams & Kleck, 2003), and sel - ele ance (Con y, G ezes, & Sande , 2010; Pe e & Eme y, 1994; Reddy, 2003; Sande ,
G a man, & Zalla, 2003). All hese p oposals con e ge owa d he iew ha di ec gaze is au oma ically ca ego ized in ela-
ion o he sel and i he inding ha di ec gaze pe cep ion au oma ically enhances he obse e ’s eeling o sel -
in ol emen in he isual scene (Con y e al., 2012). Fu he mo e, di ec gaze has been showed o ac i a e co ical midline
s uc u es whose ole in sel - e e en ial p ocessing is well es ablished (No ho e al., 2006), namely he an e io pa s o he
cingula e co ex and he do somedial p e on al co ex (Ca allo e al., 2015; Con y, N’Diaye, Tijus, & Geo ge, 2007; Kampe
e al., 2003; Kuzmano ic e al., 2009). Ou p oposal is ha he sel - e e en ial powe o di ec gaze is he missing link ha
allows p o iding a uni ied accoun o he a ie y o di ec gaze e ec s.
Mo e p ecisely, we pos ula e ha di ec gaze p ocessing in ol es a wo-s age p ocess. Fi s , di ec gaze cap u es he
beholde ’s a en ion on he o he ’s ace, hus usually leading o eye con ac . The inding ha a en ion cap u e by di ec
gaze seems au oma ic and unc ional om bi h sugges s ha i is igge ed by low-le el isual cues, in ol ing, in pa -
icula , he de ec ion o low- equency in o ma ion o luminance dis ibu ion wi hin he eye egion (Ando, 2002;
Kobayashi & Kohshima, 2001; Lang on, 2000). Acco ding o he as ack modula o model by Senju & Johnson
(2009), such de ec ion is implemen ed by a subco ical ou e ending in he pul ina and he amygdala. The amygdala
has been ecen ly shown o ha e a cen al ole in di ec ing a en ion o he eye egion in hesus monkeys (Dal
Mon e, Cos a, Noble, Mu ay, & A e beck, 2015). Mo eo e , his ou e would modula e he ac i a ion o highe co ical
a eas hus esul ing in di e se e ec s o di ec gaze. Based on his p oposal, we hus sugges ha a en ion cap u e by
di ec gaze and he esul ing eye- o-eye con ac is he ini ial s ep and a p e- equisi e o he p ocessing cascade leading
o he o he e ec s o di ec gaze.
C ucially, a he second s age, di ec gaze elici s sel - e e en ial p ocessing, which leads o he so called Wa ching Eyes
(W.E.) e ec s (Fig. 1): enhancemen o sel -awa eness (e.g. Bal aza e al., 2014; Pönkänen, Pel ola, e al., 2011), enhancemen
o memo y o sel - ele an in o ma ion (e.g. Con y & G ezes, 2012; Mason e al., 2004), p omo ion o p o-social ac ions (e.g.
Fig. 1. The sel - e e en ial model o di ec gaze p ocessing. Di ec gaze cap u es he beholde ’s a en ion, acili a ing ace pe cep ion and in e e ing wi h
o he concu en cogni i e pe o mances. I also au oma ically igge s he belie o being wa ched by ano he . As a esul , di ec gaze ac i a es sel -
e e en ial p ocessing. This elici s seconda y e ec s on cogni ion, i.e., he Wa ching Eyes e ec s (W.E. e ec s). To he igh o he model we lis he b ain
s uc u es ha a e likely o be in ol ed a each s age. A en ion cap u e is likely media ed by he subco ical ou e o isual de ec ion, including he supe io
colliculus, he pul ina , and he amygdala (Senju & Johnson, 2009). Men alizing p ocesses esul ing in he belie o being wa ched likely in ol e he supe io
empo al sulcus, he medial p e on al co ex and he o bi o- on al co ex (e.g. Con y, N’Diaye, Tijus, & Geo ge, 2007). Sel - e e en ial p ocessing is mos
likely sub ended by co ical midline s uc u es, such as he an e io cingula e co ex (ACC) and he do somedial p e on al co ex (DMPFC) (No ho e al.,
2006). Finally, he W.E. e ec s would be implemen ed in b ain a eas speci ically in ol ed in he a ge unc ions.
188 L. Con y e al. / Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197

Baillon e al., 2013; Wang e al., 2011), and posi i e app aisals o o he s ( o a e iew Kleinke, 1986). In he ollowing, we
demons a e ha he W.E. e ec s may be in e p e ed as esul ing om sel - e e en ial p ocessing.
5. The sel - e e en ial accoun o he W.E. e ec s
5.1. Enhancemen o sel -awa eness
I has long been sugges ed ha he p esence o an obse e can enhance sel -awa eness by inducing an a en ion shi
owa d he sel (Ca e & Scheie , 1978). I has u he been p oposed ha simila mechanisms can also be elici ed by placing
someone in on o his/he own e lec ion (Ainley, Tajadu a-Jimenez, Fo opoulou, & Tsaki is, 2012; Du al & Wicklund, 1972)
o a came a di ec ed owa ds he beholde (Auzoul , 2013; Ca e , Blaney, & Scheie , 1979). The sel -awa eness e ec o
di ec gaze may hus esul om sel - ocused a en ion mechanisms igge ed by di ec gaze. Howe e , he no ion o sel -
ocused a en ion has a poo explana o y alue. To ou knowledge, no di ec expe imen al e idence o such a mechanism
has been p o ided and sel - ocused a en ion has in ac usually been measu ed h ough enhancemen o sel -awa eness.
Sel - ocused a en ion and sel -awa eness a e hus con ounded, he wo e ms being egula ly subs i u ed o one ano he .
On he o he hand, sel -awa eness has been p oposed o esul om a pa icula o m o in o ma ional encoding ha is ig-
ge ed by he p esence o sel - e e en ial s imuli (Hull & Le y, 1979). We he e o e p opose ha he sel - e e en ial p ocessing
elici ed by di ec gaze accoun o i s e ec on sel -awa eness.
5.2. Memo y e ec s
Al hough i s ad anced (Mason e al., 2004), he memo y e ec s o di ec gaze canno solely be accoun ed o by a en-
ion cap u e o by a ousal e ec . Fi s , emo ional s imuli a e well-known o induce a en ion cap u e and inc eased a ousal
esul ing in enhanced encoding in memo y; ye , hey o en impai memo y o su ounding de ails (Laney, Campbell, Heue ,
& Reisbe g, 2004; Le ine & Edels ein, 2009; Mao, You, Li, & Guo, 2015). So, why do he memo y e ec s o di ec gaze ex end
o he su ounding en i onmen ? Second, conside ing ha a en ion cap u e by di ec gaze seems au oma ic and o occu a
a p e-conscious le el, why would he memo y e ec s be modula ed by con ex , depending, o example, on he pe cei ed
ace ace o gende ? Fo ins ance, di ec gaze ela i e o a e ed gaze has been epo ed o enhance memo y only o same
ace bu no o o he ace aces (Adams, Pauke , & Weisbuch, 2010). A key explana ion o such esul s may lie in he sel -
e e en ial powe o di ec gaze.
In he domain o memo y esea ch, sel - e e en ial p ocessing e ec s a e well documen ed. Typically, indi iduals show
be e subsequen memo y o i ems encoded wi h ega d o he sel compa ed o o he encoding condi ions (Hull, Van
T eu en, Ash o d, P opsom, & And us, 1988; Klein, 2012; Symons & Johnson, 1997). By ac i a ing sel - e e en ial in o ma ion
p ocessing, di ec gaze would induce an inc ease o he sel - ele ance o he con ex ual s imuli being p ocessed and, in u n,
in luence he memo y o hose s imuli (Csib a & Ge gely, 2009). Such a p oposal u he p edic s ha he memo y e ec s o
di ec gaze a e ex ended o in o ma ion su ounding he eye egion and a e boos ed by a con ex con eying addi ional sel -
ele an s imuli (see Adams e al., 2010 o simila p oposal). I he e o e allows o emb ace he a ious epo ed e ec s o
di ec gaze on memo y.
5.3. Ac i a ion o p o-social beha io s
Heigh ened sel -in ol emen in in o ma ion p ocessing heigh ens he salience o conce ns abou social e alua ion
(Bane jee, Benne , & Luke, 2012) and sel - epu a ion (Sheline e al., 2009); hese conce ns a e heo ized o lead o adop
p o-social, al uis ic beha io (Ba eson e al., 2012). Acco dingly, i has been p oposed ha inc easing sel - e e en ial p o-
cessing du ing he p ocessing o o he s (i.e., p omo ing i s -pe son pe spec i e aking o blu ing he dis inc ion be ween
he sel and o he s) media es he p osocial e ec s o pe spec i e aking (e.g. Ames, Jenkins, Banaji, & Mi chell, 2008). I
has also been ecen ly demons a ed ha he dec ease in sel - e e en ial p ocessing enables ha m ul beha io s owa ds
ou -g oup membe s (Cika a e al., 2014).
5.4. Posi i e app aisals o o he s
Sel - e e en ial app aisal is epo ed o be associa ed wi h posi i e biases, ha is –gene ally speaking– o a o able a i-
udes owa d he sel , which would in u n sp ead o e in o e alua ions o objec s, places, and people ha a e associa ed wi h
us (Lea y, 2007). In line wi h his iew, i has been epo ed ha objec s pe cei ed concomi an ly wi h aces displaying di ec
gaze may be au oma ically assigned wi h a posi i e hedonic alue (S ick, Holland, & an Knippenbe g, 2008) and a ec i e
ca ego iza ion (posi i e e sus nega i e) o posi i e wo ds has been ound o be as e when p eceded by di ec gaze han
closed eyes p imes and ice e sa o nega i e wo ds (Chen, Helminen, & Hie anen, 2016). Di ec gaze pe cep ion has also been
epo ed o inc ease sel -es eem in he beholde (D oney & B ooks, 1993; Wi h e al., 2010). The e o e, we a gue ha sel -
e e en ial p ocessing can sub end he posi i e e ec o di ec gaze on o he s’ app aisal. The e ec s o di ec gaze pe cep ion
on app aisal, pa icula ly o objec s and he sel , ha e howe e been li le in es iga ed and he obus ness o hese e ec s has
o be es ed. Some esul s sugges ha hese e ec s a e con ex -dependen , occu ing o inc easing, o example, when di ec
L. Con y e al. / Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197 189
gaze is displayed by a ac i e aces (Jones, Deb uine, Li le, Conway, & Feinbe g, 2006; Kampe, F i h, Dolan, & F i h, 2001;
S ick e al., 2008). Fu he mo e, as o he memo y e ec s o di ec gaze, he sel - e e en ial accoun p edic s ha he e ec
o di ec gaze on app aisal may be boos ed by con ex ual s imuli con eying addi ional sel - ele an cues.
In conclusion, he sel - e e en ial accoun o di ec gaze pe cep ion allows p o iding a comp ehensi e explana ion o he
e ec s o di ec gaze on human cogni ion.
6. The sel - e e en ial accoun o di ec gaze pe cep ion: u he p oposals
An impo an issue emaining wi h ega d o W.E. e ec s is he oles ha ha e been g an ed o men alizing and a ousal
( o e iews, see Senju & Johnson, 2009; Teu el, Fle che , & Da is, 2010). In he ollowing sec ions, we de end he iew ha a
basic o m o men alizing is likely o be equi ed o yield he W.E. e ec s. We also sugges ha al hough he unc ioning o
he sel - e e en ial mechanisms is no dependen on physiological a ousal, a ousal may, ne e heless, modula e sel -
e e en ial p ocessing. Fu he mo e, we add ess he ole o consciousness in he W.E. e ec s.
6.1. The ole o men alizing p ocesses
Men alizing usually e e s o an e ol ed psychological abili y—mos highly de eloped in humans— o make apid and
spon aneous a ibu ions o belie s, in en ions, desi es, and knowledge o o he s (Che allie , Kohls, T oiani, B odkin, &
Schul z, 2012). I has been sugges ed ha e en basic pe cep ual p ocessing o ano he pe son’s physical cha ac e is ics
and ela ed beha io al esponses a e in luenced by wha he obse e belie es abou he o he ’s pe cep ual s a e, a p ocess
subsumed unde he e m ‘pe cep ual men alizing’ (Teu el e al., 2010). In line wi h his p oposal, we sugges ha a ibu ing
o ano he indi idual he pe cep ual s a e o being able o see onesel , which esul s in he belie o being wa ched, is a basic
men alizing p ocess embedded in he pe cep ion o di ec gaze, which media es he W.E. e ec s.
Recen indings sugges ha he belie o being wa ched by ano he pe son is c i ical in gene a ing W.E. e ec s (Fig. 2).
The W.E. e ec s can be cancelled by dissocia ing di ec gaze om he o he ’s pe cep ual s a e o being able o see. When
compa ing subjec i e expe iences o sel -awa eness—one o he pos ula ed W.E. e ec s—elici ed in he p esence o a eal
pe son e sus a me e pho og aph, i was ound ha he le el o public sel -awa eness in esponse o di ec gaze pe cep ion
was highe in he li e han in he pic u e condi ion (Hie anen e al., 2008; see also Pönkänen, Pel ola, e al., 2011). This esul
could e lec a dec eased eeling o being wa ched by pho og aphic p esen a ions o di ec gaze when pho og aphs a e con-
as ed wi h eal p esence o o he s. I has also been shown ha , in a li e si ua ion, when seeing ano he indi idual’s di ec
gaze bu knowing ha he o he pe son is no able o see he pe cei e , public sel -awa eness is lowe han when he pe -
cei e knows ha he o he indi idual is able o see him o he (Myllyne a & Hie anen, 2015b). Simila ly, he e ec o di ec
gaze on in e ocep i e sel -awa eness has been demons a ed o be cancelled ou du ing online in e ac ion, when pa ici-
pan s belie ed ha he wa ching indi idual wo e obs uc ed sunglasses and he e o e could no see hem. The e ec was
obse ed only when pa icipan s belie ed ha he indi idual wo e a no mal pai o sunglasses (Hazem, Geo ge, Bal aza ,
& Con y, submi ed o publica ion).
We ha e men ioned abo e ha mos o he W.E. e ec s ha e been epo ed using images o aces o e en non- ealis ic
pai s o eyes. How can hese seemingly con adic o y indings be econciled? One possibili y is ha he sel -awa eness e ec
o di ec gaze speci ically depends on he s imulus p esen a ion condi ions and mani es s mainly in he ac ual p esence o
o he s able o see he pa icipan . Howe e , his possibili y seems unlikely o us. Recen esea ch has demons a ed ha he
belie ha ano he agen can see o no in luences gaze di ec ion p ocessing al eady a he ea ly pe cep ual encoding s age
(Pönkänen, Alhoniemi, Leppänen, & Hie anen, 2011; Teu el e al., 2009; Wykowska, Wiese, P osse , & Mulle , 2014). The e-
o e, i could be expec ed ha all ypes o subsequen W.E. e ec s may be a ec ed by he s imulus p esen a ion condi ion,
being educed o cancelled ou , o example, o pho og aphs o aces when hese a e di ec ly compa ed o he p esence o a
eal gazing pe son. To ou knowledge, such a di ec compa ison has ne e been pe o med on W.E. e ec s o he han he sel -
awa eness e ec s. As alluded o abo e, i seems o us ha i is he in a-subjec manipula ion o he media o di ec gaze (e.g.
pho og aph e sus eal o he s) which may be he key he e: i may ha e led o a ading associa ion be ween he me e pic u es
o eyes and he belie o being wa ched. Howe e , when p esen ed in isola ion, me e pic u es o eyes would be associa ed by
de aul wi h such a belie .
Ou model hus pos ula es ha he belie o being wa ched is embedded in he pe cep ion o di ec gaze in he
same way as some objec s a o d some ac ions (acco ding o he concep o a o dance by Gibson (1979)). The belie
o being wa ched would ha e become an in insic p ope y o di ec gaze, based on bo h human e olu ion and o e -
lea ning du ing ea ly li e. Acco dingly, i has been a gued ha , wi hin a ew mon hs a e bi h, di ec gaze is p o-
cessed as an os ensi e signal, indica ing ha we a e add essed by ano he indi idual wan ing o communica e
(Csib a & Ge gely, 2009). Mo eo e , he me e pe cep ion o a gaze di ec ed a he sel in ol es he ea ly ac i a ion
o b ain s uc u es such as he supe io empo al sulcus, he medial p e on al co ex, and he o bi o on al co ex,
which a e in ol ed in men alizing (Ca allo e al., 2015; Con y, N’Diaye, Tijus, & Geo ge, 2007). While a en ion cap u e
by di ec gaze likely elies on low-le el isual p ope ies, he sel - e e en ial powe o di ec gaze would depend on he
speci ic and au oma ed men alizing p ocess esul ing in ‘‘belie ing ha I am being wa ched”, which is imb ica ed wi h
di ec gaze pe cep ion. Ob iously, u he (and/o mo e elabo a ed) men alizing p ocesses igge ed by he pe cep ion
190 L. Con y e al. / Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197
Fig. 2. A se ies o ecen s udies has shown ha di ec e sus a e ed gaze elici s di e en ial physiological and sel -e alua i e esponses when seeing a
pe son ‘‘li e” h ough a liquid c ys al (LC) shu e bu no when seeing a pic u e o a pe son on a compu e moni o , when hese li e and on-sc een
condi ions we e di ec ly con as ed. (a) A pa icipan looking a a s imulus pe son h ough an LC window. The anspa ency o he LC window was
con olled by a compu e . (b) Di ec gaze elici ed le -sided on al alpha-asymme y in he elec oencephalog am (EEG) (posi i e asymme y sco es)
associa ed wi h app oach mo i a ion, whe eas a e ed gaze elici ed a oidance- ela ed igh -sided asymme y. The gaze di ec ion had an e ec only when
he pa icipan saw a li e ace. (c) Simila ly, skin conduc ance esponses e lec ing au onomic a ousal we e la ge o di ec e sus a e ed gaze in a li e
condi ion only. Adap ed om Hie anen e al. (2008). (d) Sel - a ing sco es o public sel -awa eness (scale ange 1–7). Public sel -awa eness was enhanced
by seeing ano he pe son wi h di ec e sus a e ed gaze. Again, no e ec o gaze di ec ion was obse ed in esponse o ace pic u es. Adap ed om
Pönkänen e al. (2011). Thus, in si ua ions whe e pho og aphs a e con as ed wi h he eal p esence o o he s, he capabili y o ace pho og aphs o igge
he belie o being wa ched and associa ed physiological esponses is diminished o e en cancelled. (e) In a ecen s udy, he pa icipan s we e shown a li e
ace wi h di ec and a e ed gaze. In one condi ion, he pa icipan and he model saw each o he h ough he LC window as usual, whe eas in ano he
condi ion, he pa icipan was led o belie e ha he model could no see he pa icipan because a hal -sil e ed mi o was placed agains he LC window.
The esul s showed enhanced skin conduc ance esponses o di ec gaze bu only when he pa icipan belie ed ha he model could see him/he . No e ha
in his expe imen he acial s imuli as such we e he same in he wo s a e-o -belie condi ions. ( ) The esul s o a second expe imen showed enhanced
esponses o di ec gaze (s aigh head o ien a ion) e sus a e ed gaze (la e ally o a ed head o ien a ion) e en when he eyes we e co e ed by sunglasses.
Howe e , when he model wo e a pai o sunglasses wi h blocked lenses so ha he model could no see h ough hem (and he pa icipan s knew his), he
gaze/head o ien a ion had no e ec on he skin conduc ance esponses. Adap ed om Myllyne a and Hie anen (2015b). In sum, all hese esul s sugges
ha he belie o being wa ched o no being wa ched by ano he pe son plays a key ole in he disc imina i e esponses o di ec e sus a e ed gaze.
L. Con y e al. / Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197 191
o he o he indi idual, his/he cha ac e is ics, and by he con ex likely exe a op-down in luence ein o cing o
weakening he W.E. e ec s. Howe e , o da e, ela ed p edic ions would be e y specula i e, as his ques ion has ne e
been in es iga ed in he li e a u e.
6.2. The ole o au onomic a ousal
A ousal may be de ined as a bodily and cogni i e s a e cha ac e ized by au onomic physiological eac ions in which one
eels ale o eac i e o s imuli and eady o espond. I can be igge ed by emo ional s imuli, o example (Zad a & Clo e,
2011). Pe cei ing di ec gaze ac i a es he b ain a ousal sys ems, as shown by he obus indings ha di ec gaze induces
ele a ions in long-las ing hea a e esponse (Kleinke & Pohlen, 1971), skin conduc ance (Nichols & Champness, 1971), and
blood p essu e (Williams & Kleinke, 1993). Could he inc ease o a ousal by di ec gaze, hen, explain he a ious W.E.
e ec s? As p e iously poin ed ou , his hypo hesis does no i wi h he selec i i y o he W.E. e ec s a bo h he beha io al
and he b ain le els (Bal aza e al., 2014; Senju & Johnson, 2009).
The po en ial link be ween a ousal and W.E. e ec s has a ely been in es iga ed. Howe e , as we men ioned be o e, he
e ec s o di ec gaze on bodily sel -awa eness and on memo y o discou ses ha e been p o en o be independen o a ousal
(Bal aza e al., 2014; Helminen e al., 2016). Mo eo e , a ecen s udy showed ha public sel -awa eness was no a enua ed
in a condi ion when he pa icipan did no see he o he (li e) pe son as long as he o she belie ed o be seen by he o he
pe son. Ins ead au onomic esponses we e a enua ed in his condi ion in compa ison o when bo h pa ies saw each o he
(Myllyne a & Hie anen, 2015a). This inding p o ides a dissocia ion be ween au onomic a ousal and he e ec o di ec gaze
on public sel -awa eness, hus suppo ing he iew ha au onomic a ousal canno p o ide a sa is ac o y, comp ehensi e
accoun o he W.E. e ec s.
The e is also e idence ha di ec gaze in a pic u e can igge enhanced au onomic a ousal i he pa icipan s a e con-
comi an ly pe o ming a high-demanding cogni i e ask, bu no when hey a e pe o ming a i ial ask, leading o he iew
ha di ec gaze in a pic u e does no necessa ily induce a ousal (Con y, Russo, e al., 2010). In ag eemen wi h his iew, one
line o esea ch showed ha di ec gaze igge ed enhanced a ousal only when acing a eal pe son bu no when looking a a
pic u e o a ace, in condi ions whe e eal pe sons and ace pic u es we e con as ed a he in a-subjec le el (Hie anen e al.,
2008; Pönkänen, Pel ola, e al., 2011). This line o esea ch has u he led o an in iguing se o indings ha equi es expla-
na ion: in a li e condi ion, di ec gaze did no elici enhanced a ousal i he pe cei e belie ed ha he o he pe son could no
see him o he (Myllyne a & Hie anen, 2015b). These indings sugges ha enhanced physiological esponses o di ec gaze
equi e he belie o being wa ched o occu , jus as he W.E. e ec s do.
We p opose ha physiological esponses may modula e he unc ioning o he sel - e e en ial mechanisms in such a way
ha he sel - e e en ial p ocesses and he esul ing W.E. e ec s would be s onge when e oked by ‘‘ eal” eye con ac and/o
accompanied by enhanced physiological esponses. Ye , he W.E. e ec s do no equi e au onomic a ousal o occu . In o he
wo ds, au onomic a ousal igge ed by he eal p esence o an obse e , by gene al men alizing p ocesses and/o by he con-
ex and ask demands, may only ein o ce he W.E. e ec s. Indeed, because au onomic a ousal is a s ong in e nal cue a is-
ing om he body, a ousal could in insically a o sel - e e en ial p ocessing (Pennebake & Ligh ne , 1980), hus
ampli ying he W.E. e ec s.
6.3. The ole o consciousness
Based on he as - ack model by Senju and Johnson (2009), we pos ula ed ha a en ion cap u e by di ec gaze is a p e-
equisi e o he W.E. e ec s. As desc ibed ea lie , i is possible ha a en ion cap u e by di ec gaze may occu be o e con-
scious gaze pe cep ion (S ein e al., 2011). Howe e , he ques ion o whe he he W.E. e ec s equi e di ec gaze o be
consciously pe cei ed has ecei ed e y li le a en ion. In mos s udies, he W.E. e ec s ha e been shown by using long
exposu e imes o he di ec gaze s imuli (>1 s) allowing conscious pe cep ion o he gaze. Only one ecen s udy demon-
s a ed ha he p o-social e ec s by di ec gaze may eme ge ollowing subliminal p esen a ion o he gaze. In a s udy by
Luo, Zhang, Tao, and Geng (2016), bo h sup aliminal and subliminal p esen a ion o eye con ac in luenced pa icipan s’
coope a i e decisions in a P isone Dilemma game. This esul opens he possibili y ha isual awa eness o di ec gaze
is no equi ed o he W.E. e ec s o occu . In e es ingly, his s udy also showed ha he e ec s o sup aliminally and sub-
liminally p esen ed di ec gaze s imuli on coope a i e decisions depended on he p osocial and p osel social alue o ien a-
ion o he pa icipan s, wi h only p osocial pa icipan s making mo e coope a i e decisions a e eye con ac han no eye
con ac . The au ho s sugges ed ha he social meaning embedded in eye con ac may be di e en o indi iduals wi h di -
e en social o ien a ion.
We s a ed p e iously ha , by con as o a en ion cap u e by di ec gaze which is likely o be inna e, he W.E. e ec s
equi e unc ioning o he basic pe cep ual men alizing p ocesses leading o he belie o being wa ched. This implies ha
one has o know ha somebody else is looking a onesel o W.E. e ec s o occu . A i s iew, he inding ha W.E. e ec s
may occu wi hou isual awa eness seem o con adic such a iew. Howe e , we u he pos ula ed ha he belie o being
wa ched is an in insic p ope y o di ec gaze, based on o e lea ning du ing ea ly li e. This implies ha , a one poin o he
de elopmen , e en p econscious pe cep ion o di ec gaze may au oma ically ac i a e he belie o being wa ched and lead o
W.E. e ec s. Tha being said, he ques ion o when he cogni i e skills allowing human in an s o be awa e ha hey a e
being a ended o by ano he indi idual eme ge has no been elucida ed ye . Acco ding o Reddy (2003), hese skills may
192 L. Con y e al. / Consciousness and Cogni ion 45 (2016) 184–197