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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
CHAPTER 3
O ganising Complexi y:
C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o
Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
ILARI KARPPI & JARMO VAKKURI
Takeaways o Leading Change
This chap e examines he pu sui o sma and sus ainable u banism.
Sus ainabili y is unde s ood as in eg a ed policy and planning measu es
ca ied ou in ci ies and ci y egions. The chap e shows ha e en i he
gene al goal o sus ainabili y p omo ion can be comp essed o gene ic
planning guidelines, locali ies and ci y egions eso o si ua ional
in e p e a ions and ins umen s o each hem. The chap e in oduces
bounda y objec s and bounda y wo k as a heo e ically in e es ing
and empi ically es ed me hod o o ganisa ions and ac o s o make
sense o changing en i onmen s. On his basis, i discusses how new
decision-making spaces eme ge and a e iden i ied as a call o new o ms
o leade ship. The implica ions o his esea ch o leading change in a
complex wo ld a e mani old and laye ed. I shows ha ans o ma ions
such as u banisa ion ha e equally sys emic epe cussions ha na ional
ins i u ions seek o manage and hen ans e o local and egional ac o s,
which p oduce measu es and ou comes. These ans o ma ions may ake
he o m o up u es ha shake he es ablished oles o local and egional
ac o s and he e y ounda ions o hei di ision o labou . Finally, up u es,
changing oles and con usion should p omp o ganisa ions o econside
he scope o hei ac ion and he logic o ha ing and main aining cu en
o ganisa ional bounda ies.
46
Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
U
banisa ion is a plane a y p ocess. Homo sapiens a e now a
p edominan ly u ban species. Ci ies a e hus he key a enas
o humankind o keep i s plane habi able (see Madanipou , 2006).
Acco ding o he Wo ld Bank es ima es, 54 pe cen o he global
popula ion was u ban in 2016. Fo No h Ame ica his igu e was 82 and
o he Eu opean Union 75 espec i ely (WB, 2018). The sus ainabili y
challenge o a oiding he deple ion o na u al esou ces and isking he
ecological balance a he expense o u u e gene a ions is a ask aced in
a p edominan ly u ban en i onmen (Goodbun, Till & Iossi o a, 2012).
Howe e , pu suing sus ainabili y in an u ban se ing is a complex ask.
I comp ises a mul i- ace ed, mul i-sec o al and highly complica ed web
o choices, wi h nume ous ac o s ope a ing acco ding o hei own, and
no in equen ly con lic ing, isions o p omo ing sus ainabili y.
To achie e sus ainabili y, decision-make s need de ices and a e ac s
o connec he wo lds o dispe sed g oups o ac o s and o ganisa ions
(Kahneman, 2003; Vakku i, 2010). Bounda y objec s may cons i u e
one such a e ac . Bounda y objec s, as concep ualised by S a and
G ieseme (1989, p. 393), a e “bo h plas ic
enough o adap o local needs and he
cons ain s o he se e al pa ies employing
hem, ye obus enough o main ain a
common iden i y ac oss si es”. They may
ei he show connec ions be ween seemingly
de ached decision-making p ocesses o
play down obs acles ha a e imagina y o
ins i u ionally cooked up a he han eal
(c . Quick & Feldman, 2012, pp. 17–18). Such
bounda y objec s, e en i weakly s uc u ed a
he le el o hei common use, become mo e
s uc u ed in local uses whe e ins i u ions
and ac o s a ach meanings o highly
complica ed phenomena, such as sus ainabili y. Howe e , bounda y
objec s a e social cons uc ions. They a e de ised o se e speci ic goals,
such as ac ing as in e media ies be ween g oups wi h di e en in e es s
This chap e examines
complexi y h ough an
inqui y in o how linking
o ganisa ional o o he
bounda ies occu s in he
pu sui o sus ainable
u ban de elopmen .
47
Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
(Gus on, 2001). Fo his hey equi e ac o s who connec he de ached
wo lds, a p ocess he e e e ed o as “bounda y wo k”.
We app oach bounda y objec s as analy ical ools o discussing he
means ha e en ually s uc u e c oss-sec o al coope a ion o p omo ing
sus ainable u ban de elopmen . Bounda y objec s and bounda y wo k
gi e o ganisa ions and ac o s an oppo uni y o make sense o hei
changing en i onmen and wha his change equi es om hem. We
ask 1) wha is he ole o bounda y objec s and bounda y wo k in he
p omo ion o sus ainable u ban de elopmen in Finnish ci y egions,
2) how do di e en ac o s p omo e hei in e p e a ions o sus ainabili y,
and 3) wha is he ole o adminis a i e and o he sys emic e o ms o
he design o bounda y objec s?
The pu pose o his chap e is o examine complexi y h ough an
inqui y in o how linking o ganisa ional o o he bounda ies occu s in he
pu sui o sus ainable u ban de elopmen . We claim ha ins i u ionally
weak u ban egions a e mo e sui able pla o ms o bounda y wo k
han he siloed adminis a ions o ins i u ionally s ong municipali ies.
The e i o ial scale o ou empi ical sc u iny comp ises Finnish ci y
egions and he complexi ies and solu ions o p omo ing sus ainabili y.
We gi e a p ac ical example o how o ganisa ions wo king wi h di e en
aspec s o sus ainabili y can u ilise bounda y objec s in o de o each
a common g ound.
The chap e p oceeds as ollows: The nex sec ion discusses
u banisa ion as an agglome a ed p oblem. We hen discuss wha
pu suing sus ainabili y in an u ban con ex s means. This is ollowed
by he discussion o MAL+PE, a Finnish ag eemen -based e sion o
p omo ing sus ainable u ban de elopmen . In he empi ical sec ion o
he chap e we analyse, by ocusing on one aspec o he MAL+PE p ocess,
an example o he c ea ion o bounda y concep s in he con ex o u ban
sus ainabili y. We a gue he nego ia ed MAL+PE a angemen enables
he use o sus ainable and in eg a ed policy and planning measu es. By
so doing i can be seen as a means o o ganise he complexi y inhe en in
sus ainable u ban de elopmen . The chap e d aws i s inspi a ion om
he Finnish ci y egion wi h he mos p omising ack eco d in MAL+PE
48
Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
wo k, he Tampe e ci y egion, bu will also shed ligh on ci y egions as
a sus ainabili y policy a ena in mo e gene al.
U banisa ion as an Agglome a ed P oblem
Humankind is a a c oss oads ma ked by a dense mix u e o agglome a ed
p oblems. Agglome a ed p oblems a e made o many in e wined challenges
me simul aneously. Fi s , he c i ical na u al esou ces ha o iginally
allowed he e olu ion o a mode n socie y a e ini e. Second, popula ions
a e ageing, i s in indus ialised socie ies and a e a while h oughou he
wo ld. Thi d, he en i e wo ld g ows mo e u banised wi h new o ms o u ban
communi ies and new ans o ma ional dynamics eme ging e e ywhe e
(e.g. Saunde s, 2011; Eh enhal , 2012). Finally, he changing clima e ensu es
ha na u e will no le human communi ies unc ion unchanged (c .
Pi ani & Tolko , 2014; Suns ein, 2007). U banisa ion, demog aphic
ans o ma ion, esou ce sca ci y and unp edic able wea he highligh s he
necessi y o use he building blocks o digni ied human li e, s a ing om
cul i able land o d inkable wa e in a esponsible manne (Goodbun, Till,
& Iossi o a, 2012) – and o ind new ways and new esou ces o nu u e he
esilience o e e wide ci ies and me opoli an a eas.
A wo hwhile op ion in esponsible esou ce-use s ems om he
mode n indus ial logic: use hem mo e e icien ly. The idea is ex emely
logical, as sp awling subu ban designs p oduce ex ensi e g eenhouse
gases in he o m o g ea e pe capi a in as uc u e in es men s and
a ic ou pu compa ed wi h g ea e o adi ional u ban densi ies.
U ban sp awl as a e m e e s o ine icien and spa se subu ban
se lemen s uc u es. James H. Kuns le (1993) once dubbed i he
g ea es esou ce misalloca ion in he his o y o humankind. A mo e
compac and connec i e u ban o m wi h laye s o mixed use enhancing
i s mul i unc ionali y has been a key u ban design s a egy o esis
sp awl (CNU, 2009). New u banism, an in luen ial planning ideology,
has e ol ed om an u ban de elopmen esis ance mo emen o a sou ce
o planning ules and pa adigms pa icula ly che ished by ci y planne s.
This e lec s he g adual awakening o he planning p o ession o he
49
Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
h ea sp awl poses o all aspec s o sus ainabili y, om ecological o
economic (Chak aba i, 2013).
New u banism igh s u ban sp awl h ough p omo ing walkable u ban
en i onmen s, inding ways o de elop human-size neighbou hoods in
a ansi -o ien ed way wi hou comp omising he ecological aspec s o
sus ainable u bani y. These a e now widely conside ed essen ial elemen s o
esponsible o “good” u ban planning and design – no only in he Ame ican
home g ound o new u banis s, bu wo ldwide. A majo handicap o his
planning ideology comes om he es ic ions se by geog aphical scale: i
wo ks bes a he neighbou hood and ci y dis ic le el. Howe e , he basic
uni s o e i o ially ex ensi e u ban ne wo ks a e la ge ci y egions, he
na u al enues o subu ban sp awl. Many o he ools employed by new
u banis planne s end o be insu icien on la ge scales.
One s a egy o escaping he scale limi s o neighbou hoods o u ban
dis ic s is sma g ow h. This idea has also eme ged om he new u banis
mo emen bu ocuses on he dynamics and d i e s o g ow h and change
ins ead o he physical design o a pa icula ci y (c . Vanolo, 2014).
Ano he p omising app oach o he p omo ion o mo e sus ainable u ban
de elopmen is sma u banism. I , in he wo ds o Haje (2014), calls o
an en i e language ha exp esses mo e han e iciency and echnology. In
many cul u ally impo an ins ances hese adi ional domains o sma
ci y hinking a e in es ed wi h un ul illed expec a ions o be e u bani y
o de elopmen (Townsend, 2014; G aebe , 2015, p. 109).
Con inuous u banisa ion and he enla gemen o he u ban scale ollows
om global compe i ion. No u ban design pa adigm o cul u al c i ique can
u n ha p ocess a ound. Finland is no excep ion o his de elopmen . In
Finland, g owing u ban en i ies comp ising o en i e unc ional sys ems
made up o cen al ci ies and hei neighbou ing municipali ies has
eme ged as he basic componen o socie al de elopmen , b eaking and
dissipa ing he adi ional u ban o m (Ka ppi, 2017). The me ging o
municipali ies, e o ms o public adminis a ion sys ems and suppo o
a ious o ms o in e municipal coope a ion ha e all con ibu ed o his
g adual ans o ma ion. Bu he scale expansion ha has ollowed has come
wi h a p ice. Rapid demog aphic g ow h and dynamic economies in he
la ges and bes -connec ed ci y egions, which ha e supe io educa ional

50
Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
ins i u ions and b oade se ice sys ems, ha e led o in ense land-use
p essu es as well as challenges in long- e m inancial sus ainabili y. This
pu s hem a he o e on o mi iga ing he epe cussions o g ow h,
including u ban sp awl and due esou ce ine iciencies.
Pu suing Sus ainabili y and How o Ge I “Righ ”
Pu suing sus ainabili y in an u ban con ex ypically equi es di e en
ac o s o each a common unde s anding h ough he “lowes common
denomina o ”. This sa is ies he minimal equi emen s o dis inc
wo ld iews by cap u ing cha ac e is ics ha all wi hin he minimum
accep able ange o hose wo ld iews (S a & G ieseme , 1989, p. 404).
The me hod in ol es he u ilisa ion o “ e sa ile, plas ic, econ igu able
(p og ammable) objec s ha each wo ld can meld o i s pu poses locally”
(S a & G ieseme , 1989). Bounda y objec s a e c ea ed h ough his
p ocess. This equi es concep ual cla i y, which may, howe e , become
comp omised by he app oaches o ins i u ionally embedded ac o s o he
basic elemen s cons i u ing hese objec s.
The case o pu suing u ban sus ainabili y is ul ima e pa icula ly o he
a mosphe ic magni ude o clima e change and o he la ge-scale unknown
unknowns in ol ed. Such “ hings we do no know we do no know” and
hei mul iple o igins ha e been e ealed by Keenan (2014) in a s udy o
he ambigui ies aced by comme cial eal es a e ac o s in hei a emp s
o adap o clima e change. Ambigui ies abound, and hey should make
di e en s akeholde s ecep i e o each o he s’ iews and sensi i e o
hei capaci ies o u n ou in o ma ion om which hey all can bene i . By
con as , in mo e ou ine go e nance se ings, sec o al bounda ies limi he
scopes o adminis a ions and cocoon indi idual ac o s and adminis a o s.
This no only allows hem o s ick o hei siloed ou ines, i allows hem o
legi ima ely igno e in o ma ion ha migh comp omise hem.
Es ablished ou ines may also in ol e complica ed issues. Pu sui o
impo an bu ambiguous goals such as sus ainabili y is a p ime example o a
complex p ocess. This complexi y is no educed by he ac ha he gene al
con ex o measu es o s i ing owa ds g ea e sus ainabili y is apidly
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
Pu sui o impo an
bu ambiguous goals
such as sus ainabili y
is a p ime example o
a complex p ocess.
changing. Due o he scale o u ban expansion,
he wo ld is becoming no only mo e u ban bu
also me opoli an o “ci y egional”. Me opoli an,
as a spa ial scale, e e s o an amalgama ion o
municipali ies ha comp ise an in eg a ed labou
ma ke a ea and ela ed economic in e es s joined
oge he by a dense and high-capaci y egional
a ic sys em (Eh enhal , 2012). Func ionally,
scale expansion means new ac o s, wi h hei
esponsibili ies, p io i ies and in e p e a ions,
mee and y o ind common g ounds as hey wo k wi h complex and
mo ing a ge s such as p omo ion o sus ainabili y in u ban de elopmen .
Mo eo e , scale expansion has con ex ual ea u es. In Finland, his en ails
a peculia leade ship challenge: i e okes, o d ama ise a li le, ins i u ional
zombies. This is due o he ac ha he ins i u ional appa a us o u ban
and egional planning as a domain o pu suing sus ainable de elopmen ,
does no acknowledge he me opoli an – o ci y egion – le el. One s ep
down, he e a e municipali ies wi h b oad planning, na u e p o ec ion and
se ice p o ision esponsibili ies. One s ep up, he e a e he egions (in
Finnish maakunna ), he nascen uni s o sel -go e nmen esponsible o
he implemen a ion o na ional policy goals pe aining o local land-use
and o he planning p ocedu es. Ci y egions, while ying o ackle majo
sus ainabili y (policy) issues, ha e o do i h ough nego ia ion and by making
hemsel es use ul o he municipali ies hey ep esen . Thei adminis a i e
powe s o b ing o h egional in e es s ha should be apa om hose o
he municipali ies a e akin o pushing wi h a ope. I is no wonde only a ew
ci y egions ha e es ablished o mal agencies o wo k on ha scale.
In he ollowing we app oach he sus ainabili y measu es pu sued in he
Tampe e ci y egion by looking a he siloed ou ines and p ac ices o di e en
municipal adminis a ions. While doing so we necessa ily e eal hese
ou ines as agency and adminis a ion-labelled p oxies (c . Buckingham-
Ha ield & E ans, 1996, pp. 4–5). P oxies like hese a e he in e p e a ions
o di e en ac o s as o how he “pu sui o sus ainabili y” is po ayed
h ough hei own p ac ices, ou ines and esponsibili ies. All ac o -based
p oxies aken oge he , hey may e en ually cons i u e some o m o
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
sus ainabili y agg ega e; a ough, pa ly o e lapping, pa ly complemen a y
se o ac i i ies all seeking o p omo e sus ainabili y. P oxies, we a gue, a e
i ually ine i able. They s em om a di ision o labou ecognisable in
any mul i unc ional sys em. The mul i unc ional na u e o a sys em is a
e lec ion o complexi ies ha a e he basic ea u es o go e nance as well
as an ou come o he sys em’s in e ac ion wi h i s en i onmen .
The ins i u ional haziness o ci y egions can also wo k o he bene i o
hinning ou i no en i ely disman ling he bounda ies o adminis a i e
silos – b ough o ci y egions by he cus oma y di ision o labou in hei
adjoining municipali ies’ adminis a i e s uc u es. As we no ed, eaching
sus ainabili y ou comes necessa ily calls o c oss-sec o al wo k ha
is no o iously ha d o o mally-empowe ed adminis a i e bodies and
agencies. Howe e , i he ci y egions and hei e olu ion do no acknowledge
sec o s in he way ha adminis a ions and agencies do, why should hey
be inju ed by he lock-ins caused by hese ins i u ional ea u es? Ins ead,
wo king in he con ex o u ban egions makes i possible o design and
u ilise p oxies ha anscend he ypically esul s-o ien ed goals o agencies
in o de o c ea e new ypes o bounda y objec s. The bounda y wo k his
edesigning equi es, we a gue, is necessa y in ackling he p oblems o
mul i- ace ed and s ill siloed planning p ac ices in ci y egions.
Ci y egions a e adminis a i ely c ippled e en in hei ins i u ionally
s onges o m, ep esen ed he e by he Tampe e ci y egion. Gi en his,
we enqui e in o he ole c oss-sec o al coope a ion be ween i s membe
municipali ies’ could play in coo dina ing and essen ially pu ing oge he
he p oxies o sus ainable de elopmen . Fu he mo e, we ask wha
kinds o a enas exis , o may be needed, o his coo dina ion. As he
subjec o his coo dina ion is sus ainabili y, we also acknowledge he
much-deba ed ques ion: Can sus ainabili y be planned in he i s place
(c . Meadowc o , 1999)?
MAL+PE as a Sus ainabili y Regime
The empi ical sec ion builds on indings and analyses se e al Finnish ci y
egions, using he Tampe e egion as he p ima y case. Fo policymake s,
53
Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
looking a ci y egions ins ead o indi idual
municipali ies e ges on a con adic ion in
e ms: om a global pe spec i e Finnish
municipali ies ha e an excep ionally
s ong cons i u ional posi ion wi h sel -
go e nmen ha also includes local
axa ion. Due o his, la ge-scale public-
p i a e pa ne ships in la ge in as uc u e
and o he p ojec s ha e been a e in Finnish
municipali ies, wi h Tampe e egion
again an excep ional case (c . Valkama,
Oulas i a & Ka ppi, 2016). Land use and
much o in as uc u e, housing and e en
biodi e si y policies a e composed by municipali ies; albei o en in co-
ope a ion wi h cen al go e nmen ins i u ions. In compa ison, he posi ion
o ci y egions, newcome s on he Finnish adminis a i e map, is based on
consen among di e en ac o s. This consen cons i u es he key a e ac
o boos in eg a ed u ban policymaking and sha e he adminis a i e silos
ha e ec i ely main ain land use, a ic, housing, business de elopmen
and se ice p oduc ion as sepa a e policy a eas in municipali ies.
Due o his ea u e, he en i e MAL+PE amewo k can be seen as a
Finnish bounda y objec o p omo ing sus ainable u ban de elopmen .
Pa icula ly in he case o Tampe e ci y egion i has he o m o an en i e
bounda y o ganisa ion c ea ed by he egion’s municipali ies. The co e
componen o MAL+PE is MAL, a Finnish ac onym ha comes om
he wo ds land-use (in Finnish, Maankäy ö), housing (Asuminen) and
a ic (Liikenne). Cu en ly, co-ope a ion among he municipali ies o
ou la ges ci y egions and he na ional go e nmen is based on MAL
ag eemen s. The p o o idea o MAL was i s in oduced in 2009 as pa
o he p oposed go e nmen e o m o municipali ies and hei se ice
p o ision (Maankäy ön…, 2015). The go e nmen ’s ole becomes mos
isible h ough i s pa icipa ion in egionally ele an in es men s,
spea headed in he Tampe e ci y egion by he new ligh ail sys em.
A MAL p o o ype ac ion was ini ia ed in he beginning o he yea 2010
and e alua ed al eady du ing he la e pa o 2011 as pa o b oade
F om a global pe spec i e,
Finnish municipali ies
ha e an excep ionally
s ong cons i u ional
posi ion wi h sel -
go e nmen ha also
includes local axa ion.
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
hey encoun e . The decision o whe he o eso o bounda y wo k, o use
i as an ins umen o ede ining and eo ien ing he basis o collec i e
easoning, is an issue o leade ship – as is delibe a e isk- aking, i he
sys em does li le o ecognise whe e he changing wo ld is aking i .
Discussion
This a icle was inspi ed by he pu sui o sus ainabili y in di e en u ban
se ings and ideas o sma and sus ainable u banism. Sus ainabili y
was po ayed he e as in eg a ed policy and planning measu es ca ied
ou in ci ies and ci y egions pa icula ly wi h he help o he nego ia ed
MAL+PE a angemen . We saw ha e en i he gene al goal o p omo ing
sus ainabili y can be comp essed o gene ic planning guidelines, wha
he locali ies and ci y egions de ac o demons a e a e a ious si ua ional
in e p e a ions o he mos locally ele an aspec s o sus ainabili y,
p omo ed wi h he ins umen s (and locally de ised ins uc ions) a ailable
o u ban planne s (Ka ppi, Vakku i & Immonen, 2017).
We ha e iden i ied se e al implica ions ele an o he issues aised
in his book. Fi s , la ge-scale changes and ans o ma ions such as
global wa ming, u banisa ion o ageing ha e sys emic epe cussions
ha na ional ins i u ions seek o con on and hen ans e o local
and egional ac o s, who u n policies in o measu es and ou comes.
Second, hese ans o ma ions may mani es hemsel es as up u es ha
displace he es ablished oles o local and egional ac o s and he e y
ounda ions o hei di ision o labou . Thi d, he up u es, changing
oles and con usion in he ace o complexi ies ha ans o ma ion
imposes on hem should p omp o ganisa ions o econside he scope
o hei ac ion and he a ionali y o ha ing and main aining cu en
o ganisa ional bounda ies.
Global sys emic changes a e o ces which make ans o ma ions o
a mo e limi ed scope necessa y. This chap e has in oduced bounda y
objec s and bounda y wo k as a heo e ically in e es ing and empi ically
es ed me hod o o ganisa ions and ac o s o make sense o hei changing
en i onmen and wha his change equi es om hem. I has discussed

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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
O ganising Complexi y: C ea ing Bounda y Objec s o Sus ainable U ban De elopmen
how new decision-making spaces eme ge and a e iden i ied as some hing
calling o equally new o ms o leade ship.
Acknowledgemen s
Funding om he Academy o Finland (S a egic Resea ch Council) o
BEMINE conso ium has enabled his esea ch.
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