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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Secu i y Dynamics: Mul ilaye ed Secu i y Go e nance in an Age o Complexi y, Unce ain y, and Resilience
CHAPTER 4
Secu i y Dynamics: Mul ilaye ed
Secu i y Go e nance in an Age
o Complexi y, Unce ain y,
and Resilience
TAPIO JUNTUNEN & SIRPA VIRTA
Takeaways o Leading Change
Claims o inc easing complexi y and nonlinea change in con empo a y
socie ies and global poli ics a e o en p esen ed as a jus i ica ion o
inc easing demands o esilience as a key s a egic esponse in secu i y policy
and p ac ices. Ou concep ual analysis jux aposes esilience as a secu i y
men ali y wi h o he – pa ly o e lapping – secu i y men ali ies such as
de ence, p o ec ion, and p e en ion. This p o ides a good case s udy o how
pe cei ed complexi y o ou socie ies a ec s he way in which go e nance
and leade ship a e unde s ood. The heo y o nodal secu i y go e nance
esona es wi h he idea o ela ional leade ship. Ou analysis sugges s he ise
o esilience as a men ali y migh also indica e a ce ain lack o e en c isis o
leade ship. The chap e in i es eade s o exe cise a no ma i e and e hical
e lec ion on he p ac ical e ec s o di e en secu i y men ali ies om he
le el o indi iduals o he le el o global go e nance. I also gi es eade s a
basic accoun o wha secu i y is, wha i means o go e n h ough secu i y,
and wha he pu pose o secu i y is in ela ion o so e eign y, poli ical o de ,
and he eedoms and esponsibili ies o ci izens.
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H
ow should secu i y be go e ned? Wha a e he equi emen s o
secu i y leade ship oday? These ques ions a e being oiced wi h
inc easing u gency as a a ie y o new h ea s o secu i y eme ge and a e
ecognised. The e is a g owing awa eness ha he p omo ion o secu i y as
bo h an objec i e and subjec i e condi ion will equi e new ways o hinking
and ac ing (Wood & Shea ing, 2007). In he pas decade, secu i y s udies
in many disciplines, no ably in in e na ional ela ions, poli ical science,
go e nance s udies, and c iminology, ha e add essed his challenge.
The go e nance o secu i y is based on policies
and s a egies which in ol e esponding o
h ea s o b eaches o secu i y ha ha e al eady
occu ed. I also in ol es an icipa ing and seeking
o p e en h ea s ha migh occu . The analysis
o secu i y go e nance explo es ways o hinking
(men ali ies) unde lying hese s a egies, he
o ganisa ional o ms used o implemen hose
ways o hinking (ins i u ions such as he police,
mili a y, and in e na ional o ganisa ions), he
echniques used o u n men ali ies in o ac ion
( echnologies, policies, and s a egies), and he esul ing ac ions (p ac ices).
In his chap e , we use he nodal heo y o ne wo ked and mul ilaye ed
secu i y go e nance (Johns on & Shea ing, 2003) as he amewo k h ough
which we analyse esponses o he changing secu i y en i onmen and
inc easing complexi y o h ea s and isks. The pe spec i e o mul ilaye ed
secu i y go e nance ocuses on he dynamics, con empo a y policies,
and p ac ices o secu i y. I also p o ides pe spec i es on he socie al
implica ions o di e en ways o unde s anding secu i y go e nance.
The pu pose o his chap e is o analyse esilience poli ics as an
example o a no el secu i y men ali y by compa ing i wi h some o he
mo e adi ional secu i y men ali ies such as de ence, p o ec ion and
p e en ion. We a gue he s ong impac o esilience poli ics as a no el
secu i y men ali y in ecen yea s is e iden in he a ious e o s o
ea ange ins i u ions, echnologies, and p ac ices o secu i y go e nance.
As o he ques ion o social complexi y, we a gue he g owing in luence
o esilience app oaches in ela ion o secu i y policy and go e nance
The pu pose o his
chap e is o analyse
esilience poli ics as
an example o a no el
secu i y men ali y.
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o e s an illus a i e example o how esponses o he in e connec edness
o mode n socie ies and pe cep ions o inc easing unce ain y also ha e
e ec s on how he changing demands o leade ship a e unde s ood.
Using he nodal heo y o secu i y go e nance, his chap e also asks
wha implica ions – ins i u ional, p ac ical, and echnological – esilience
s a egies and he supposedly inc easing ulne abili y o ou socie ies
pose o secu i y leade ship.
The chap e is s uc u ed as ollows: we begin by elabo a ing on wha
secu i y is and i s ela ionship o key concep s such as so e eign y, o de ,
eedom, and poli ical legi imacy. F om he e we analyse how he eme gence
o esilience poli ics as a no el secu i y men ali y has ans o med he
agenda o secu i y go e nance, including dominan h ea pe cep ions
and agency in p o iding secu i y. We also illus a e how he eme gence
o esilience poli ics has a ec ed he way secu i y and he echnologies o
i s go e nance ha e been ans o med in he las decade in he con ex o
he No dic model o in e nal secu i y and c i ical in as uc u e poli ics as
well as in he Eu opean Union Global S a egy (EUGS). We hen p esen
a concluding discussion.
Wha is Secu i y?
In poli ical science, secu i y is de ined as he co e unc ion o he s a e.
The mos amilia de ini ion can be ound in Thomas Hobbes’s Le ia han;
Hobbes (1651/1999, p. 123) a gued ha wi hou he s a e, socie y would
descend in o a wa o all agains all (i.e. a s a e o na u e). I was in o de
o a oid his ha men came oge he o make a social con ac , building a
s a e o p o ide secu i y. The e o e, he s a e has been gi en he powe o e
people and e i o y. This excep ional powe de i es om he de ini ion
o he s a e: “A s a e is a human communi y ha (success ully) claims
he monopoly o he legi ima e use o physical o ce wi hin a gi en e i o y”
(Webe , 1946/1991, p. 78. Emphasis in o iginal). To sus ain hei ex e nal
secu i y, s a es ha e mili a y o ces and in elligence au ho i ies. To sus ain
in e nal secu i y (poli ical, social, and public o de ), s a es ha e police
o ces and c iminal jus ice sys ems.
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Secu i y is commonly de ined as a s a e o being. This is illus a ed in
he ollowing de ini ion, published in he SAGE Dic iona y o C iminology,
which is ee o discipline-based conno a ions:
Secu i y is he s a e o being secu e, speci ically eedom om ea , dange , isk,
ca e, po e y o anxie y� Secu i y also implies ce ain y� The oo s o he e m
a e in he La in secu i as/secu es, de i ed om se (meaning wi hou ) cu a ( ea ,
anxie y, pains, wo y)� Sa e y is closely ela ed o secu i y� Sa e y also means
eedom om dange o isk� Howe e , i has addi ional conno a ions which
ha e mo e o do wi h physical condi ions, e�g� eedom om inju y, he sa e y o
he body and o p ope y� In his con ex ce ain y e e s o ce ain y o o de ,
assu ance and p edic abili y (Vi a, 2006, p� 371; Vi a, 2013b, p� 312)�
When de ined as he co e unc ion o he s a e and, acco ding o he
Uni e sal Decla a ion o Human Righ s (1948), as a co e human igh ,
secu i y is a powe ul poli ical concep and phenomenon. In his eading,
he so e eign (s a e) has he powe o posi ion o de ine he go e nance,
poli ical use, con en , objec i es, dis ibu ion, e c. o secu i y. Fundamen al
ques ions o democ acy a e ambiguous in his con ex . Go e nance o
secu i y – as a concep – e e s o o ganisa ions, s a egies, and p ac ices.
Go e nance h ough secu i y is always a poli ical ac . The e is an i e ocable
link be ween secu i y and he main enance o so e eign y. The ques ion o
who has he powe o legi imacy o make claims on ma e s o (na ional)
secu i y is undamen ally a poli ical one. When a speci ic phenomenon is
au ho i a i ely labelled a secu i y issue – ha is, a h ea o he exis ing
social o de – i is mo e easily pe cei ed as an issue o be deal wi h using
excep ional measu es. The no mal unning o poli ics and go e nance
does no ypically ely on such excep ional measu es (Huysmans, 2004).
Wha we ha e p esen ed he e is a cons uc i is pe spec i e o secu i y,
which s a s om he p emise ha h ea s pe cei ed by he s a e eli e
o he socie y in gene al a e no jus “ou he e” in he objec i e eali y
o be “picked up”. Ins ead, poli ical leade ship and o he au ho i ies a e
in ol ed in p ocesses o signi ica ion ha cons uc and gi e meaning o
hese h ea s. This also a ec s pe cep ions o wha secu i y is and wha i
means o he poli y in he i s place (see also Vuo i, 2017).
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The as poli ical capi al es ed in he e m “secu i y” means ha any
policy pu sued in i s name is di icul o a gue wi h: How could anyone
easonably be opposed o secu i y (Zedne , 2009, p. 144)? Al hough
con empo a y secu i y leade ship necessi a es an unde s anding o he
complexi y o di e en socie al h ea s and isks, one should no o ge
ha claims o secu i y a e essen ially con es ed. In o he wo ds, al hough
secu i y is a a he common concep , i s use is no clea ly de inable. I can
e e o a ious objec s, p ocesses, and socie al con ex s depending on
one’s pe spec i e and alues (Buzan, 1983, p. 6; see also Gallie, 1956, p. 168).
Secu i y can be seen as a undamen ally “wicked p oblem”, as a
“pa icula ly complex and icky leade ship and managemen con ex ”
(see he in oduc o y chap e o his book). This also means ha secu i y
canno be “sol ed” o good, ei he in exis en ial e ms – meaning ha
he e is no absolu e s a e o secu i y a ailable in human li e – o in he
sense ha di e en s akeholde s would achie e a consensus o e he alue,
meaning, and p ac ical e icacy o di e en secu i y men ali ies.
Go e ning Secu i y Th ough Resilience
In ecen yea s, schola s in a ious academic ields ha e no ed ha esilience
poli ics is challenging adi ional ways o hinking abou he go e nance
o secu i y, such as he men ali ies o de ence, p o ec ion, and p e en ion
(Chandle , 2017; Co y, 2014; Vi a, 2013a). We a gue a secu i y men ali y based
on esilience is eme ging and ans o ming he ways in which go e nance
and go e nabili y a e pe cei ed. Ins ead o ocusing on he go e nance
and p e en ion o o eseeable unce ain ies and h ea s, esilience poli ics
is p esen ed as an answe o he assumed inabili y o ou socie ies and
go e nmen s o gua an ee secu i y wi h p e en i e and p oac i e policies.
This is hough o happen because o he inc easingly complex and
in e connec ed na u e o ou socie ies and new h ea s emana ing om bo h
man-made and na u al sou ces (Rosa, Renn, & McC igh , 2014).
As a concep , esilience has a dis inc i e academic backg ound in li e
sciences such as sys ems ecology as well as psychology and complexi y
hinking da ing back o he 1950s (see Bou beau, 2018). F om hese

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academic ields, esilience hinking has, o e he las wo decades, slowly
ans o med in o a concep wi h policy ele ance o many socie ies and
in e na ional o ganisa ions. In con empo a y secu i y poli ics, esilience
is used as a s a egic p inciple o objec i e o a ious policy ields and
issues such as plane poli ics and clima e change, go e nance o inc easing
u banisa ion, coun e e o ism, c iminology, and social wo k.
Resilience poli ics also has i s c i ics. Schola s ha e paid a en ion o
he “da k side o esilience” (Schmid , 2015); his e e s o he endency
o p io i ise eac i e p epa edness ins ead o inc easing secu i y h ough
p e en ion, an icipa ion, and o esigh . They ha e wa ned abou he
unin ended nega i e consequences o he inc easing esponsibilisa ion
o ulne able communi ies and local ac o s as he subjec s o hei own
a e and secu i y. Resilience poli ics has also been associa ed wi h he
p ocess o neolibe alisa ion and aus e i y poli ics; ends ha can also be
challenges o secu i y go e nance and leade ship models (Joseph, 2013).
Finally, c i ics o esilience poli ics ha e also no ed some esilience
app oaches seem o ea c ises almos as desi able expe iences local
g oups can use as aluable lessons o ( e)build cohesion and he adap i e
capaci ies o hei communi ies (Tie ney, 2015). These obse a ions on he
da k side o esilience o e s uden s o leade ship and managemen a good
example o how cu en ends in s a egic hinking can also be app oached
wi h c i ical and e hical delibe a ion.
Con es ing T adi ional Secu i y Men ali ies
Resilience is usually de ined as he la en abili y o sys ems, indi iduals,
communi ies, and o ganisa ions o (i) wi hs and he e ec s o majo
dis up ions, (ii) main ain one’s abili y o ac amid a c isis, and (iii) bounce
back om a c isis and use he expe ience o inc ease one’s adap abili y in
he u u e (see B and & Jax, 2007). As a no el secu i y men ali y – as a
se o ideas ha makes claims abou how secu i y is alued and achie ed
(Wood & Shea ing, 2007, p. 7)— esilience challenges some o he adi ional
s a e-cen ic secu i y men ali ies such as hose o de ence, p o ec ion, and
p e en ion. In he secu i y men ali y based on he p imacy o de ence, he
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
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ocus o go e nance is on sa egua ding he e i o ial in eg i y and con inui y
o key socie al unc ions o he na ion s a e (ex e nal secu i y). In he case
o p o ec ion and p e en ion, he ocus o go e nance is ei he on social,
economic, and poli ical subs uc u es. These co ela e wi h he le el o
human de elopmen o on p o iding in e nal secu i y and o de h ough
puni i e ac ions, policing and o he de e ing echnologies and p ac ices.
When examined h ough he logic o de ence, he main secu i y h ea s
a e usually pe cei ed o be posed by o he s a e ac o s o o he ela i ely
o ganised collec i e en i ies o poli ies. In he logic o p o ec ion, he
main h ea s a e pe cei ed o s em om s uc u al dis o ions such as
po e y, inequali y, and o he cul u al p ac ices ha cause s uc u al
iolence. Finally, in he logic o p e en ion, secu i y policy ocuses mo e
on he gene al wel a e o socie y and i s o de liness. P edominan h ea s
a e usually pe cei ed o s em om o ganised illegal ac i i ies o speci ic
socie al dis o ions ha endange domes ic o de and he sense o secu i y,
such as he p ocess o poli ical adicalisa ion.
The secu i y men ali y based on esilience, by con as , emphasises
he adical openness and unce ain na u e o he h ea en i onmen in
an age o inc easing complexi y (Jun unen & Hy önen, 2014). Thus, he
p ima y objec i e o esilience poli ics is no o enhance he obus ness o
c i ical in as uc u es (e.g. ene gy ne wo ks), no does esilience poli ics
ely pu ely on physical echnologies o coe cion (e.g. mili a y o police
o ces). Ins ead, i emphasises he need o inc ease he men al and physical
adap abili y o indi iduals, communi ies, he p i a e sec o , and ci il
socie y o ace unp edic able, e en ine i able h ea s. Resilience poli ics
aims o enhance he unc ionali y o socie y. Tha is, o main ain he co e
pu poses o socie ies du ing c ises due o he igh coupling o socie al
unc ions wi h he inc easing complexi y and ulne abili y o mode n
physical in as uc u e (Pu siainen, 2018, p. 633).
The main di e ences be ween he logics o de ence, p o ec ion,
p e en ion, and esilience in ligh o secu i y go e nance a e illus a ed
in Table 1. These logics a e u he elabo a ed h ough i e dimensions:
who o wha he e e en objec o secu i y go e nance is, wha kinds
o h ea pe cep ions he logic elies on, who he p ima y secu i y
ac o s (p o ide s o secu i y) a e, how he agenda o secu i y policy is
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o mula ed, and how he ole o secu i y policy is unde s ood in ela ion
o he no mal unning o poli ics.
REFERENT
OBJECT OF
SECURITY
GOVERNANCE
DOMINANT
THREAT
PERCEPTIONS
KEY SECURITY
AGENTS
SECURITY
POLICY AGENDA
(STATED OR
IMPLICIT)
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
POLITICS AND
SECURITY
DEFENCE
Te i o ial in eg i y
o he s a e and
bo de s; c i ical
in as uc u e and
con inui y o s a e
unc ions
Fea and unce ain y
caused by o he
s a es o o he wise
highly o ganised
poli ical ac o s;
con lic s be ween
s a e ac o s
De ence o ces and
o he key ac o s
p o ec ing e i o ial
in eg i y and he
con inui y o key
s a e unc ions and
in e nal o de
The in en ions o
( a ional s a e) ac o s
can be in luenced
h ough he
p ac ices o ex e nal
de e ence, alliance
poli ics, powe
p ojec ion, cos ly
signalling, e c�
Secu i y issues end
o be sepa a ed
om o he socie al
p ocesses and
no mal poli ical
o de ; secu i y as he
ealm o excep ional;
enemy images migh
p e ail
PROTECTION
Vulne able indi iduals,
g oups, and
communi ies
Poli ical, economic,
and social s uc u es
ha cause inequali y
and su e ing; global
wa ming, esou ce
sca ci y, and
dep i a ion; in as a e
e hnic con lic s
Local go e nmen s
( esponsibili y
o p o ec );
in e na ional and
nongo e nmen al
ac o s p o iding
humani a ian
assis ance and
in e en ions
Explici ambi ion o
emo e he s uc u al
sou ces o insecu i y
and ee he su e ing
om ha m
Secu i y issues a e
comp ehensi ely
“nes ed” in he
socioeconomic
s uc u es o he
socie y and cul u e;
s a e-d i en secu i y
conce ns a e o en
poli icised
PREVENTION
Poli ical, social, and
public o de and he
wel a e o socie y
O ganised c ime and
iolen ex emism;
illegal immig a ion
and human
a icking; e o ism
and adicalisa ion;
c ime, iolence, and
dis u bances o public
o de in gene al
Law en o cemen
ac o s such as
police, eme gency
se ice, and o he
s a e ac o s; also,
inc easingly, social
secu i y ac o s,
p i a e companies,
and communi ies
Inclusi e
“paci ica ion” o he
socie y h ough a
mix u e o wel a e
policies and c ime
p e en ion, including
coun e e o ism,
isible policing, and
law en o cemen
Poli ical legi imacy
and au ho i y o he
secu i y p o ide s is
cen al, bu o he wise,
he ela ionship
be ween secu i y and
poli ics is ambiguous
and con es ed
RESILIENCE
P ocesses
main aining he
cohesion and
e e yday unc ioning
o socie y
Unp edic able
nonlinea
h ea s such as
en i onmen al
haza ds and o he
a ious “wicked
p oblems”; blu ing o
ex e nal and in e nal
sphe es o secu i y
Ci il socie y, local
communi ies, p i a e
sec o , and e en ually
also indi idual
ci izens; go e nmen
go e ning “ om a
dis ance”
To s eng hen
indi iduals’ and
socie ies’ au onomic
capaci ies o
adap a ion, eco e y,
and e o m
Unclea : educes
he need o ely
on a icula ed
h ea s and enemy
images ypical o
he logic o de ence,
bu inc eases
secu i isa ion o he
socie al ab ic
TABLE 1: Fou logics o men ali ies o secu i y policy (see Hy önen & Jun unen, 2016; Vi a, 2013a)
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The assumed echnological and socie al complexi y o he so-called
“ isk socie y” indica es challenging imes o adi ional op-down models
o secu i y go e nance, leade ship, and managemen , bo h wi hin and
be ween so e eign en i ies. E ans and Reid (2014) e en sugges secu i y
go e nance based on esilience is an in i a ion o lea n o li e li e mo e
dange ously – no sa ely. The esponsibili y o p o ide o inc ease esilience
seems o di use o an inc easing numbe o ac o s o nodes. The ole o ci il
socie y, p i a e ac o s, and g ass oo s mo emen s is on he ise. Tha said,
some schola s claim his has led o he esponsibilisa ion o indi iduals and
communi ies wi hou a ue ansi ion o powe o esou ces o pa icipa e
in he s a egic p ocesses ha de ine he conc e e p ac ices and goals o
secu i y go e nance (Glad el e , 2018; S a k & Taylo , 2014; Tie ney, 2015).
O he s emphasise ha go e nance app oaches based on esilience ha e
he po en ial o e e se he old op-down leade ship p ocesses and gi e
ci izens and communi ies mo e agency o e hei own poli ical and social
condi ions. Howell (2015, p. 69) ap ly sums up his idea:
As a echnique o go e nance, esilience wo ks p ima ily h ough an a emp o
enhance i s a ge s: a mo e ambi ious aim han esponsibilisa ion� This, I suspec ,
is ue whe e e esilience in ol es a concep o no jus “bouncing back” ( om
disas e s, a acks, c ises, e c�), bu o “bouncing o wa d”�
This ype o unde s anding concei es o esilience as a s a egy o
inc ease he capabili y o indi iduals and communi ies o ac in an
inc easingly au onomous and independen manne wi hou he need o
ely excessi ely on s a e au ho i ies. This esona es wi h he idea ha
secu i y is ac ualised in a ious socie al nodes, including “o ganic” nodes
o leade ship a he g ass oo s le el. This line o hinking acknowledges
ha he adi ional leade ship and go e nance models based on a linea
unde s anding o how e en s un old a e no su icien by hemsel es. The
unde s anding o leade ship as a ela ional concep is also impo an in
ligh o he ac ualisa ion o di e en esilience s a egies.
To sum up, he e seems o be a he wide ag eemen among secu i y
schola s ha he e is no single de ini ion o a ge o applica ion o
esilience poli ics. They end o speak abou esilience in he plu al o
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